Calculating Intake of Dietary Risk Components Used in the Global Burden of Disease Studies from the What We Eat in America/National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Sources
2.2. Aligning Food Groups and Nutrient Definitions with GBD Variables
2.3. Complementing Trans-fat Data
3. Results
3.1. Composition of GDB Variables in USDA Main Categories of Food
3.2. Composition of GDB Variables in Select Foods
3.3. GBD Food Group and Nutrient Intakes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Risk Factor | GBD Description | Difference with WWEIA/NHANES | Data Source |
---|---|---|---|
Food Groups | Intake measured in grams | Intake reported in household measures (e.g., cup, cup equivalents, etc.) in the FPED | Conversion Table 2 |
Sugar Sweetened Beverages | Beverages > 50 kcal/226.8 g, including carbonated beverages, sodas, energy drinks, and fruit drinks; excludes 100% fruit and vegetable juices | None | Individual Food files |
Milk | Milk, including non-, low-, and full-fat milk, excluding soy milk and other plant derivatives | Soy milk and other plant derivatives considered as dairy servings | FPED [10] Table 2, Table 3 |
Whole Grains | Whole grains from breakfast cereals, bread, rice, pasta, biscuits, muffins, tortillas, pancakes, and other sources | None | FPED Table 2, Table 3 |
Nuts and Seeds | Nut and seed foods | None | FPED |
Cured/Processed Meat | Meat preserved by smoking, curing, salting, or chemical preservatives | None | FPED |
Red Meat | Beef, pork, lamb, and goat but excluding poultry, fish, eggs, and processed meats | None | FPED |
Fruits | Fresh, frozen, cooked, canned, or dried, fruits. Excludes fruit juices and salted or pickled fruit | 100% fruit juices and pickled fruits count as a fruit | FPED Table 2 |
Vegetables | Fresh, frozen, cooked, canned, or dried vegetables. Excludes starchy vegetables, vegetable juices, and salted or pickled vegetables | Potatoes and corn, vegetable juices, and pickles and pickled vegetables considered a vegetable | FPED Table 2, Table 3 |
Legumes | Fresh, frozen, cooked, canned, or dried legumes | None | Table 2 |
Nutrients | |||
Calcium | Calcium from all sources | None | FNDDS [11] |
Fiber | Fiber from all sources, but considers fibers from fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grains separately from other sources | Fiber intake considers all sources | FNDDS Table 3 |
Omega-3 (Seafood) | Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids intake for seafood only | Omega-3 fatty acids intake considers all sources | FNDDS |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) | Omega-6 fatty acids from all sources | None | FNDDS |
Sodium | 24 h urinary sodium measured in g per day | Sodium intake, mg per day | FNDDS |
Trans-fat | Trans-fat from all sources | No direct estimates | SR [12] and regression analyses (Supplemental Tables S1–S3) |
Conversion Group | Conversion Formula |
---|---|
Fruit (cup equivalent) | |
Fruit canned in water, light syrup, heavy syrup pack | 100 × 0.65 |
Fruit nectar | 100 × 0.4 |
Fruit juice, fruit in liquid form | Fruit, total (f_total) × 250 |
100% fruit after removal of sugar | 100 − (added sugars (add_sugars) × 4.2) |
Pineapple | Fruit, total (f_total) × 155 |
Raisins | Fruit, total (f_total) × 75 |
Dried apple | Fruit, total (f_total) × 45 |
Dried banana | Fruit, total (f_total) × 50 |
Dried berries | Fruit, total (f_total) × 75 |
Assorted berries/unspecified fruit | Fruit, total (f_total) × 145 |
Apples, baked or raw | Fruit, total (f_total) × 110 |
Dried figs | Fruit, total (f_total) × 75 |
Applesauce and banana mixture | Fruit, total (f_total) × 197.5 |
Cherries, peach | Fruit, total (f_total) × 155 |
Banana | Fruit, total (f_total) × 150 |
Fruit concentrate | Fruit, total (f_total) × 70 |
Vegetable (cup equivalent) | |
100% vegetable after removal of sugar | 100 − (Added sugars (add_sugars) × 4.2) |
Vegetable in liquid form or in liquid food | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 245 |
Ketchup | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 120 |
Pimento | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 190 |
Tapioca | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 75 |
Mixed vegetables/potato/broccoli | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 155 |
