From Waste to Wealth: Factors Influencing the Adoption of Upcycled Foods in China

Abstract

Upcycled foods, produced from edible side-streams that would otherwise be discarded, offer a promising pathway toward circular and sustainable food systems. However, consumer acceptance in China remains limited. Drawing on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and integrating eco-wellness awareness and cultural values, this study examines the drivers of Chinese consumers’ acceptance of upcycled foods. Survey data from 612 consumers across multiple provinces were analysed using structural equation modelling. The results show that attitude is the strongest predictor of purchase intention, followed by subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. Health awareness and consumer innovativeness significantly enhance both attitude and perceived behavioural control, while environmental awareness primarily strengthens perceived behavioural control. Collectivism positively influences all TPB components, whereas frugality strengthens attitude and subjective norms only. Perceived risk plays a limited role. The findings highlight the importance of health-oriented and culturally grounded communication strategies for promoting circular food consumption in China.

1. Introduction

A significant portion of food destined for human consumption is wasted along the supply chain, presenting a formidable challenge to global sustainability [1,2]. Globally, approximately one-third of all food produced, around 931 million tons annually, is wasted from production to consumption, presenting significant challenges to economic stability, environmental sustainability, and resource management. This waste, accounting for 8–10% of global greenhouse emissions, incurs roughly 1 trillion USD in economic costs, 700 billion USD in environmental damages, and 900 billion USD in social costs, emphasizing the critical need for effective resource management [3,4].

In response, significant international and national measures have been adopted to mitigate food waste. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, for instance, aims to halve per capita food waste and decrease food losses by 2030, underscoring a commitment to global sustainability [5,6]. Moreover, specific national legislations like China’s Anti-food Waste Law (2021) focus on reducing waste within the catering sector, aligning local initiatives with broader global objective [7]. These efforts are critical in addressing the multifaceted impacts of food waste, driving forward more sustainable consumption and production practices worldwide.

Amid these efforts, upcycled food production emerges as an innovative and effective strategy. Defined by The Upcycled Foods Definition Task Force in 2020, upcycled foods utilize ingredients that would typically not reach the consumer, such as food industry by-products, damaged produce, and preparation scraps. These are then transformed into value-added products that not only reduce waste but also reintroduce valuable nutrients into the food chain [8,9]. Upcycled food production, therefore, not only aligns with but actively supports the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and adheres to measures such as China’s Anti-food Waste Law, enhancing both environmental sustainability and economic and social development.

The conversion of waste into valuable food products presents substantial benefits, particularly in regions such as China. Upcycled foods contribute to enhancing food security by rendering nutritious options more economically accessible and fortifying the robustness of the food system. Within the hierarchy of food waste management, the production of upcycled food is prioritized above the utilization of waste as animal feed [10]. It ranks only below waste prevention and the redistribution of unused food, establishing it as an essential component of comprehensive strategies aimed at effectively mitigating food waste.

However, upcycled foods, a novel category distinct from traditional and organic foods, confront challenges such as public acceptability due to their innovative use of by-products and side-streams [11]. As a relatively new and under-researched area, there is scant information on consumer responses to these products, and knowledge and understanding remain limited in countries like New Zealand, the UK, and Italy [12]. The success of upcycled foods largely depends on consumer support, emphasizing the need for more extensive research, particularly in contexts that differ from the Western focus seen in existing studies.

Research on consumer attitudes towards upcycled foods has largely centred on Western countries like the US, UK, and Italy, overlooking Eastern perspectives, particularly in China where minimal research exists. To date, only two studies have been conducted in China: one on how mental simulation learning strategies can improve consumer perceptions and intentions, and another comparing consumer attitudes in the US and China [12,13]. Despite these initial efforts, prior studies have primarily focused on isolated mechanisms, such as mental simulation or cross-cultural differences, rather than systematically examining the combined influence of psychological and socio-cultural factors on consumer attitudes. Furthermore, key constructs such as consumer innovativeness, food technology neophobia, perceived risk, and trust have rarely been integrated within a unified framework.

In addition, important cultural dimensions, particularly frugality and collectivism, have not been systematically incorporated into empirical models. These limitations constrain a more comprehensive understanding of consumer decision-making in emerging markets. In contrast to prior studies that adopt fragmented or single-factor approaches, this study adopts a holistic perspective.

Additionally, the cultural emphasis on frugality in Chinese society is often underrepresented in Western research. Unlike Western cultures that may prioritize individual consumption and luxury, Chinese culture has a long-standing tradition of frugality, influencing consumer behaviour and decision-making processes. This cultural trait affects how products are marketed and consumed, often favouring practicality and cost-effectiveness over extravagance [11].

Empirical evidence confirms this relationship. For instance, recent studies demonstrate that frugality-oriented consumption behaviour is significantly associated with sustainable consumption practices, particularly among younger consumer groups [14]. Moreover, frugality has been identified as a core motivational factor driving sustainable consumer practices in contemporary consumption contexts (e.g., Ganglmair-Wooliscroft et al. [15]). In addition, broader empirical research indicates that reduced consumption patterns—closely related to frugality—are positively linked to environmental sustainability and resource conservation outcomes.

The collectivist nature of Chinese society also plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behaviour. In contrast to the individualistic orientation of Western cultures, collectivism in China emphasizes group harmony, family ties, and community well-being. This collectivist mindset affects consumer preferences and loyalty, often leading to decisions that consider the broader impact on family and society [16]. Empirical research has demonstrated that collectivist values significantly promote environmentally responsible and sustainable consumption behaviours, as individuals are more likely to prioritise collective welfare over individual benefits (e.g., [17,18]). For instance, purchasing decisions may be influenced by the desire to maintain social harmony and uphold family honour.

These cultural influences—frugality and collectivism—also deeply influence consumer acceptance of innovative food solutions such as upcycled foods [19]. Frugality leads consumers to appreciate the cost-effectiveness and waste reduction offered by upcycled foods, aligning with a broader societal commitment to resource conservation. Meanwhile, collectivism influences consumer decisions by emphasizing the impacts on community and environmental health [20]. Understanding these cultural dimensions is crucial for assessing the potential acceptance and success of upcycled foods among Chinese consumers, as they provide a comprehensive framework for analysing how deeply ingrained cultural values can shape market dynamics and consumer behaviour towards sustainable innovations [21].

Additionally, recent food safety scandals in China have further complicated consumer behaviour. Unlike in the West, where regulatory frameworks are generally more trusted, Chinese consumers exhibit heightened scepticism and caution due to past food safety issues [22]. This scepticism impacts the adoption of sustainable and innovative products, such as upcycled foods, which require substantial trust in their safety and benefits [11].

These foods, introduced as sustainable alternatives, often face scepticism regarding their safety and quality, thereby escalating consumer perceptions of risk [23]. This environment underscores the importance of exploring Consumer Innovativeness—defined as an individual’s readiness to adopt new products, ideas, and experiences—and Food Technology Neophobia, characterized by a reluctance to embrace new food technologies [24]. This backdrop not only highlights the unique challenges faced by upcycled foods in the Chinese market but also calls for a detailed examination of the factors influencing consumer acceptance and trust towards these products [19].

Environmental awareness also plays a crucial role, with a deepening concern for issues such as waste reduction and sustainable practices [25]. For Chinese consumers, enhanced environmental awareness may amplify the perceived benefits of upcycled foods, which utilize otherwise wasted ingredients [26]. This perception promotes such choices as proactive steps towards environmental sustainability, thereby diminishing the risks associated with these novel products [27].

Amid rising income levels in China, heightened awareness of health issues is evident due to the prevalence of chronic diseases like diabetes, affecting approximately 140.9 million individuals [28], and cardiovascular diseases impacting around 330 million as of 2021 [29]. This awareness drives consumers to meticulously evaluate the safety and health benefits of new products like upcycled foods. Recognizing these foods as both safe and potentially beneficial boosts consumer willingness to purchase and embrace new food technologies. This shift reflects a broader trend towards health consciousness in response to the national health crisis, highlighting the deep connection between health concerns and food technology acceptance. Accordingly, this study aims to develop and empirically test an integrated framework to examine the joint effects of psychological factors, cultural influences, and eco-wellness awareness on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions towards upcycled foods in China, employing a quantitative approach using PLS-SEM. To further operationalise these objectives, the study addresses the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1: This study examines how key psychological factors influence consumer attitudes and purchase intentions towards upcycled foods.

RQ2: This study investigates the role of cultural influences, particularly frugality and collectivism, in shaping Chinese consumers’ attitudes towards upcycled foods.

RQ3: This study explores how eco-wellness awareness, including environmental and health awareness, affects Chinese consumers’ attitudes towards upcycled foods.

By addressing these questions, this study aims to propose strategies that encourage sustainable food consumption and thus contribute to reducing the environmental impact of the food industry while fostering sustainable market evolution in China. This study provides both theoretical and practical insights into consumer behaviour and offers actionable strategies to enhance the acceptance and adoption of upcycled foods in China.

