Remote Sensing Effects and Invariants in Land Surface Studies
Highlights
- Provide an overview of current developments, challenges, and future directions for remote sensing effects and invariants studies.
- Synthesize disparate remote sensing effects and invariants under a unified framework.
- Provide an understanding of the characterization, principles, and potential applications of selected remote sensing effects and invariants.
- Initiate theoretical exploration of the fundamental principles in remote sensing science.
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Characterization of Remote Sensing Effects
2.1. Remote Sensing Effects in Various Links
2.2. Connections Among Remote Sensing Effects
2.2.1. Generic and Integrated Effects
2.2.2. Equivalent, Facilitating, and Neutralizing Effects
2.2.3. Beneficial and Detrimental Effects
3. Overview of Selected Remote Sensing Effects
3.1. Atmospheric Effect
3.2. Background Effect
3.3. Clumping Effect
3.4. Directional Effect
3.5. Heterogeneity Effect
3.6. Saturation Effect
3.7. Scaling Effect
3.8. Temporal Effect
3.9. Topographic Effect
4. Perspectives on Remote Sensing Effect Studies
5. Remote Sensing Invariants
5.1. Spectral Invariants
5.2. Spatial and Scale Invariants
5.3. Temporal Invariants
5.4. Directional Invariants
5.5. Thematic Invariants
5.6. Synthesis
6. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
| 3D | Three-dimensional |
| AFRI | Aerosol-free vegetation index |
| AFX | Anisotropic flat index |
| ARVI | Atmospherically resistant vegetation index |
| ATCOR3 | ATmospheric CORrection version 3 |
| BRDF | Bidirectional reflectance distribution function |
| BRF | Bidirectional reflectance factor |
| CASI | Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager |
| CI | Clumping index |
| DEM | Digital elevation model |
| DHP | Digital hemispherical photography |
| DNB | Day/Night Band |
| DVI | Difference vegetation index |
| EM | Electromagnetic |
| EVI | Enhanced vegetation index |
| FAPAR | Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation |
| FVC | Fractional vegetation cover |
| GCOS | Global Climate Observation System |
| GDEM | Global Digital Elevation Model |
| GPP | Gross primary production |
| GPR | Gaussian processes regression |
| HDS | Hotspot–darkspot index |
| ISR | Infrared simple ratio |
| LAI | Leaf area index |
| LAIe | Effective LAI |
| LaSRC | Landsat Surface Reflectance Code |
| LiDAR | Light Detection and Ranging |
| MISR | Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer |
| MODIS | Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer |
| MSAVI | Modified soil-adjusted vegetation index |
| NBAR | Nadir BRDF-adjusted reflectance |
| NDHD | Normalized difference hotspot and darkspot |
| NDPI | Normalized difference phenology index |
| NDRE | Normalized difference red-edge index |
| NDSI | Normalized difference snow index |
| NDVI | Normalized difference vegetation index |
| NIR | Near infra-red |
| PICS | Pseudo-invariant calibration sites |
| POLDER | POLarization and Directionality of the Earth’s Reflectances |
| PROSAIL | PROSPECT + SAIL model |
| PSF | Point spread function |
| RSR | Reduced simple ratio (RSR) |
| RT | Radiative transfer |
| RVI | Ratio vegetation index |
| SAI | Stem area index |
| SAR | Synthetic Aperture Radar |
| SAVI | Soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) |
| Sen2Cor | Sentinel-2 CORrection processor |
| SIF | Solar-induced fluorescence |
| SIFT | Scale-invariant feature transform |
| SNAP | SeNtinel’s Application Platform |
| SRTM | Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission |
| SSI | Structural scattering index (SSI) |
| STARFM | Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model |
| TIR | Thermal infrared |
| TSAVI | Transformed SAVI |
| UAV | Unmanned aerial vehicle |
| VI | Vegetation index |
| VIIRS | Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite |
| WDRVI | Wide Dynamic Range Vegetation Index |
Appendix A. Remote Sensing Effects in Graduate Students’ Eyes
| Spring, 2022 | Spring, 2023 | Spring, 2024 | Spring, 2025 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Temporal | Scale | Scale | Atmosphere |
| 2 | Adjacency | Angular | Angular | Scale |
| 3 | Atmosphere | Hotspot | Temporal | Mixed pixel |
| 4 | Heat-island | Temporal | Hotspot | Angular |
| 5 | Topography | Shade | Atmosphere | Temporal |
| 6 | Spatial | Adjacency | Topography | Topography |
| 7 | Temperature | Atmosphere | Spatial | Polarization |
| 8 | Scale | Spatial | Adjacency | Adjacency |
| 9 | Spectral | Heat-island | Spectral | Shade |
| 10 | Polarization | Doppler | Shade | Geometric distortion |
| 11 | Radiation | Spectral | Radiation | Spectral variability |
| 12 | Distance | Polarization | Heat-island | Specular reflectance |
| 13 | Viewing | Edge | Doppler | Thermal infrared |
| 14 | Phenology | Topography | Mixed pixel | Hotspot |
| 15 | Shade | Dry island | Edge | Propagation |
| 16 | Patching | Ecology | Reflection | Radiance |
| 17 | Multispectral | Red-edge | Directional | Doppler |
| 18 | Angular | Reflection | Phenology | Multi-path |
| 19 | Greenhouse | Acoustic | Geometry | Spectral confusion |
| 20 | Red-edge | Instantaneous temperature | Scattering | Scattering |
| 21 | Altitude | Multispectral | Polarization | Heat-island |
| 22 | Latitude | Multitemporal | Overlay | Edge |
| 23 | Tyndall | Azimuth | Absorption | Spectral |
| 24 | Cold island | Foehn | Multispectral | Ground object |
| 25 | Human | Elevation angle | RS system | BRDF |
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Fang, H. Remote Sensing Effects and Invariants in Land Surface Studies. Remote Sens. 2026, 18, 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs18020248
Fang H. Remote Sensing Effects and Invariants in Land Surface Studies. Remote Sensing. 2026; 18(2):248. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs18020248
Chicago/Turabian StyleFang, Hongliang. 2026. "Remote Sensing Effects and Invariants in Land Surface Studies" Remote Sensing 18, no. 2: 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs18020248
APA StyleFang, H. (2026). Remote Sensing Effects and Invariants in Land Surface Studies. Remote Sensing, 18(2), 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs18020248