Coleslaw | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 90 |
Olive | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 135 |
Onion rings | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 210 |
Vegetable in dried form | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 30 |
Pizza with sauce and other vegetables | (Vegetables, red or tomatoes (v_redor_tomato) × 245) + ((Vegetables, total (v_total) − Vegetables, red or tomatoes (v_redor_tomato)) × 155) |
Lettuce and tomato combination | (Vegetables, red or tomatoes (v_redor_tomato) × 170) + (Vegetables, other (v_other × 110)) + ((Vegetables, total (v_total) − (Vegetables, red or tomatoes (v_redor_tomato-v_other)) × 155) |
Corn | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 165 |
Sweet potato canned in syrup pack | Vegetables, total (v_total) × 200 − (Added sugars (add_sugars) × 4.2) |
Protein Food (ounce equivalent) | |
Protein foods using standard conversions | (Protein foods, meat, poultry, seafood, total (pf_mps_total) × 28.35) + (Protein foods, eggs (pf_eggs) × 50) + (Protein foods, nuts (pf_nutsds) × 14.175) + (Protein foods, soy (pf_soy) × 14.175) |
Foods containing nut butter | (Protein foods, meat, poultry, seafood, total (pf_mps_total) × 28.35) + (Protein foods, eggs (pf_eggs) × 50) + (Protein foods, nuts (pf_nutsds) × 16) + (Protein foods, soy (pf_soy) × 14.175) |
100% protein food after removal of added sugar | 100 − (Added sugars (add_sugars) × 4.2) |
Tofu | Protein foods, total (pf_total) × 62.5 |
Dried egg | (Protein foods, meat, poultry, seafood, total (pf_mps_total) × 28.35) + (protein foods, eggs (pf_eggs)/7.41 × 100) + (protein foods, nuts (pf_nutsds) × 14.175) + (Protein foods, soy (pf_soy) × 14.175) |
Dairy (cup equivalents) | |
100% dairy after removal of added sugar | 100 − (Added sugars (add_sugars) × 4.2) |
Dairy in fluid milk/yogurt form | ((Dairy, milk (d_milk) + Dairy, yogurt(d_yogurt)) × 245) + ((Dairy, total (d_total) − Dairy, milk (d_milk) − Dairy, yogurt (d_yogurt)) × 40) |
Dairy in dry, powder form | ((Dairy, milk (d_milk) + Dairy, yogurt (d_yogurt) + Dairy, cheese (d_cheese)) × 25) + ((Dairy, total (d_total) − Dairy, milk (d_milk) − Dairy, yogurt (d_yogurt) − Dairy, cheese (d_cheese)) × 40) |
Mozzarella | Dairy, cheese (d_cheese) × 42.525 |
Ricotta | Dairy, cheese (d_cheese) × 141.75 |
Processed cheese/blue cheese | (Dairy, cheese (d_cheese × 56.7)) + (Dairy, milk (d_milk) × 245) + (Dairy, yogurt (d_yogurt) × 245) + ((Dairy, total (d_total) − Dairy, milk (d_milk) − Dairy, yogurt (d_yogurt) − Dairy, cheese (d_cheese)) × 40) |
Cottage cheese | 100(Fruit, total (f_total) × 145) − (Vegetables, total (v_total) × 155) |
Cheese with pimento | 100 − (Vegetables, total (v_total) × 190) |
Grain (ounce equivalents) | |
Processed flour-based | Grains, total (g_total) × 16 |
Intact grain-based | Grains, total (g_total) × 28.35 |
Legumes (cup equivalents) | |
Legumes, excluding dry | v_legumes × 175 or pf_legumes × 43.75 |
Legumes, dry | Vegetables, legumes (v_legumes) × 60 or protein foods, legumes (pf_legumes) × 15 |
Added Sugar (teaspoon equivalents) | |
Added sugars | Added sugars (add_sugars) × 4.2 |
Alcohol (ounce equivalents) | |
Ethanol | Alcoholic drinks (a_drink) × 14 |
Fruit 1 |
General:
|
Vegetables 2 |
General:
|
For all other food codes, vegetable is adjusted at the SR code level:
|
Omega-3 Fats 3 |
General:
|
|
Milk 4 |
General:
|
Fiber 5 |
General:
|
All other SR codes use the following formula:
|
Sugar Sweetened Beverages |
General:
|
GBD Food Groups (Per RACC) | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vegetables (ex. Legumes), g | Legumes, g | Milk, g | Fruit, g | Whole Grain, g | ||||||||||||||||
Main Food Category | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max |
Milk and Dairy (n = 205) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 90 | 0 | 0 | 247 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 71 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Protein Foods (n = 971) | 3 | 0 | 0 | 137 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 130 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 45 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 |
Mixed Dishes (n = 1231) | 35 | 27 | 0 | 214 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 110 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 223 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 83 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 50 |