The structure of the remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a comprehensive literature review and the development of hypotheses; Section 3 introduces the research methodology; Section 4 presents the results of the empirical investigation in detail; Section 5 discusses all findings; Section 6 outlines the study’s theoretical contributions and managerial implications, and Section 7 concludes with study limitations and directions for future research.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. Research on Upcycled Food Consumption

2.1.1. Psychological Factors and Consumer Trust

The growing interest in upcycled food has led to increasing research on its consumer acceptance, with psychological factors consistently identified as key determinants of purchase intentions. Among these factors, consumer trust has emerged as a critical driver. Existing studies generally agree that trust enhances consumer acceptance and can moderate the influence of socio-demographic characteristics on purchasing behaviour [11,30].

However, prior research differs in its conceptualisation of trust. While some studies emphasise its direct effect on purchase intention, others highlight its moderating role within broader decision-making processes. This inconsistency suggests that the mechanisms through which trust influences consumer behaviour remain insufficiently explored. Furthermore, most studies examine trust in isolation, without integrating it with other psychological constructs.

Therefore, there is a need for a more comprehensive framework that considers trust alongside other key determinants of consumer behaviour in the context of upcycled food.

2.1.2. Consumer Innovativeness and Food Technology Neophobia (FTN)

Consumer innovativeness and food technology neophobia (FTN) are widely recognised as important yet contrasting determinants of consumer acceptance of novel food products. Prior research generally indicates that innovativeness facilitates the adoption of new products, while FTN acts as a barrier by increasing uncertainty and resistance (Nazzaro et al. [30]).

Nevertheless, empirical findings remain mixed. While some studies suggest that higher innovativeness promotes positive attitudes towards innovative food products, others report that excessive novelty may generate uncertainty and reduce acceptance (Hellali and Koraï [31]). Similarly, FTN is consistently associated with negative attitudes, yet its interaction with other psychological factors remains underexplored.

These inconsistencies highlight the need to examine innovativeness and FTN within an integrated framework to better understand their combined influence on consumer behaviour towards upcycled foods.

2.1.3. Perceived Risks

Perceived risk is another important determinant of consumer behaviour, particularly in the context of novel food products such as upcycled foods. Existing studies consistently show that perceived risks related to health, food safety, and environmental concerns negatively influence consumer acceptance (e.g., [32,33]).

However, prior research has primarily focused on identifying types of perceived risks rather than examining how these risks interact with other psychological and cultural factors. As a result, the broader role of perceived risk within a comprehensive behavioural framework remains insufficiently understood.

This suggests the need for a more integrated approach that considers perceived risk alongside other determinants of consumer decision-making.

2.1.4. Cultural Influences

Cultural factors, particularly frugality and collectivism, are widely recognised as important determinants of sustainable consumption behaviour in China. Prior studies generally indicate that frugality encourages resource efficiency and cautious purchasing, while collectivism promotes responsiveness to social norms and collective welfare (Grasso et al. [12]; Campos et al. [34]). In the Chinese context, frugality is deeply embedded in daily practices, such as repurposing leftover food and extending product lifecycles through repair, reflecting a broader cultural emphasis on resource efficiency [35].

However, despite this general consensus, existing research remains largely descriptive and lacks systematic empirical integration within a unified analytical framework. In addition, most studies rely on cross-cultural comparisons, with limited attention given to how these cultural dimensions operate within specific contexts such as China.

Furthermore, prior research highlights notable differences between cultural contexts. While collectivist cultures are often associated with stronger pro-environmental behaviour, individualistic cultures tend to emphasise personal benefits such as health and cost savings to motivate sustainable consumption [36]. In such contexts, frugality is often framed as an individual lifestyle choice, as reflected in practices such as minimalist consumption and second-hand purchasing in Western societies [37]. These differences suggest that the influence of cultural values is context-dependent rather than universal.

Consequently, existing studies provide fragmented insights and lack an integrated understanding of how cultural values interact with psychological factors in shaping sustainable consumption behaviour. Therefore, this study addresses this gap by systematically integrating cultural dimensions with psychological determinants to better explain consumer behaviour towards upcycled foods in China.

Recent studies increasingly recognise that upcycled foods possess both environmental and health value, highlighting the dual role of eco-wellness awareness in shaping consumer behaviour. While existing research consistently suggests that environ-mental and health considerations positively influence consumer acceptance, these factors are often examined separately rather than as an integrated construct [36,38].

This fragmented approach limits the understanding of how combined eco-wellness perceptions influence consumer decision-making, particularly in emerging markets such as China. Therefore, further research is needed to examine eco-wellness awareness as a unified construct within a comprehensive behavioural framework.

Overall, the literature suggests that psychological factors, cultural influences, and eco-wellness awareness are important in shaping consumer acceptance of upcycled foods. However, existing studies tend to adopt fragmented and descriptive approaches, focusing on individual factors rather than providing an integrated explanation of consumer behaviour.

Moreover, there is limited research that simultaneously examines these factors within the Chinese context, particularly in relation to upcycled foods. Therefore, this study develops an integrated framework that combines psychological, cultural, and eco-wellness factors to address these gaps and provide a more comprehensive under-standing of consumer attitudes and purchase intentions.

2.2. Theoretical Background

2.2.1. Introduction to the Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is widely recognised as a robust framework for explaining and predicting consumer behaviour, particularly in the food consumption context. TPB posits that behavioural intention is the primary determinant of actual behaviour, which is shaped by three key components: attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control [39,40].

While prior studies consistently support the explanatory power of TPB, its application has largely focused on general consumption behaviours, with relatively limited attention to emerging food categories such as upcycled foods. This suggests the need to further extend TPB to better capture the unique characteristics of novel and sustainability-oriented products.

2.2.2. Application of TPB in Food Industry Contexts

Existing research demonstrates that TPB has been successfully applied across various food-related contexts, including fast-food consumption and green food purchasing, where attitudes, social influences, and perceived control play significant roles in shaping consumer intentions [41,42].

However, prior studies differ in the extent to which TPB can fully explain consumer decision-making in sustainability contexts. While some research highlights its strong predictive capability, others suggest that TPB alone may not adequately capture the complexity of environmentally driven behaviours, particularly when ethical and value-based considerations are involved [11,27].

This indicates that TPB may require further extension to better account for sustainability-related consumption, such as upcycled food.

2.2.3. TPB’s Extended Applications

To address these limitations, researchers have extended TPB by incorporating additional constructs such as moral norms, environmental concern, and personal responsibility, which have been shown to improve the model’s explanatory power in sustainable consumption contexts [27,43].

Despite these advancements, existing extensions often focus on specific variables in isolation rather than integrating multiple psychological and contextual factors within a unified framework. As a result, the comprehensive understanding of consumer behaviour in emerging sustainability domains remains limited.

2.2.4. Empirical Support and Challenges

Empirical research supports TPB’s effectiveness in contexts such as reducing food waste and promoting green food purchasing, highlighting the critical roles of attitudes, norms, and control perceptions [44,45]. Despite these successes, the model faces challenges in measuring actual behaviour, often leading to a focus on intentions rather than actions. This gap suggests a need for further research, particularly in integrating additional factors like environmental values and consumer efficacy into the TPB framework [46,47].

In conclusion, TPB provides a valuable perspective for examining the factors influencing consumer behaviour towards upcycled food. By utilizing this theoretical framework, stakeholders can more effectively tailor their strategies to integrate upcycled products into the consumer market. Future research that expands traditional TPB constructs to include environmental and ethical considerations will enhance our understanding of consumer motivations in this emerging sector, facilitating more targeted and effective interventions.

2.3. Consumer Trust, and Attitude

Trust is defined as consumers’ perception of the dependability and capability of a service provider to deliver on their promises regarding product attributes [48]. In the context of upcycled foods, consumer trust can be challenging due to limited awareness and a lack of knowledge about the product attributes of these foods [11,49]. Trust is essential in the communication process, facilitating the effectiveness of information by making it appear more reliable, thus simplifying consumer decision-making processes [50]. Trust also reduces perceived health risks and increases consumer confidence in products [51].

Research shows that trust is a precursor to developing positive attitudes and is significant in influencing consumer intentions. Studies have found that trust in information sources like mass media can significantly affect consumer intentions toward sustainable foods such as functional foods, plant-based meat alternatives [52]. Furthermore, trust has been shown to act as a bridge between the information consumers receive and their purchase intentions [53]. Additionally, trust has been demonstrated to influence attitudes toward problem-solving [54].

Given the complexities associated with the relatively new and lesser-understood category of upcycled food, building consumer trust is essential. The lack of knowledge and awareness about upcycled foods necessitates focused research on how trust formation can influence consumer attitudes towards these products.

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H1. 

Consumer trust positively influences attitude towards upcycled foods.

2.4. Consumer Innovativeness, Attitude, and Perceived Behavioural Control

Consumer innovativeness is a characteristic that drives individuals to rapidly adopt new products and lifestyles, impacting market acceptance and the success of innovative products [55]. Innovativeness influences not only the adoption of new technologies but also new forms of products, such as upcycled foods, which are designed by repurposing waste into valuable resources [55,56]. Research has shown that innovativeness enhances consumer attitudes towards environmentally friendly products, as innovative consumers are typically early adopters of products that promote environmental sustainability [57]. Furthermore, design innovation in upcycled foods has been linked to increased purchase intentions, indicating that innovativeness not only supports but also promotes environmental product choices [58].

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H2. 

