Observation of Diurnal Ground Surface Changes Due to Freeze-Thaw Action by Real-Time Kinematic Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Field Survey
2.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Model Selection Procedures
3. Results
3.1. Slope-Failure Site Properties
3.2. Verification of DSM Accuracy Created from RTK-UAV Imagery
3.3. Environment and Altitude Changes of the Ground Surface at Slope-Failure Sites
3.4. Relationships among Freeze-Thaw Amount, Terrain, and the Thermal Environment
4. Discussion
4.1. Validity, Accuracy, and Applicability of DSMs Created from RTK-UAV Images
4.2. Environmental Factors Affecting Freeze-thaw Amount
4.3. Differences in Freeze-Thaw Amount between Slope-Failure Sites
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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UAV | ||
Airplane model | DJI Phantom4RTK | DJI Matrice210RTK |
Airplane type | Rotary-wing aircraft | Rotary-wing aircraft |
Airplane weight | 1391 g | 4910 g |
Max. duration of flight | 30 min | 33 min |
Base station model | DJI D-RTK2 | DJI D-RTK2 |
Cameras | ||
Camera model | DJI FC6310R | DJI Zenmuse XT2 |
Number of pixels | 20 M | 12 M |
Sensor size | 5472 × 3648 | 640 × 512 |
Focal length | 8.8 mm | 5.0 mm |
No. | 4/2 P.M.–4/3 A.M. | 4/3 P.M.–4/3 A.M. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Z | X | Y | Z | |
1 | 0.004 | −0.069 | 0.078 | 0.005 | −0.016 | −0.019 |
2 | 0.039 | −0.075 | 0.046 | −0.005 | −0.012 | 0.026 |
3 | 0.033 | −0.057 | 0.006 | −0.008 | −0.011 | −0.027 |
4 | 0.027 | −0.068 | −0.001 | −0.018 | −0.020 | −0.039 |
5 | 0.064 | −0.083 | −0.001 | 0.025 | −0.023 | −0.020 |
6 | 0.036 | −0.063 | 0.010 | −0.009 | −0.007 | −0.009 |
7 | 0.054 | −0.069 | −0.063 | −0.002 | −0.014 | −0.031 |
8 | 0.024 | −0.067 | −0.063 | −0.011 | −0.006 | −0.051 |
9 | −0.017 | −0.014 | −0.048 | −0.015 | −0.004 | −0.059 |
10 | 0.019 | −0.061 | 0.071 | −0.018 | −0.025 | −0.010 |
RMSE | 0.036 | 0.065 | 0.049 | 0.013 | 0.015 | 0.033 |
Rank of Model | AIC | ΔAIC | Estimated Coefficients (Standard Error) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intercept | Ground Surface Temperatures | TWI | Cumulative Solar Radiation | Inclination Angle | Curvature | |||
1 | –11,297.7 | 0.00 | 0.102 *** (0.00831) | 0.00106 *** (0.000130) | –0.00410 *** (0.000983) | –7.43 × 10−6 *** (1.98 × 10−6) | 0.000318 (0.000167) | |
2 | –11,296.1 | 1.64 | 0.114 *** (0.00531) | 0.00113 *** (0.000126) | –0.00481 *** (0.000911) | –8.47 × 10−6 *** (1.90 × 10−6) | ||
3 | –11,295.9 | 1.76 | 0.102 *** (0.00831) | 0.00106 *** (0.000130) | –0.00411 *** (0.000983) | –7.44 × 10−6 *** (1.98 × 10−6) | 0.000320 (0.000167) | –2.04 × 10−7 (4.16 × 10−7) |
4 | –11,294.3 | 3.43 | 0.114 *** (0.00531) | 0.00113 *** (0.000126) | –0.00482 *** (0. 000912) | –8.47 × 10−6 *** (1.90 × 10−6) | –1.89 × 10−7 (4.16 × 10−7) | |
Null model | –11,170.3 | 127.44 | 0.0923 *** (0.00130) |
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Nakata, Y.; Hayamizu, M.; Ishiyama, N.; Torita, H. Observation of Diurnal Ground Surface Changes Due to Freeze-Thaw Action by Real-Time Kinematic Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2167. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112167
Nakata Y, Hayamizu M, Ishiyama N, Torita H. Observation of Diurnal Ground Surface Changes Due to Freeze-Thaw Action by Real-Time Kinematic Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(11):2167. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112167
Chicago/Turabian StyleNakata, Yasutaka, Masato Hayamizu, Nobuo Ishiyama, and Hiroyuki Torita. 2021. "Observation of Diurnal Ground Surface Changes Due to Freeze-Thaw Action by Real-Time Kinematic Unmanned Aerial Vehicle" Remote Sensing 13, no. 11: 2167. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112167