Grains (n = 520) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 72 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 34 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 233 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 43 | 13 | 3 | 0 | 69 |
Snacks and Sweets (n = 662) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 55 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 53 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 153 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 240 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 30 |
Fruit (n = 163) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 100 | 113 | 0 | 280 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Vegetables (n = 826) | 62 | 82 | 0 | 241 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 35 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 50 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 109 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Beverages, Nonalcoholic (n = 282) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 39 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 32 | 0 | 0 | 301 | 41 | 0 | 0 | 240 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
Fats and Oils (n = 124) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 30 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Condiments and Sauces (n = 130) | 15 | 0 | 0 | 124 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 24 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 110 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Nuts and Seeds, g | Red Meat, g | Processed Meat, g | Sugar Sweetened Bev., g | |||||||||||||||||
Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | |||||
Milk and Dairy (n = 205) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Protein Foods (n = 971) | 2 | 0 | 0 | 32 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 94 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 85 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Mixed Dishes (n = 1231) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 32 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 139 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Grains (n = 520) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Snacks and Sweets (n = 662) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Fruit (n = 163) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Vegetables (n = 826) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 40 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Beverages, Nonalcoholic (n = 282) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 90 | 0 | 0 | 360 | ||||
Fats and Oils (n = 124) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||
Condiments and Sauces (n = 130) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 23 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
GBD Nutrients (Per RACC) | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Calcium, mg | Sodium, mg | Polyunsaturated Fat, g | Trans-Fat, g | Seafood Omega-3 Fat, g | ||||||||||||||||
Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | Mean | Med | Min | Max | |
Milk and Dairy (n = 205) | 254 | 268 | 1 | 504 | 171 | 150 | 2 | 990 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0 | 6 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 1.1 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Protein Foods (n = 971) | 32 | 17 | 0 | 348 | 357 | 329 | 0 | 2108 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 0 | 22 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 2.5 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 1.9 |
Mixed Dishes (n = 1231) | 102 | 63 | 0 | 707 | 675 | 663 | 5 | 6951 | 2.6 | 2.1 | 0 | 11 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0 | 3.9 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 1.2 |