Consumer innovativeness positively influences attitude towards upcycled foods.

Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), as defined in Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour, reflects an individual’s perception of their ability to perform a behaviour, which includes factors like control and confidence [59]. Innovativeness encourages individuals to explore and adopt sustainable products, thereby increasing their confidence in managing environmental impacts effectively [60]. Moreover, innovativeness is linked to a heightened awareness of environmental benefits and personal norms, which are crucial for fostering pro-environmental behaviours [61]. Studies suggest that individuals with higher innovativeness are more likely to perceive and act upon the environmental benefits of products due to stronger personal norms [62,63].

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H3. 

Consumer innovativeness positively influences perceived behavioural control towards upcycled foods.

2.5. Food Technology Neophobia, Attitude and Perceived Behavioural Control

Food technology neophobia, defined as the fear of new food technologies, has a pronounced effect on consumer behaviour toward innovative products, including upcycled foods [27]. This apprehension arises from concerns about safety, health implications, and the perceived alteration of food’s naturalness due to technological interventions. These factors collectively hinder consumer acceptance of innovative food solutions [64,65].

Neophobia directly influences consumer attitudes by engendering scepticism or resistance towards foods developed with novel technologies [66]. This resistance is often rooted in negative perceptions regarding the taste and overall quality of these foods, leading to adverse attitudes among consumers [67].

Furthermore, food technology neophobia affects perceived behavioural control, a measure of a consumer’s assessment of the ease or difficulty associated with adopting upcycled foods [68]. Neophobic consumers may feel they lack the competence to make informed decisions due to uncertainty or distrust in the technologies applied, thereby diminishing their confidence to engage with these products [69].

Addressing food technology neophobia is essential for enhancing both attitudes towards and perceived behavioural control of upcycled foods, ultimately fostering greater consumer acceptance of these environmentally sustainable options.

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H4. 

Food technology neophobia negatively influences attitude towards upcycled foods.

H5. 

Food technology neophobia negatively influences perceived behavioural control towards upcycled foods.

2.6. Perceived Risk, Attitude and Perceived Behavioural Control

Perceived risk, encompassing psychological, financial, physical, social, and performance dimensions, significantly influences consumer behaviour, particularly in the context of upcycled foods [70,71]. When consumers face high perceived risks, such as uncertainty about product quality, potential social disapproval, or economic loss, their attitude towards these products tends to be negative, and their sense of control over making successful purchasing decisions is diminished [72].

Perceived risks associated with upcycled foods include concerns about the products’ quality and the potential for social stigma. For example, consumers might worry that upcycled products are of lower quality or that using such products might not be socially accepted [73,74]. These concerns can lead to negative attitudes towards upcycled foods because consumers fear adverse outcomes such as dissatisfaction with the product or social disapproval.

Furthermore, within the TPB framework, perceived behavioural control reflects individuals’ confidence in their ability to perform a behaviour. According to Ajzen [59] perceived behavioural control reflects individuals’ perceived ease or difficulty in performing a behaviour, which is closely related to self-efficacy. When consumers perceive high levels of risk, they may experience uncertainty and a lack of control over the outcomes of their decisions, thereby weakening their perceived behavioural control [75,76].

This is particularly relevant in the context of upcycled foods, where consumers often lack sufficient knowledge to evaluate product safety, quality, and performance. High perceived risk also increases cognitive burden and decision complexity, making consumers feel less capable of making optimal choices, thereby further weakening their perceived behavioural control. As a result, higher perceived risk reduces consumers’ decision-making confidence and creates a sense of inability to manage potential negative outcomes. Prior studies have also suggested that risk perceptions can undermine individuals’ sense of control and self-efficacy in performing behaviours [38,77].

Based on these insights, perceived risk plays a critical role in shaping both consumer attitudes and perceived behavioural control, particularly in contexts involving novel or less understood products such as upcycled foods.

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H6. 

Perceived risk negatively influences attitude towards upcycled foods.

H7. 

Perceived risk negatively influences perceived behavioural control over purchasing upcycled food.

2.7. Frugality, Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioural Control

Frugality, characterized by careful spending and maximizing the utility of money, impacts consumer behaviour significantly, especially in the context of upcycled food. Rooted in both internal and external motivations, frugality affects not only spending habits but also attitudes toward consumption and lifestyle choices. Chinese society, for instance, emphasizes a culture of frugality that shapes consumers’ everyday behaviours and choices [35,78].

Frugal consumers tend to prefer lower-priced options, spend less on non-essential goods, and seek products that offer greater value [79]. This sensitivity to price and value influences their attitudes towards various products, including upcycled foods, which are often positioned as both economical and environmentally friendly. The economic factor is pivotal in determining the attractiveness of these products, as consumers assess the costs and benefits associated with their purchasing decisions [47,80].

The influence of frugality extends to subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. In social contexts, frugal behaviours are often viewed positively, aligning with broader social and environmental values. This alignment can reinforce subjective norms, where frugal behaviour becomes a socially endorsed practice, especially in communities prioritizing sustainability [81,82]. Moreover, frugality enhances perceived behavioural control by equipping consumers with strategies to manage their resources effectively, making sustainable choices like purchasing upcycled foods feel more accessible and manageable.

Given this analysis, frugality not only fosters a positive attitude towards upcycled foods due to the perceived value and cost savings but also strengthens subjective norms and enhances perceived behavioural control by aligning personal spending habits with broader social expectations and personal capabilities.

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H8. 

Frugality positively influences attitude towards upcycled food.

H9. 

Frugality positively influences perceived behavioural control towards upcycled food.

H10. 

Frugality positively influences subjective norms towards upcycled food.

2.8. Collectivism, Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioural Control

Collectivism plays a significant role in shaping attitudes toward upcycled food, particularly in cultures that prioritize community welfare and collective interests over individual goals. In these communities, the collective mindset promotes environmental conservation and waste reduction, which positively impacts attitudes towards sustainable practices like upcycled food consumption. This influence is well-documented in studies such as Maaravi et al. [83], highlighting how communal values foster positive attitudes towards environmentally friendly behaviours.

H11. 

Collectivism positively influences attitude towards upcycled food.

Collectivism strengthens community norms that favour sustainability, making individuals more likely to adopt and endorse these norms. This phenomenon enhances the subjective norms within the community, especially noticeable in environments where community leaders actively promote sustainable consumption. This reinforcement of community values contributes to a stronger endorsement of sustainability practices among community members, as noted by Lu et al. [84] and Triandis [21].

H12. 

Collectivism positively influences subjective norms towards upcycled food.

In collectivist settings, the support and cooperation among community members are pivotal, enhancing individuals perceived behavioural control. This communal support system provides necessary resources and encouragement, reducing barriers to participating in environmentally friendly practices like purchasing upcycled food. Studies by Roseira et al. [37], along with findings from Xue and Li [85], Liu and Lapinski [86], support this notion, indicating that the collective valuation of green consumption significantly influences individual behaviours, aligning them with group norms to maintain social harmony and approval. Moreover, the group’s approval and support in collectivist societies provide individuals with the confidence and capability to engage in sustainable behaviours, as further supported by Prakash et al. [87] and Qu [88].

H13. 

Collectivism positively influences perceived behavioural control towards upcycled food.

2.9. Environmental Awareness, Attitude, and Perceived Behaviour Control

Environmental awareness enhances an individual’s attitude towards upcycled food. Increased awareness leads to a greater understanding of the benefits of upcycling foods, fostering positive attitudes towards such practices [89]. Individuals who are more knowledgeable about environmental issues are more likely to support sustainable practices, including the consumption of upcycled food products [90,91].

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H14. 

Environmental awareness positively influences attitude towards upcycled food.

Environmental awareness also positively affects perceived behavioural control (PBC) towards upcycled food. When individuals are aware of the environmental impacts of their food choices, they feel more empowered and capable of adopting sustainable behaviours, including the use of upcycled food [77]. This increased PBC stems from a heightened sense of responsibility and self-efficacy in making environmentally friendly choices [92].

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H15. 

Environmental awareness positively influences perceived behavioural control towards upcycled food.

2.10. Health Awareness, Attitude, and Perceived Behavioural Control

In the Asian market, particularly in China, there is a long-established preference for functional foods—those enhanced with health and nutritional benefits, a concept introduced by Japan’s Ministry of Health and Welfare in 1984 [93]. This preference is reflected in the popularity of upcycled foods in China, which are valued for their nutritional properties and contribution to a sustainable diet [94].

Chinese consumers frequently assess the health benefits of upcycled foods, which significantly influences their attitudes towards these products and enhances their perceived control over making sustainable choices. The knowledge of health benefits encourages consumers to overcome obstacles like availability and convenience, increasing the likelihood of choosing upcycled foods [12,95].

Furthermore, promoting the health advantages of upcycled foods, rather than solely their environmental benefits, has shown to significantly boost consumer acceptance [12,96]. The heightened health awareness not only instils a moral responsibility but also motivates consumers to prioritize health over convenience, fostering a shift towards choosing upcycled foods more readily.

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H16. 

Health awareness positively influences attitude towards upcycled food.

H17. 

Health awareness positively influences perceived behavioural control towards upcycled food.

