Fish Intake in Pregnancy and Offspring Metabolic Parameters at Age 9–16—Does Gestational Diabetes Modify the Risk?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Maternal Dietary Intake
2.2.1. Food Frequency Questionnaire Data
2.2.2. Interview Data
2.3. Offspring Follow-Up
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Study Population
3.2. Maternal Fish Intake and Offspring Metabolic Outcomes in the GDM-Exposed Group
3.3. Maternal Fish Intake and Offspring Metabolic Outcomes in the Control Group
3.4. Maternal Dietary n-3 LCPUFA Intake in GW 25 and Offspring Metabolic Outcomes
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Categories of Total Seafood Intake | |||||
0–0.5 oz/day | >0.5–1 oz/day | 1–1.5 oz/day | >1.5 oz/day | p1 | |
GDM-exposed (n = 443) | % or means (SD) | % or means (SD) | % or means (SD) | % or means (SD) | |
Lean fish intake (oz/day) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.4 (0.2) | 0.6 (0.4) | <0.0001 |
Oily fish intake (oz/day) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.3 (0.3) | <0.0001 |
Marine n-3 LCPUFA (g/day) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.4 (0.2) | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.8 (0.5) | <0.0001 |
Total fat intake (g/day) | 83.4 (18.2) | 81.9 (15.8) | 79.5 (16.1) | 79.2 (16.0) | 0.20 |
Carbohydrate intake (g/day) | 317.4 (36.9) | 313.6 (38.3) | 317.8 (35.3) | 309.8 (35.4) | 0.33 |
Protein intake (g/day) | 88.3 (15.8) | 91.7 (12.4) | 95.5 (13.6) | 102.7 (15.7) | <0.0001 |
Maternal age (years) | 31.2 (4.6) | 32.1 (4.2) | 32.4 (4.1) | 32.2 (4.5) | 0.12 |
Nulliparous (%) | 44 | 36 | 38 | 29 | 0.32 |
High/medium sociodemographic position (%) | 49 | 45 | 56 | 57 | 0.63 |
No physical activity (min/week) (%) | 65 | 60 | 67 | 68 | 0.51 |
Pre-pregnancy BMI 18.6–24.9 kg/m2 (%) | 35 | 41 | 42 | 46 | 0.05 |
Gestational weight gain (kg/week) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.4 (0.3) | 0.4 (0.3) | 0.4 (0.4) | 0.72 |
Non-smokers in pregnancy (%) | 71 | 70 | 71 | 78 | 0.78 |
Breastfeeding ≥10 months (%) | 17 | 21 | 33 | 28 | 0.34 |
Birth weight (g) | 3786 (623) | 3709 (719) | 3766 (471) | 3801 (590) | 0.75 |
Gestational age (days) | 277 (11) | 276 (11) | 278 (11) | 278 (12) | 0.57 |
Categories of Total Seafood Intake | |||||
0–0.5 oz/day | >0.5–1 oz/day | 1–1.5 oz/day | >1.5 oz/day | p1 | |
Controls (n = 487) | % or means (SD) | % or means (SD) | % or means (SD) | % or means (SD) | |
Lean fish intake (oz/day) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.3 (0.2) | 0.4 (0.2) | 0.6 (0.4) | <0.0001 |
Oily fish intake (oz/day) | 0.0 (0.1) | 0.1 (0.1) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.4 (0.3) | <0.0001 |
Marine n-3 LCPUFA (g/day) | 0.2 (0.1) | 0.4 (0.2) | 0.5 (0.3) | 0.8 (0.4) | <0.0001 |
Total fat intake (g/day) | 78.1 (16.0) | 80.0 (16.0) | 79.3 (14.9) | 78.8 (12.8) | 0.75 |
Carbohydrate intake (g/day) | 330.2 (34.1) | 319.8 (36.5) | 318.2 (32.9) | 316.6 (30.0) | 0.01 |
Protein intake (g/day) | 84.7 (13.8) | 90.0 (12.4) | 93.3 (12.9) | 94.9 (13.7) | <0.0001 |
Maternal age (years) | 30.2 (3.8) | 31.2 (4.1) | 31.7 (4.4) | 31.7 (4.2) | 0.07 |
Nulliparous (%) | 54 | 52 | 49 | 47 | 0.82 |
High/medium sociodemographic position (%) | 63 | 60 | 70 | 69 | 0.10 |
No physical activity (min/week) (%) | 59 | 60 | 60 | 56 | 0.94 |
Pre-pregnancy BMI 18.6–24.9 kg/m2 (%) | 67 | 74 | 74 | 81 | 0.35 |
Gestational weight gain (kg/week) | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.5 (0.2) | 0.92 |
Non-smokers in pregnancy (%) | 77 | 78 | 79 | 81 | 0.70 |
Breastfeeding ≥10 months (%) | 29 | 31 | 21 | 34 | 0.17 |
Birth weight (g) | 3619 (473) | 3587 (482) | 3594 (551) | 3537 (519) | 0.65 |
Gestational age (days) | 281 (10) | 281 (10) | 281 (13) | 280 (11) | 0.82 |