Grains (n = 520) | 82 | 35 | 0 | 1333 | 272 | 254 | 0 | 1141 | 1.0 | 0.6 | 0 | 9 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Snacks and Sweets (n = 662) | 52 | 26 | 0 | 389 | 149 | 123 | 0 | 1127 | 1.7 | 1.1 | 0 | 16 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0 | 6.1 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Fruit (n = 163) | 19 | 13 | 0 | 203 | 15 | 3 | 0 | 931 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0 | 13 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Vegetables (n = 826) | 44 | 27 | 2 | 536 | 254 | 235 | 1 | 968 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0 | 11 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 2.0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.1 |
Beverages, Nonalcoholic (n = 282) | 83 | 22 | 0 | 467 | 64 | 25 | 0 | 607 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0 | 3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Fats and Oils (n = 124) | 8 | 3 | 0 | 44 | 105 | 81 | 0 | 480 | 1.9 | 0.5 | 0 | 11 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0 | 2.1 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Condiments and Sauces (n = 130) | 19 | 7 | 0 | 189 | 264 | 173 | 0 | 3098 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0 | 8 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 |
Age 19+ years | Age 19–50 years | Age 51+ years | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dietary Risk Factor | GBD 1 | All | Men | Women | All | Men | Women | All | Men | Women |
SSB (g/d) | 0–5 | 306 ± 15 | 376 ± 25 | 239 ± 14 † | 411 ± 19 * | 496 ± 32 | 321 ± 20 † | 175 ± 13 | 209 ± 20 | 133 ± 12 † |
Vegetables, excluding legumes (g/d) | 290–430 | 153 ± 3 | 161 ± 5 | 146 ± 5 | 157 ± 3 | 163 ± 7 | 150 ± 5 | 149 ± 5 | 159 ± 8 | 140 ± 6 |
Legumes (g/d) | 50–70 | 19.4 ± 0.9 | 23.7 ± 1.1 | 15.1 ± 0.9 † | 21.4 ± 1.2 | 24.4 ± 1.6 | 18.2 ± 1.1 † | 16.8 ± 1.3 | 22.8 ± 1.6 | 11.6 ± 1.6 † |
Milk (g/d) | 350–520 | 164 ± 5 | 195 ± 10 | 134 ± 3 † | 166 ± 10 | 200 ± 18 | 129 ± 6 † | 162 ± 7 | 188 ± 9 | 139 ± 7 † |
Fruit (g/d) | 200–300 | 152 ± 6 | 154 ± 7 | 149 ± 7 | 142 ± 5 | 141 ± 5 | 145 ± 8 | 163 ± 8 | 173 ± 12 | 155 ± 80 |
Omega-3 (g/d) | 0.2–0.3 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.08± 0.01 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.02 |
Fiber (g/d) | 19–28 | 7.8 ± 0.1 | 9.0 ± 0.2 | 6.6 ± 0.1 † | 8.2 ± 0.2 * | 9.3 ± 0.3 | 7.0 ± 0.1 † | 7.3 ± 0.2 | 8.5 ± 0.3 | 6.2 ± 0.2 † |
Whole Grains (g/d) | 100–150 | 18.8 ± 0.7 | 20.4 ± 1.1 | 17.2 ± 0.5 † | 16.1 ± 0.9 * | 17.6 ± 1.3 | 14.5 ± 0.6 | 22.2 ± 0.9 | 24.4 ± 1.6 | 20.2 ± 0.6 |
Nuts and Seeds (g/d) | 16–25 | 11.3 ± 0.8 | 12.5 ± 1.0 | 10.1 ± 0.8 | 9.9 ± 1.1 | 10.7 ± 1.4 | 8.7 ± 0.9 | 13.2 ± 1.5 | 15.0 ± 1.9 | 11.6 ± 1.8 |
Red Meat (g/d) | 18–27 | 40.6 ± 1.1 | 51.9 ± 2.2 | 29.5 ± 1.2 † | 46.1 ± 1.7 * | 58.8 ± 2.7 | 32.5 ± 1.8 † | 33.7 ± 1.2 | 42.4 ± 2.2 | 26.1 ± 2.0 † |
Processed Meat (g/d) | 0–4 | 28.4 ± 1.5 | 35.6 ± 2.5 | 21.4 ± 1.1 † | 30.0 ± 2.0 | 37.8 ± 3.2 | 21.7 ± 1.4 † | 26.5 ± 1.6 | 32.5 ± 2.5 | 21.1 ± 1.6 † |
Calcium (mg/d) | 1000–1500 | 958 ± 12 | 1078 ± 18 | 840 ± 11 † | 1014 ± 17 * | 1151 ± 25 | 868 ± 14 † | 888 ± 17 | 977 ± 25 | 809 ± 19 † |
PUFAs (% of energy) | 9–13 | 8.0 ± 0.1 | 7.7 ± 0.1 | 8.2 ± 0.1 † | 7.8 ± 0.1 * | 7.6 ± 0.1 | 8.1 ± 0.1 † | 8.2 ± 0.1 | 7.9 ± 0.2 | 8.5 ± 0.1 |
Sodium (mg/d) | 1000–5000 | 3435 ± 32 | 3977 ± 52 | 2904 ± 23 † | 3658 ± 34 * | 4213 ± 58 | 3067 ± 31 † | 3154 ± 47 | 3649 ± 73 | 2716 ± 33 † |
Trans-Fat (% of energy) | 0–1 | 0.91 ± 0.01 | 0.90 ± 0.01 | 0.92 ± 0.02 | 0.88 ± 0.01 * | 0.87 ± 0.02 | 0.90 ± 0.02 | 0.94 ± 0.02 | 0.95 ± 0.02 | 0.94 ± 0.02 |
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Fulgoni, V.L., III; Wallace, T.C.; Stylianou, K.S.; Jolliet, O. Calculating Intake of Dietary Risk Components Used in the Global Burden of Disease Studies from the What We Eat in America/National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101441
Fulgoni VL III, Wallace TC, Stylianou KS, Jolliet O. Calculating Intake of Dietary Risk Components Used in the Global Burden of Disease Studies from the What We Eat in America/National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Nutrients. 2018; 10(10):1441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101441
Chicago/Turabian StyleFulgoni, Victor L., III, Taylor C. Wallace, Katerina S. Stylianou, and Olivier Jolliet. 2018. "Calculating Intake of Dietary Risk Components Used in the Global Burden of Disease Studies from the What We Eat in America/National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys" Nutrients 10, no. 10: 1441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101441