2.11. Attitude, Perceived Behavioural Control, Subjective Norms and Purchase Intention

Attitude encompasses an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of engaging in a particular behaviour. Previous research indicates that a positive attitude towards an environmentally friendly practice, such as consuming upcycled food, enhances the likelihood of adopting this behaviour [45,97]. Therefore, if individuals hold positive attitudes towards upcycled food, recognizing its benefits to sustainability and health, their intention to purchase such food is likely to increase.

Perceived Behavioural Control reflects an individual’s perception of the ease or difficulty of performing a behaviour, which includes access to resources and opportunities [98,99]. In the context of upcycled food, if consumers perceive that they have the means, ability, and opportunity to purchase and consume upcycled products, their likelihood of doing so increases. This perception can be enhanced through widespread availability and affirmative marketing.

Subjective Norms involve perceived social pressure to engage or not engage in a behaviour and the desire to comply with the expectations of significant others [100,101]. In the case of upcycled food, if individuals perceive that their social circle values sustainability and supports the consumption of upcycled products, they are more likely to conform to these norms. This reflects a societal shift towards more sustainable consumption practices.

Based on these contributions, the following hypothesis was defined:

H18. 

Attitude positively influences the Purchase Intention of upcycled food.

H19. 

Perceived behavioural control positively influences the purchase intention of upcycled food.

H20. 

Subjective Norms positively influence the purchase intention of upcycled food.

As shown in Figure 1, the proposed research model illustrates the relationships among the key constructs.

3. Methodology

3.1. Ensuring Research Ethics in Survey Practices

This section describes the procedures employed to ensure data privacy and respondent anonymity, which are essential for conducting ethically responsible research. The study was conducted through an online questionnaire aimed at exploring consumer purchase intentions for upcycled foods. The primary aim of this study is to gain deeper insight into consumer attitudes and purchasing behaviours related to upcycled foods.

3.1.1. Ethical Considerations and Participant Rights

This study was conducted in accordance with established ethical standards for research involving human participants. Ethical approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia (JEPeM-USM).

3.1.2. Data Use and Dissemination

The data gathered from the questionnaire are intended exclusively for academic research purposes. The analysis focuses on evaluating consumer acceptance of upcycled foods. It is anticipated that the results of this study may be published in academic journals or presented at conferences. However, in line with our ethical commitment, no personal information or data that could lead to the identification of the participants will be disclosed in any publications or presentations.

3.1.3. Survey Instructions and Consent

Clear instructions were provided to participants regarding how to complete the survey. They were encouraged to select answers that best reflected their views, based on their actual situation, emphasizing that there were no right or wrong answers—only their honest opinions were sought. Before starting the questionnaire, participants were required to confirm their consent electronically by ticking a box that indicated they had read, understood, and agreed to the terms of participation voluntarily.

3.1.4. Withdrawal Mechanism

A straightforward mechanism for withdrawing from the study was outlined at the beginning of the survey. Participants could withdraw at any point simply by closing the webpage or by contacting the research team directly using the provided contact information.

These methodologies and ethical considerations were carefully designed and implemented to ensure the integrity of the research process and safeguard the rights and privacy of all participants. This approach underscores the commitment of the research team to conduct scientifically rigorous and ethically responsible research.

3.2. Questionnaire Design and Pre-Testing Study

The research commenced by collecting demographic data through a survey before exploring the primary variables of interest. We assessed all latent variables using previously validated scales. Participants provided in-depth insights into their viewpoints by rating various statements on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 denotes ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 ‘strongly agree’ [102]. The five-point Likert scale is especially beneficial as it has demonstrated higher reliability. Additionally, its use tends to enhance response rates, making it an effective tool for data collection [103].

Before data collection, we conducted pre-tests to confirm the questionnaire’s validity and reliability. This process included a thorough review of the content—assessing clarity, language, sequence, format, and the complexity of both questions and instructions. We made revisions, restructured, or removed certain elements based on expert evaluations and detailed analyses to ensure accuracy. Additionally, to cater to the primary language of participants, the questionnaire was translated into Mandarin through a forward and backward translation process [104,105].

Participant feedback in this phase was instrumental. Based on the pre-test results, all measurement items demonstrated satisfactory clarity and reliability, and were therefore retained for further analysis. Due to space constraints, the full list of measurement items is presented in Appendix A.

3.3. Sample Size Calculation and Study Sample

The confidence interval technique is the most employed method for estimating sample size. It considers accuracy (margin of sampling error), variability, and the confidence interval to determine the suitable sample size. This technique is favoured by many marketing researchers and national consulting firms for establishing sample sizes [106]. Consequently, the minimum number of respondents for this research was determined using Cochran’s sample size formula [107].

In marketing research, determining an appropriate sample size is essential to ensure the reliability of findings. The confidence interval method is widely used to balance precision and practicality [108]. Cochran’s formula provides a robust approach for estimating the required sample size based on the desired confidence level and margin of error [109].

Using Cochran’s sample size formula with a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5%, the minimum number of respondents required for this study is 385. Cochran’s formula is typically used to determine an appropriate sample size for a survey given a desired level of precision, confidence level, and variability.

Standard sample size formula:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{z^2 \left(pq\right)}{e^2}}$$

where:

n = the sample size

z = the standard normal variate corresponding to the selected confidence level (typically 1.96 for 95% confidence)

p = the estimated proportion of the population

q = 1 − p

e = the acceptable margin of error

For a confidence level of 95%, the Z-value is 1.96. With a margin of error of 5% (0.05), and assuming the maximum variability (p = 0.5), the formula becomes:

$$n_0\ge {\displaystyle \frac{{Z{(}_{c.l.})}^2·p·q}{e^2}}$$

$$n_0\ge {\displaystyle \frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^2\left(0.5\right)\left(0.5\right)}{{0.05}^2}}$$

$n_0\ge 384.16$ Respondents rounded to 385 respondents

In this study, however, a sample size of 612 respondents was utilized. Using a larger sample size enhances the precision of the study’s results and ensures a more accurate and reliable representation of the population.

3.4. Sampling and Data Collection

This study adopts a cross-sectional research design, as data were collected at a single point in time. This design is appropriate for examining the relationships among key constructs such as consumer attitudes, trust, and purchase intention. Given the exploratory and predictive nature of this research, the cross-sectional approach enables efficient data collection from a large sample and supports the application of PLS-SEM for theory testing. Moreover, this design is widely used in consumer behaviour research, particularly when investigating perceptual and psychological constructs that are relatively stable over a short period.

Our study conducted a survey between February and April 2024, using the well-known online platform Tencent Questionnaire to distribute the survey. This method is highly cost-effective and time-efficient, providing extensive reach, which is ideal for social science research [110,111]. Tencent Questionnaire, a leading tool in China for market research, educational assessments, and customer satisfaction surveys, boasts over ninety million users. This diverse user base includes individuals of various ages, genders, professions, and educational levels, offering a statistically significant sample for our research.

This study employed purposive sampling to select participants who were likely to provide valuable insights relevant to our research objectives. We targeted individuals over 18 years old to comply with ethical standards, ensuring that all participants were of legal age. The survey was distributed randomly among registered users who satisfied this age requirement.

To enhance the validity and applicability of the responses, the survey was specifically designed for participants with existing knowledge of recycled food products. Within this segment, we meticulously defined the concept of upgraded recycled food products to ensure clarity and uniform understanding among all respondents.

An integral part of our methodology included a screening phase designed to verify that participants met the necessary criteria. This phase was crucial for maintaining the integrity of the data collection process. Any respondent or sample failing to meet these predefined standards was systematically removed from the dataset before the commencement of data analysis. This approach was taken to ensure that the analysis would be based solely on data from appropriately qualified participants.

Table 1. Demographic Information of Respondents.

Characteristic	Categories	N	%
Gender	Male	286	46.7
	Female	326	53.3
Age	18–25	98	16.0
	26–35	119	19.4
	36–45	175	28.6
	46–55	120	19.6
	56–65	100	16.3
	>65	3	0.4
Income	0–3000	298	48.7
	3001–5000	174	28.4
	5001–8000	104	17
	8001–10,000	27	4.4
	10,001 and above	9	1.5
Education Level	Junior High School	214	35
	Senior High School	195	31.9
	College diploma	133	21.7
	Bachelor’s degree	60	9.8
	Master’s degree	10	1.6
Occupation	Current Students	52	8.5
	Civil Servants	56	9.2
	Business Managers	47	7.7
	Office Workers	106	17.3
	Professionals	17	2.8
	Factory Workers	102	16.7
	Service Workers	11	1.8
	Sole Proprietor	17	2.8
	Freelancer	93	15.2
	Agricultural Workers	23	3.8
	Retire	54	8.8
	No Occupation yet	34	5.6

presents the demographic details of our respondents. The data shows a nearly balanced gender split with 46.7% male (286 respondents) and 53.3% female (326 respondents). The most represented age group is 26–35 years, accounting for 28.6% of respondents (175 individuals), with fewer participants in both older and younger age groups. Most respondents earn less than 3000 units of currency monthly, primarily within the 0–3000 income bracket (48.7%). Higher income brackets are less common.