Categories of Total Seafood Intake | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–0.5 oz/day | >0.5–1 oz/day | 1–1.5 oz/day | >1.5 oz/day | p1 | |
Metabolic Measures in the Offspring | n = 142 (32%) | n = 136 (31%) | n = 96 (22%) | n = 69 (16%) | |
BMI, kg/m2 (n = 440) | |||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 0.97 (0.93, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.94, 1.04) | 0.69 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 0.99 (0.94, 1.03) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.05) | 0.65 |
Waist circumference, cm (n = 438) | |||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.03) | 0.97 (0.93, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.95, 1.04) | 0.39 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.02) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.01) | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) | 0.49 |
Total fat mass, % (n = 151) | |||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.04 (0.93, 1.17) | 0.99 (0.87, 1.13) | 1.07 (0.92, 1.25) | 0.68 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.07 (0.96, 1.20) | 0.95 (0.84, 1.07) | 1.12 (0.96, 1.28) | 0.12 |
Abdominal fat mass, % (n = 151) | |||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.09 (0.88, 1.36) | 0.97 (0.76, 1.22) | 1.16 (0.88, 1.54) | 0.52 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.12 (0.91, 1.38) | 0.93 (0.75, 1.17) | 1.26 (0.96, 1.63) | 0.13 |
Total cholesterol, mmol/L (n = 381) | |||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.05 (−0.23, 0.14) | 0.09 (−0.11, 0.29) | −0.13 (−0.36, 0.10) | 0.31 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.01 (−0.19, 0.17) | 0.00 (−0.20, 0.20) | −0.09 (−0.31, 0.13) | 0.86 |
LDL, mmol/L (n = 381) | |||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.01 (−0.18, 0.16) | 0.09 (−0.09, 0.28) | −0.15 (−0.36, 0.06) | 0.20 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 0.02 (−0.15, 0.19) | 0.02 (−0.16, 0.21) | −0.10 (−0.30, 0.10) | 0.65 |
HDL, mmol/L (n = 381) | |||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.03 (−0.12, 0.06) | −0.02 (−0.12, 0.08) | 0.05 (−0.06, 0.17) | 0.52 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.03 (−0.13, 0.06) | −0.05 (−0.16, 0.05) | 0.04 (−0.07, 0.16) | 0.43 |
TG, mmol/L (n = 381) | |||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.93 (0.84, 1.03) | 0.95 (0.84, 1.06) | 0.85 (0.75, 0.97) | 0.11 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.92 (0.83, 1.03) | 0.96 (0.86, 1.08) | 0.89 (0.78, 1.01) | 0.26 |
HOMA-IR (n = 361) | |||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 0.99 (0.86, 1.15) | 0.91 (0.77, 1.07) | 1.00 (0.83, 1.20) | 0.70 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.00 (0.87, 1.16) | 0.97 (0.83, 1.14) | 1.02 (0.85, 1.22) | 0.97 |
MetS z score, SD (n = 359) | |||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −1.33 (−3.12, 0.45) | −1.62 (−3.73, 0.50) | −1.46 (−3.83, 0.91) | 0.37 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −1.17 (−2.93, 0.59) | −0.91 (−2.98, 1.16) | −1.23 (−3.54, 1.07) | 0.56 |
Categories of Consistent Fish Intake | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Metabolic measures in the offspring | >2 times/week | 1–2 times/week | Weekly | Monthly | Never | p1 |
n = 29 (16%) | n = 41 (22%) | n = 68 (37%) | n = 39 (21%) | n = 8 (4%) | ||
BMI, kg/m2 (n = 143) | ||||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.08 (0.98, 1.20) | 1.09 (0.99, 1.20) | 1.03 (0.92, 1.14) | 1.22 (1.02, 1.46) | 0.11 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.07 (0.96, 1.20) | 1.06 (0.96, 1.16) | 0.98 (0.88, 1.08) | 1.28 (1.06, 1.55) | 0.02 |