Regarding education, a significant number of respondents completed junior high school (35%, 214 respondents) or senior high school (31.9%, 195 respondents), with fewer possessing a college diploma or a bachelor’s degree. In terms of occupation, office workers (17.3%, 106 respondents), factory workers (16.7%, 102 respondents), and freelancers (15.2%, 93 respondents) are prominently represented, along with other civil servants and retirees.

3.5. Statistical Analysis

For our statistical analysis and structural equation modelling, we opted to use Smart PLS 4.1 (SmartPLS GmbH, Boenningstedt, Germany) software, preferring partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) over covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) for several reasons:

Focus on Theory Development and Prediction: PLS-SEM is particularly effective for exploratory research and theory development, unlike CB-SEM, which primarily focuses on theory confirmation and model fitting [112]. Our study aims to expand theoretical frameworks and enhance predictive analyses, particularly in understanding consumer behaviour towards sustainable products.

Statistical Power and Model Complexity: PLS-SEM is robust, accommodating smaller sample sizes and managing complex models with multiple constructs and paths effectively [113,114]. This capability proved essential for our study, which features numerous interrelated constructs within an intricate model. Furthermore, PLS-SEM’s flexibility with distributional assumptions was advantageous given the nature of our data.

Prevalence in Related Studies: Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) is widely employed in sustainable consumption research, particularly in studies focusing on sustainable food consumption [115,116]. Edeh et al. [117] and Sarstedt et al. [118] have highlighted its applicability, underscored its suitability and reinforced our choice of methodology.

Through these detailed justifications, we aim to elucidate our methodological selection and affirm the alignment of PLS-SEM with the objectives and data structure of our study.

4. Results

4.1. Measurement Model

This research evaluated the reflective measurement model in terms of reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity as outlined by Hair Jr et al. [119] and Memon et al. [120]. The findings from the confirmatory factor analysis are detailed in

Table 2. Reliability and Validity of the study.

Construct	Items	Factor Loadings	Cronbach’s Alpha	CR	AVE
CT	CT1	0.897	0.941	0.955	0.808
	CT2	0.904
	CT3	0.896
	CT4	0.898
	CT5	0.9
CI	CI1	0.897	0.945	0.956	0.784
	CI2	0.887
	CI3	0.896
	CI4	0.89
	CI5	0.884
	CI6	0.858
FTN	FTN1	0.887	0.936	0.951	0.795
	FTN2	0.888
	FTN3	0.899
	FTN4	0.892
	FTN5	0.892
PR	PR1	0.9	0.927	0.948	0.819
	PR2	0.916
	PR3	0.902
	PR4	0.903
FRU	FRU1	0.895	0.935	0.95	0.793
	FRU2	0.877
	FRU3	0.894
	FRU4	0.888
	FRU5	0.897
COL	COL1	0.9	0.93	0.947	0.782
	COL2	0.879
	COL3	0.878
	COL4	0.872
	COL5	0.893
EA	EA1	0.87	0.938	0.953	0.802
	EA2	0.908
	EA3	0.911
	EA4	0.889
	EA5	0.897
HA	HA1	0.911	0.929	0.95	0.825
	HA2	0.915
	HA3	0.895
	HA4	0.912
ATT	ATT1	0.898	0.946	0.958	0.822
	ATT2	0.913
	ATT3	0.914
	ATT4	0.893
	ATT5	0.914
PBC	PBC1	0.88	0.936	0.951	0.795
	PBC2	0.892
	PBC3	0.903
	PBC4	0.886
	PBC5	0.896
SN	SN1	0.922	0.905	0.941	0.841
	SN2	0.908
	SN3	0.922
PI	PI1	0.918	0.934	0.953	0.835
	PI2	0.906
	PI3	0.922
	PI4	0.908

. Here, factor loadings ranged from 0.858 to 0.922, surpassing the 0.60 threshold. Moreover, the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct exceeded the 0.50 mark, and the composite reliability scores varied from 0.782 to 0.841, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.70.

Henseler et al. [121] proposed that the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio serves as a robust indicator for identifying shortcomings in discriminant validity and is comparable in effectiveness to the Fornell-Larker criteria. They described it as providing “the optimal balance between high detection rate and low risk of arbitrary violations”. In light of this, our study employed the HTMT ratio to assess discriminant validity. As shown in

Table 3. HTMT result.

	ATT	CI	COL	CT	EA	FRU	FTN	HA	PBC	PI	PR	SN
ATT
CI	0.887
COL	0.824	0.86
CT	0.849	0.84	0.87
EA	0.895	0.87	0.884	0.842
FRU	0.879	0.89	0.886	0.863	0.874
FTN	0.881	0.85	0.829	0.869	0.816	0.836
HA	0.896	0.88	0.864	0.862	0.891	0.859	0.848
PBC	0.865	0.89	0.857	0.871	0.856	0.831	0.898	0.877
PI	0.897	0.89	0.889	0.851	0.868	0.872	0.866	0.87	0.855
PR	0.854	0.87	0.818	0.802	0.801	0.828	0.875	0.873	0.892	0.827
SN	0.878	0.89	0.817	0.854	0.812	0.809	0.888	0.825	0.885	0.867	0.862

, all HTMT values were below the more liberal threshold of 0.90, as recommended by [122].

However, it is noted that several HTMT values are relatively high and approach the threshold, suggesting potential conceptual proximity between certain constructs. This is theoretically justifiable given that some constructs in the model (e.g., attitude, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms within the TPB framework) are conceptually related yet distinct dimensions. Following prior research, such moderate correlations are expected in models involving closely related psychological constructs and do not necessarily indicate a lack of discriminant validity.

The results of the structural model, including path coefficients, t-values, and hypothesis testing outcomes, are presented in

Table 4. Hypotheses test.

Hypothesis Number	Path	Path Coefficient	T-Statistic	p-Value	LLCI (5.00%)	ULCI (95.00%)	Supported
H1	CT → ATT	0.056	0.81	0.209	−0.049	0.18	NO
H2	CI → ATT	0.242	2.949	0.002	0.107	0.374	YES
H3	CI → PBC	0.167	3.09	0.001	0.079	0.257	YES
H4	FTN → ATT	0.028	0.29	0.386	−0.137	0.177	NO
H5	FTN → PBC	−0.043	0.601	0.274	−0.167	0.07	NO
H6	PR → ATT	0.051	0.534	0.297	−0.09	0.222	NO
H7	PR → PBC	0.133	1.779	0.037	0.015	0.288	YES
H8	FRU → ATT	0.248	3.008	0.001	0.1	0.373	YES
H9	FRU → PBC	0.031	0.425	0.335	−0.094	0.149	NO
H10	FRU → SN	0.276	2.695	0.004	0.106	0.441	YES
H11	COL → ATT	0.239	3.256	0.001	0.12	0.36	YES
H12	COL → PBC	0.249	3.973	0	0.146	0.351	YES
H13	COL → SN	0.302	4.362	0	0.192	0.419	YES
H14	EA → ATT	0.125	1.529	0.063	−0.003	0.265	NO
H15	EA → PBC	0.31	2.928	0.002	0.134	0.485	YES
H16	HA → ATT	0.121	1.75	0.04	0.009	0.253	YES
H17	HA → PBC	0.365	5.208	0	0.248	0.478	YES
H18	ATT → PI	0.64	8.041	0	0.495	0.759	YES
H19	PBC → PI	0.144	2.303	0.011	0.059	0.266	YES
H20	SN → PI	0.184	2.533	0.006	0.065	0.301	YES

.

4.2. Structural Model

The validity of the structural model was confirmed using a range of indices. The model exhibited R² values of 0.892 for Purchase Intention (PI), 0.734 for Subjective Norms (SN), 0.868 for Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), and 0.803 for Attitude (ATT). Each of these values surpasses the threshold of 0.5 recommended by Falk and Miller [123]. Additionally, predictive relevance was evaluated with Q² values for the exogenous variables: PI demonstrated a Q² of 0.362, SN a Q² of 0.289, PBC a Q² of 0.435, and ATT a Q² of 0.251. All these values exceed zero, aligning with Geisser’s criteria [124]. These findings underscore the model’s robust explanatory and predictive capabilities, confirming its structural validity.

4.3. Hypothesis Testing

The study’s hypotheses were tested using a bootstrapping method with 5000 subsamples, maintaining a 95% confidence level as recommended by Memon et al. and Witte & Witte [120,125].

When the path coefficient is significantly non-zero, A T statistic surpassing the critical value of 1.69 signifies statistical significance, as does a p-value falling below the commonly accepted threshold of 0.05. It points to a substantial relationship between the variables. The confidence interval provides a range suggesting where the true effect size likely falls, enhancing our grasp of the estimate’s reliability and accuracy [126]. Moreover, a confidence interval excluding zero reaffirms this relationship’s significance [127,128]. Together, these statistical metrics facilitate a thorough verification of hypotheses, offering a detailed evaluation of the dynamics between the studied variables.

4.3.1. Consumer Trust and Innovativeness

The statistical analysis presented in Table 4 examines the diverse impacts of psychological and behavioural constructs. The analysis reveals that Consumer Trust (CT) does not significantly influence Attitude (ATT), as indicated by a t-value below 1.69 (H1: CT → ATT, β = 0.056, t = 0.81, p = 0.209). In contrast, Consumer Innovativeness (CI) significantly affects ATT (H2: CI → ATT, β = 0.242, t = 2.949, p = 0.002) and enhances Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), suggesting that innovative tendencies positively influence behavioural control (H3: CI → PBC, β = 0.167, t = 3.09, p = 0.001).

4.3.2. Food Technology Neophobia and Perceived Risk

The analysis also explored the impact of Food Technology Neophobia (FTN) and Perceived Risk (PR) on attitudes and behavioural control. Neither FTN’s influence on ATT nor on PBC was significant, highlighting its limited effect within this context (H4: FTN → ATT, β = 0.028, t = 0.29, p = 0.386; H5: FTN → PBC, β = −0.043, t = 0.601, p = 0.274). However, PR positively influenced PBC, indicating a significant effect (H7: PR → PBC, β = 0.133, t = 1.779, p = 0.037), although it did not significantly affect ATT (H6: PR → ATT, β = 0.051, t = 0.534, p = 0.297).

4.3.3. Frugality and Collectivism

Further, the roles of Frugality (FRU) and Collectivism (COL) in shaping attitudes and norms were examined. FRU positively influenced attitudes and subjective norms (H8: FRU → ATT, β = 0.248, t = 3.008, p = 0.001; H10: FRU → SN, β = 0.276, t = 2.695, p = 0.004), yet had no significant impact on PBC (H9: FRU → PBC, β = 0.031, t = 0.425, p = 0.335). COL, conversely, significantly impacted all tested constructs, enhancing attitudes, PBC, and subjective norms (H11: COL → ATT, β = 0.239, t = 3.256, p = 0.001; H12: COL → PBC, β = 0.249, t = 3.973, p < 0.001; H13: COL → SN, β = 0.302, t = 4.362, p < 0.001).

4.3.4. Health and Environmental Awareness

The study also addressed the effects of Health Awareness (HA) and Environmental Awareness (EA) on ATT and PBC. EA’s influence on ATT was not significant (H14: EA → ATT, β = 0.125, t = 1.529, p = 0.063), though it significantly enhanced PBC (H15: EA → PBC, β = 0.31, t = 2.928, p = 0.002). Conversely, HA strongly influenced both ATT and PBC, indicating its profound effect on these constructs (H16: HA → ATT, β = 0.121, t = 1.75, p = 0.04; H17: HA → PBC, β = 0.365, t = 5.208, p < 0.001).

4.3.5. Attitude, Perceived Behavioural Control, and Subjective Norms

Finally, the study examined how Attitude (ATT), Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), and Subjective Norms (SN) affect Purchase Intention (PI), finding significant results for all three constructs. ATT showed a strong positive influence (H18: ATT → PI, β = 0.64, t = 8.041, p < 0.001). Although PBC’s impact was less pronounced, it remained significant (H19: PBC → PI, β = 0.144, t = 2.303, p = 0.011). Similarly, SN’s positive relationship with PI was confirmed (H20: SN → PI, β = 0.184, t = 2.533, p = 0.006). These findings underscore the critical roles of attitudes, behavioural control, and societal norms in shaping purchase intentions.

4.4. Structural Model Evaluation

4.4.1. Collinearity Assessment

Collinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF). As shown in Appendix B, all VIF values ranged between 2.675 and 3.296, which are below the recommended threshold of 3.3 [129], indicating that collinearity is not a concern in this study.

4.4.2. Model Fit Assessment

Model fit was assessed using the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). The SRMR value for the saturated model was 0.027, while the estimated model yielded an SRMR of 0.037. Both values are below the recommended threshold of 0.08, as suggested by Hair et al. [119], indicating a good model fit, with values below 0.05 further supporting model adequacy.

4.4.3. Final Structural Model

As illustrated in Figure 2, the final structural model displays the standardized path coefficients among the constructs.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

The aim of this study was to investigate the factors influencing consumers’ purchase intentions towards upcycled foods in China. The results revealed several key findings.

Firstly, the three dimensions of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), namely Attitude (ATT), Subjective Norms (SN), and Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), significantly and positively influenced online purchase intentions for upcycled foods. The findings confirm that TPB effectively predicts consumer behaviour in this context, consistent with prior research [130,131,132]. Among the dimensions, ATT exerted the strongest influence on purchase intentions, indicating that personal attitudes towards upcycled foods, driven by perceptions of their benefits, sustainability, and environmental impact, are paramount. This reflects a growing consumer recognition and valuation of these attributes, substantially boosting their purchase intentions.

SN also significantly influenced purchase intentions, highlighting the role of peer opinions and broader social norms in shaping behavioural intentions. The influence of subjective norms can be particularly strong in collectivist cultures, where social approval and conformity play critical roles in shaping behaviours [133]. Furthermore, societal trends towards sustainability and the increasing visibility of upcycled foods in media and public discourse enhance the impact of subjective norms [134].

PBC was also a crucial factor. The rapid expansion of the upcycled food market in China has increased consumer awareness, supported by extensive marketing and a growing number of retail outlets offering these products. Additionally, the affordability of upcycled foods enhances consumers’ perceived ease of purchase, making them feel more empowered to buy these products due to their accessibility and low cost. This combination of increased availability and affordability strengthens purchase intentions. This highlights the importance of PBC in influencing consumer decisions in the upcycled food sector. Previous studies have shown that perceived behavioural control, including ease of access to upcycled foods and consumer confidence in identifying and purchasing them, plays a significant role in shaping purchase intentions [135,136].

While perceived behavioural control (PBC) is a significant predictor of behavioural intention, its effect may depend on external contextual factors, particularly spatial accessibility. In particular, even when consumers possess strong intentions and perceive themselves as capable of engaging in sustainable consumption, limited physical access to upcycled food outlets may constrain actual purchasing behaviour. Consistent with this perspective, prior research suggests that uneven geographic distribution of resources can significantly affect individual behavioural outcomes [137].

Therefore, perceived behavioural control should not only be understood at the individual level but also as being partially shaped by external spatial and infrastructural conditions. This perspective helps explain why high consumer intention does not always result in actual adoption of upcycled food products.

Secondly, beyond the core TPB dimensions, this study shows that consumer innovativeness, coupled with positive attitudes towards upcycled foods, significantly enhances the likelihood of purchasing such items. Consumers perceive these choices as beneficial, practical, and socially responsible. This finding aligns with the research conducted by Altintzoglou et al. [90], which identified various psychological characteristics that influence consumer acceptance of upcycled foods. These characteristics include innovativeness (defined as the willingness to try new products within a specific category). The interaction of these psychological factors plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behaviour towards sustainable food options.

Beyond individual-level traits, consumer innovativeness in the Chinese context may also be shaped by the country’s evolving position within global innovation networks. Recent research indicates that China has become increasingly integrated into global innovation systems, with its role shifting from a peripheral participant to a more central and influential node in international collaboration networks [138].

This broader context may facilitate more intensive knowledge exchange, technological diffusion, and cross-border innovation cooperation, thereby accelerating the dissemination of new ideas and sustainability-oriented consumption practices. In particular, the increasing interconnectedness of global innovation networks enables Chinese consumers to be more frequently exposed to emerging concepts such as circular economy, resource efficiency, and upcycled products.

As a result, consumer innovativeness observed in this study may not solely reflect individual-level traits but may also be interpreted within broader structural dynamics of global knowledge flows and innovation diffusion. This perspective provides a deeper contextual explanation for the positive role of innovativeness in shaping attitudes and behavioural intentions toward upcycled foods.

Thirdly, the analysis of perceived risk (PR) in this study provides important insights into its influence on perceived behavioural control (PBC). Hypothesis testing indicates that perceived risk positively impacts PBC, corroborating the theory that heightened risk awareness enhances consumers’ perceived control over their actions. This positive correlation between PR and PBC aligns with research by Dou and Chen [139], which similarly identified a significant influence of PR on PBC. Such findings suggest that increased awareness of risk can strengthen consumers’ confidence in their ability to manage and mitigate uncertainty. This is a critical component of decision-making related to safety and risk management.

In addition to the significant findings, the non-significant effect of perceived risk on attitude suggests that risk may not play a dominant role in shaping consumers’ evaluations of upcycled foods. This may be due to effective communication strategies and increased awareness of sustainability, which reduce the salience of perceived risk and shift consumers’ focus toward perceived benefits.

More importantly, the positive effect of perceived risk on perceived behavioural control appears to diverge from conventional theoretical expectations. This can be interpreted from a risk-management perspective, where heightened risk awareness encourages more active information processing, thereby enhancing consumers’ perceived ability to manage uncertainty. In this context, perceived risk may function not only as a barrier but also as a motivator that strengthens perceived control.

By contrast, the hypothesis that perceived risk would influence attitude (ATT) was not supported. This outcome diverges from findings by Kim et al. [140], who observed that the perceived risk associated with upcycled products significantly impacts consumers’ attitudes. This discrepancy suggests that while perceived risk can enhance perceived control, its effect on altering consumers’ attitudes toward risky situations or decisions is not as pronounced. This distinction contributes to our broader understanding of how risk perception influences various facets of consumer behaviour, highlighting the complex interplay between perceived risk, control, and attitudes. These nuances are pivotal for developing more effective strategies for consumer engagement and risk communication.