Waist circumference, cm (n = 143) | ||||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.06 (0.98, 1.15) | 1.05 (0.98, 1.13) | 1.01 (0.93, 1.09) | 1.21 (1.06, 1.39) | 0.05 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.04 (0.96, 1.14) | 1.02 (0.95, 1.11) | 0.97 (0.90, 1.05) | 1.22 (1.05, 1.40) | 0.02 |
Total fat mass, % (n = 44) | ||||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.09 (0.86, 1.39) | 1.08 (0.86, 1.36) | 0.99 (0.74, 1.31) | 1.26 (0.82, 1.93) | 0.75 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.16 (0.79, 1.72) | 1.06 (0.77, 1.48) | 0.98 (0.66, 1.45) | 1.57 (0.51, 4.85) | 0.76 |
Abdominal fat mass, % (n = 44) | ||||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.30 (0.84, 2.03) | 1.16 (0.76, 1.79) | 1.01 (0.59, 1.72) | 1.62 (0.73, 3.60) | 0.61 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.39 (0.65, 2.97) | 1.14 (0.60, 2.16) | 0.96 (0.44, 2.12) | 2.44 (0.27, 22.20) | 0.74 |
Total cholesterol, mmol/L (n = 130) | ||||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 0.14 (−0.29, 0.57) | 0.20 (−0.20, 0.60) | −0.06 (−0.49, 0.38) | 0.14 (−0.59, 0.87) | 0.61 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 0.24 (−0.24, 0.72) | 0.25 (−0.20, 0.70) | −0.01 (−0.48, 0.46) | 0.21 (−0.64, 1.05) | 0.56 |
LDL, mmol/L (n = 130) | ||||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 0.15 (−0.26, 0.57) | 0.17 (−0.22, 0.56) | 0.02 (−0.40, 0.44) | 0.08 (−0.63, 0.79) | 0.85 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 0.16 (−0.31, 0.63) | 0.19 (−0.26, 0.63) | 0.01 (−0.45, 0.48) | 0.16 (−0.68, 0.99) | 0.85 |
HDL, mmol/L (n = 130) | ||||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.15 (−0.37, 0.07) | −0.01 (−0.21, 0.20) | −0.15 (−0.37, 0.08) | −0.02 (−0.40, 0.35) | 0.34 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | −0.09 (−0.32, 0.15) | 0.01 (−0.21, 0.24) | −0.11 (−0.34, 0.12) | −0.06 (−0.48, 0.36) | 0.62 |
TG, mmol/L (n = 130) | ||||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.17 (0.90, 1.54) | 1.21 (0.94, 1.57) | 1.21 (0.92, 1.60) | 1.72 (1.08, 2.72) | 0.22 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.34 (0.98, 1.80) | 1.31 (0.99, 1.75) | 1.26 (0.94, 1.70) | 1.77 (1.03, 3.03) | 0.20 |
HOMA-IR (n = 124) | ||||||
Unadjusted RGM (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.22 (0.88, 1.68) | 1.52 (1.13, 2.08) | 1.15 (0.82, 1.60) | 2.23 (1.30, 3.82) | 0.01 |
Adjusted RGM 2 (95% CI) | 1 (ref) | 1.20 (0.84, 1.72) | 1.54 (1.09, 2.14) | 1.07 (0.76, 1.51) | 2.16 (1.17, 3.97) | 0.01 |
MetS z score, SD (n = 123) | ||||||
Unadjusted mean Δ (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 4.29 (−0.60, 9.17) | 6.24 (1.66, 10.8) | 2.23 (−2.74, 7.20) | 12.47 (4.34, 20.60) | 0.01 |
Adjusted mean Δ2 (95% CI) | 0 (ref) | 4.23 (−0.85, 9.30) | 5.94 (1.13, 10.75) | 1.04 (−3.91, 5.99) | 12.91 (4.07, 21.75) | 0.01 |
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Maslova, E.; Hansen, S.; Strøm, M.; Halldorsson, T.I.; Grunnet, L.G.; Vaag, A.A.; Olsen, S.F. Fish Intake in Pregnancy and Offspring Metabolic Parameters at Age 9–16—Does Gestational Diabetes Modify the Risk? Nutrients 2018, 10, 1534. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101534
Maslova E, Hansen S, Strøm M, Halldorsson TI, Grunnet LG, Vaag AA, Olsen SF. Fish Intake in Pregnancy and Offspring Metabolic Parameters at Age 9–16—Does Gestational Diabetes Modify the Risk? Nutrients. 2018; 10(10):1534. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101534
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaslova, Ekaterina, Susanne Hansen, Marin Strøm, Thorhallur I. Halldorsson, Louise G. Grunnet, Allan A. Vaag, and Sjurdur F. Olsen. 2018. "Fish Intake in Pregnancy and Offspring Metabolic Parameters at Age 9–16—Does Gestational Diabetes Modify the Risk?" Nutrients 10, no. 10: 1534. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101534