These findings are also consistent with prior research showing that perceived risk operates differently across consumer contexts. For example, Jangir et al. [141] found that perceived risk moderated users’ continuance intention in the realm of FinTech services, though its effect was minimal on the dynamics between perceived usefulness and satisfaction. Additionally, Wang et al. [142] documented a significant influence of perceived risk on travel intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the roles of perceived behavioural control and subjective norms.

In the context of upcycled foods, the non-significant effect of perceived risk on attitude may reflect effective communication and framing strategies that enhance consumer acceptance. Aschemann-Witzel et al. [36] suggest that effective communication that foregrounds the environmental benefits and safety of upcycled foods can diminish perceived risks and cultivate positive attitudes. Furthermore, consumer studies across various regions, including the US and China, have indicated differences in acceptance levels and attitudes toward upcycled foods, pointing to the influential roles of cultural factors and targeted marketing [12].

These insights collectively indicate that while perceived risk is an integral element of consumer decision-making, its impact on attitudes towards upcycled foods is overshadowed by more potent factors such as perceived benefits, effective communication, and cultural acceptance. This understanding is essential for tailoring strategies that address consumer perceptions and foster sustainable consumption practices. Accordingly, brands may adopt transparent sourcing and traceability labelling strategies (e.g., clearly communicating raw material origins and processing methods) to reduce the “waste” stigma associated with upcycled foods and mitigate perceived risk.

In addition to perceived risk, this study also explores the influence of frugality (FRU) on consumer behaviour toward upcycled foods, focusing on consumers’ attitudes (ATT) and social norms (SN). Hypothesis testing reveals that frugality significantly impacts behavioural attitudes, as a stronger inclination towards frugality correlates with more favourable attitudes towards these products. Additionally, frugality also significantly influences social norms, suggesting that frugal consumers perceive social approval for purchasing upcycled foods. These findings align with research by Aschemann-Witzel et al. [36], who found that a pronounced frugality orientation led to favourable attitudes towards upcycled food products. However, the expected impact of frugality on perceived behavioural control (PBC) was not supported, highlighting the complex interaction between frugality and various dimensions of consumer behaviour. This complexity underscores the need for nuanced strategies to promote sustainable consumer practices, especially in the context of upcycled food consumption.

This study examines the effect of collectivism (COL) on attitude, perceived behavioural control (PBC), and social norms (SN) related to upcycled foods. Hypothesis testing indicates that collectivism substantially influences attitude, perceived behavioural control and social norms, with stronger collectivistic tendencies correlating with enhanced perceived control and more favourable social norms regarding upcycled food purchase behaviours. These findings are consistent with observations by Roseira et al. [37], who highlighted that collectivist orientations lead to positive attitudes and enhance the subjective norms surrounding the consumption of sustainable foods. Importantly, in the Chinese context, subjective norms may stem from both familial influences (e.g., family expectations regarding food safety and health) and broader societal pressures (e.g., sustainability trends and public discourse), which may influence purchase intentions through different psychological mechanisms.

Turning to awareness-related factors, our analysis revealed that environmental awareness significantly and positively influences perceived behavioural control, indicating that individuals with higher environmental consciousness feel more capable of engaging in sustainable consumption behaviours such as purchasing upcycled foods. This finding highlights the empowering role of environmental values in consumer behaviour, demonstrating that environmental consciousness enhances individuals’ perceived ability and control over eco-friendly purchasing decisions. However, the impact of environmental awareness on personal attitudes towards upcycled foods was not statistically significant, suggesting that while environmental consciousness may enhance perceived capability, it does not necessarily translate into more favourable personal attitudes towards these products. This contrast can be juxtaposed with the findings of Aschemann-Witzel et al. [36], who reported that consumers with stronger environmental concerns exhibited more positive attitudes towards upcycled bakery, dairy, and snack products. This discrepancy suggests that general environmental awareness may not directly enhance personal attitudes towards upcycled foods. However, certain segments of environmentally conscious consumers may still develop positive perceptions, potentially influenced by product category or communication strategies.

In contrast, health awareness exhibited a significant influence on both attitude and perceived behavioural control. Our data confirm a strong positive relationship between health awareness and attitude, demonstrating that individuals who recognize the health benefits of upcycled foods tend to value these products highly and perceive them positively. Furthermore, health awareness substantially enhances perceived behavioural control, empowering consumers to make health-oriented purchasing decisions. This effect reflects the critical role of health consciousness in motivating consumers to actively select upcycled foods, driven by both the perceived health benefits and the increased availability of these products. Grasso et al. [12] support this view, emphasizing that Chinese consumers prioritize the health impacts (nutrition) of foods, particularly upcycled foods, over environmental considerations. This preference for health-related attributes over environmental factors further corroborates the significant role of health consciousness in influencing consumer behaviour towards upcycled foods.

Together, these findings suggest that while environmental and health consciousness both play roles in shaping consumer preferences and behaviours, the pathways and impacts of these influences vary. Environmental awareness predominantly enhances perceived behavioural control, whereas health awareness directly enhances personal attitudes and decision-making capabilities, especially regarding the consumption of upcycled foods. In addition, time allocation may also influence consumers’ adoption of upcycled foods, as busy urban lifestyles tend to increase the importance of convenience in food choices [143].

Beyond individual-level health and environmental motivations, environmental awareness and health awareness can be also conceptually framed within a broader eco-wellness perspective. In this study, these two constructs are modelled as conceptually related but empirically distinct dimensions, rather than as a higher-order construct.

From this broader perspective, recent research highlights that enhancing food security resilience requires improving the efficiency of resource utilization and reducing food loss across the supply chain [144]. In this context, upcycled foods represent a practical mechanism for transforming underutilized food resources into valuable nutritional outputs, thereby strengthening system-level sustainability.

From this perspective, consumers with higher levels of environmental and health awareness may not only perceive personal benefits but may also recognise the broader contribution of upcycled foods to sustainability and food system resilience. This distinction allows for a more nuanced understanding of how different forms of awareness influence consumer behaviour through potentially different psychological mechanisms.

Therefore, the combined effects of environmental awareness and health awareness observed in this study may extend beyond individual cognition, reflecting a deeper alignment with resilient and sustainable food system development.

Furthermore, although this study collected data across multiple provinces in China, regional disparities may still influence consumer responses toward upcycled foods. Differences in urbanization levels and the development of waste management infrastructure can shape consumers’ exposure to sustainability practices and circular economy concepts. In addition, from a longitudinal perspective, rapid urbanization in China has reshaped lifestyles and consumption patterns over time, contributing to the growing demand for convenient and sustainable food solutions such as upcycled foods [145].

Recent studies suggest that recycling-related industries and waste management systems in China exhibit clear spatial patterns, with more developed regions demonstrating higher levels of infrastructure and institutional support [146]. In such regions, consumers are more likely to be familiar with resource recovery processes and may therefore show greater acceptance of upcycled food products. In contrast, in less developed areas, limited exposure to recycling systems and sustainability initiatives may lead to higher uncertainty and lower perceived legitimacy of such products.

Therefore, variations in consumer attitudes and behavioural responses observed in this study may partially reflect these underlying spatial dynamics. Future research is encouraged to incorporate regional-level indicators, such as urbanization rates or waste management development, to further examine geographical heterogeneity in upcycled food adoption.

With regard to non-significant findings, this research also suggests that trust may not be a significant determinant of consumer attitudes towards upcycled food products. Grasso et al. [12] revealed while consumers generally recognize and accept upcycled food, their purchasing decisions are primarily influenced by ethical concerns and sensory appeal rather than trust. This finding suggests that factors other than trust play a more critical role in shaping consumer attitudes towards upcycled food.

Beyond firm-level marketing strategies, the promotion of upcycled foods may also be shaped by broader institutional pressures. In the Chinese context, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and environmental governance mechanisms play an increasingly important role in influencing corporate behaviour toward sustainability.

Recent studies indicate that environmental NGOs can exert both direct and indirect pressures on firms by enhancing environmental accountability and promoting sustainable practices [147]. In addition, the economic relocation effect—where firms adjust their geographic distribution in response to environmental regulations and institutional conditions—further shapes corporate engagement in “waste-to-wealth” initiatives.

These institutional dynamics suggest that firms’ participation in upcycled food production may not be driven solely by market opportunities but is also embedded within a broader system of regulatory pressures and sustainability governance. Therefore, the development of the upcycled food sector in China can be better understood as a result of the interaction between market mechanisms and institutional forces.

Further, the research by Hellali and Koraï [31] supports the notion that the level of innovation and the emotional responses elicited by upcycled food products significantly impact consumer acceptance. These studies indicate that consumers are more likely to try innovative products that evoke positive emotions, which serve as a stronger influence on their attitudes than trust alone. This body of evidence underscores the importance of focusing on the innovative aspects and emotional engagement of upcycled food products to better understand consumer behaviour in this emerging market.

Our research suggests that food technology neophobia does not substantially influence either consumer attitudes or perceived behavioural control. This finding contrasts with the results of the studies by both Vidigal et al. [66] and Hellali and Koraï [31], which identified a significant impact of food technology neophobia on consumer acceptance of innovative food technologies. Specifically, they noted that consumers with high neophobia levels tend to perceive upcycled food as unsafe or unnatural, leading to negative attitudes that eclipse the potential benefits of these products, such as sustainability and ethical considerations. Similarly, Szlachciuk and Żakowska-Biemans [148] and Subramaniam and Muthusamy [149] emphasized the pivotal role of neophobia in both the rejection and acceptance of new food types, highlighting the necessity of overcoming initial neophobic responses to enhance consumer receptivity to innovative food technologies.

To further interpret these non-significant findings, it is important to consider the cultural and contextual characteristics of the Chinese market.

First, the non-significant relationship between consumer trust and attitude suggests that trust may not be a primary determinant of evaluative judgments in the context of upcycled foods. Instead, Chinese consumers may rely more heavily on tangible product attributes, perceived benefits, and sensory expectations when forming attitudes, rather than abstract trust perceptions. This may reflect a pragmatic consumption orientation in emerging sustainable markets.

Second, the non-significant effect of food technology neophobia on attitude indicates that resistance to food innovation may be less pronounced in China. Given the rapid technological advancement, strong governmental support for innovation, and frequent exposure to new food technologies, Chinese consumers may exhibit higher adaptability and openness to novel food concepts. As such, neophobia may no longer serve as a major barrier in shaping attitudes towards upcycled foods in this context.

Overall, these findings suggest that, in contrast to prior studies conducted in Western contexts, cultural factors such as collectivism, innovation exposure, and institutional trust in technology development may weaken the role of psychological barriers (e.g., trust concerns and neophobia) in shaping consumer attitudes. This highlights the importance of contextualising consumer behaviour models within specific socio-cultural environments.

In China, rapid modernization and frequent exposure to new technologies may contribute to a lower baseline of neophobia among consumers, potentially making them more receptive to food innovations. This cultural adaptability could explain the diminished perceived impact of neophobia observed in our study. Additionally, the role of media and public discourse in shaping perceptions of food technology cannot be overlooked. In regions like China, where there are positive media coverage and governmental support for food innovations, these factors might counteract neophobic tendencies, fostering a more accepting attitude towards new technologies. This interplay of cultural, media, and governmental influences is crucial in understanding the varied responses to food technology neophobia across different contexts.

The influence of food technology neophobia on consumer attitudes can vary significantly depending on the specific technology in question. For instance, a study published in Nature highlights that food neophobia has a mixed impact on attitudes toward new food technologies, showing no association with certain technologies (e.g., genetically modified foods) but some impact on others (e.g., 3D-printed food) [150].

Furthermore, research by Baker et al. [151] found that food neophobia slightly moderates the relationship between consumers’ trust in food systems and their purchase attitudes. However, this moderation effect is minimal and suggests that other factors are more significant in shaping consumer behaviour.

Finally, it is also important to consider the representativeness of the sample when interpreting these findings. The data in this study were collected through a widely used online survey platform with a large and diverse user base in China. This platform enables access to respondents from different demographic backgrounds, thereby providing a certain degree of coverage across age, income, and occupational groups. As shown in Table 1, the sample exhibits variability in key demographic characteristics, which supports a reasonable level of representativeness for exploratory consumer research.

However, it should be noted that participation in the survey was voluntary, and respondents self-selected into the study. As a result, individuals who are more interested in sustainability or upcycled food products may have been more likely to participate. This may introduce a degree of self-selection bias, which should be considered when interpreting the findings.

6. Implications

6.1. Theoretical Implications

This study contributes to the existing literature by integrating environmental and health awareness into the consumer decision-making process for upcycled foods within an extended TPB framework. The research framework presented meticulously outlines the interactions between various psychological characteristics, cultural influences, and eco-wellness awareness, providing a comprehensive model that captures the complexity of consumer behaviours towards sustainable products.

Firstly, by systematically mapping out the influence of consumer trust, innovativeness, and perceived risks along with cultural factors like frugality and collectivism, the model offers a sophisticated analysis of how these variables interact with environmental and health awareness to shape attitudes, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms. This approach allows for a detailed examination of the pathways through which these awareness types exert their influence on the purchase intentions of upcycled foods, highlighting the multifaceted nature of consumer decision-making.

Secondly, the integration of TPB with eco-wellness awareness (comprising both environmental and health dimensions) into this model addresses a critical gap in the literature, where previous studies may have separately considered these factors without recognizing their potential interdependencies and combined impact on consumer behaviour. By doing so, the study not only extends the theoretical application of TPB in the context of sustainable consumption but also enriches our understanding of how specific types of awareness contribute to shaping consumer behaviours in more nuanced ways than previously recognized.

Lastly, this enhanced model underscores the importance of tailoring marketing and educational strategies to the specific values and awareness levels of different consumer segments. The divergent paths identified through the research framework suggest that targeted interventions focusing on enhancing either environmental or health awareness can be designed to effectively influence specific elements of the TPB, such as attitudes or perceived behavioural control, thereby potentially increasing the purchase intentions for upcycled foods.

Overall, the model presented and the findings of this study provide valuable insights into the complex interplay of psychological, cultural, and awareness factors in shaping sustainable consumption patterns. These insights not only fill a theoretical gap but also offer practical guidance for stakeholders aiming to promote sustainable consumer practices more effectively.

6.2. Managerial Implications

This research provides strategic insights for marketers and policymakers to enhance consumer acceptance of upcycled foods in China. The findings suggest that consumer decision-making is shaped more strongly by perceived benefits, product attributes, and accessibility, while the roles of trust and food technology neophobia are less pronounced in this context.

Firstly, marketing communication plays a critical role in reducing perceived risk and strengthening perceived behavioural control. Given that consumers rely more on tangible product attributes, marketers should emphasise concrete benefits such as product quality, safety, health value, and environmental impact. Clear and consistent messaging can enhance consumer confidence and facilitate decision-making.

Secondly, transparent and standardised labelling strategies are essential to reduce information asymmetry and improve consumer understanding. Providing clear information on product origin, processing methods, and sustainability impact—through certification labels, traceability systems, and simplified visual cues—can help mitigate perceived risk and support informed purchasing decisions.

Thirdly, public awareness campaigns are crucial for normalising upcycled food consumption. Policymakers and industry stakeholders should promote sustainability narratives through mass media, digital platforms, and educational initiatives. In particular, campaigns leveraging social norms can enhance perceived social acceptance, which is especially relevant in the Chinese context.

In addition, collaborations with influencers and community leaders can amplify communication effectiveness by leveraging social trust and network effects. These strategies can accelerate the diffusion of sustainable consumption practices.

From a policy perspective, adaptive policy frameworks—such as region-specific subsidies, tax incentives, and regulatory support—can further facilitate market development [152]. These measures can enhance product accessibility and affordability, thereby strengthening consumers’ perceived behavioural control.

Finally, firms should integrate transparency, fair pricing, and emotional engagement strategies (e.g., storytelling and community-based initiatives) to reinforce consumer connection with sustainability. A coordinated approach combining communication, labelling, and policy support is essential to promote long-term adoption of upcycled foods.

These findings highlight that, in the Chinese context, reducing perceived risk and enhancing perceived behavioural control are more effective levers for increasing consumer acceptance than solely focusing on trust-building strategies.

7. Limitation and Future Directions

This study offers significant insights into consumer behaviour regarding upcycled foods in China; however, it also has several limitations that warrant attention.

Primarily, the research was confined to China, limiting the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts. In addition, as the data were collected through an online survey platform with voluntary participation, the study may be subject to self-selection bias. To address this, future research could expand the geographical scope to include diverse consumer markets, which would help validate and extend the findings across different cultural and economic backgrounds.

Furthermore, this study employed a cross-sectional design, which captures data at a single point in time. As a result, causal inferences cannot be firmly established, and the observed relationships should be interpreted as associations rather than definitive causal effects.

In addition, although demographic information was collected, this study did not examine potential differences across subgroups (e.g., age, gender, or income). Measurement invariance and multi-group analysis were not conducted, as the primary objective of this study was to examine the structural relationships at the overall sample level rather than to compare group differences. Future research is encouraged to investigate subgroup variations using more balanced and sufficiently large samples to further validate the generalisability of the findings.

Additionally, the focus of this study was primarily on upcycled foods, a rapidly growing segment within the spectrum of sustainable products. Further investigations could explore additional categories of sustainable consumer goods to determine if the observed patterns are consistent across different sectors, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of sustainable consumer behaviour.

A significant limitation of the current study lies in the limited exploration of potential moderating effects. While variables such as consumer trust and food technology neophobia were examined, the study did not investigate how contextual or individual factors (e.g., consumer awareness, socio-economic status, or regulatory environments) may influence these relationships. Future research could explore such moderating mechanisms to provide deeper insights into the complexity of consumer decision-making processes.

Finally, the growing influence of digital media and online social networks presents an important avenue for future research. Given the increasing role of digital platforms in shaping consumer perceptions and behaviours, future studies should examine how online engagement and digital communication strategies influence attitudes and purchase intentions toward sustainable products.

Together, these limitations highlight the need for further research across diverse contexts into sustainable consumer behaviour. Additionally, this study did not explicitly account for regional differences such as urbanization levels or waste management infrastructure, which may also influence consumer perceptions and adoption of upcycled foods. Future research may incorporate such contextual factors to enhance the robustness of findings.