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Systematic Review

Towards a Circular Business Model in the Olive Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Literature Review and Conceptual Framework

by
Mariagrazia Provenzano
* and
Francesco Pacchera
Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organisation (DEIM), University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2026, 18(5), 2355; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052355
Submission received: 18 December 2025 / Revised: 12 February 2026 / Accepted: 19 February 2026 / Published: 28 February 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic and Environmental Concerns Regarding Agri-Food Products Within the Context of Sustainability)
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Abstract

The olive oil sector is one of the most important agri-food chains, but it is also characterised by the production of large volumes of solid and liquid by-products which, if improperly managed, have a significant environmental impact. In this context, circular economy approaches have been increasingly proposed to improve sustainability through the valorisation of by-products. This study investigates whether it is possible to conceptualise a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain by integrating by-products into the production system itself. The research adopts a systematic review of the literature supported by bibliometric techniques. The results show that current studies focus mainly on the technological and environmental aspects of by-product valorisation, particularly chemical extraction processes and environmental impact assessment, while the organisational, supply chain and governance dimensions remain fragmented. Based on these findings, the study develops an emerging conceptual framework that integrates by-product valorisation, supply chain configuration and enabling conditions, such as partnerships and political support, into a circular business model perspective. The study concludes that a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain is conceptually and technically feasible, but its implementation requires a systemic and integrated approach at the supply chain level rather than isolated technological solutions.

1. Introduction

The agri-food sector has always been one of the largest producers of waste, particularly when considering industrial processing and the transformation of raw materials [1,2]. Factors such as the escalation of activities, inefficient use of resources and increased mechanisation play an important role in increasing greenhouse gas emissions, further exacerbating global climate change [3]. The accumulation of waste not only results in economic losses for producers but also limits the possibility of recovering the capital invested, preventing its valorisation through transformation into new raw materials and profits [4].
Therefore, it is essential to optimise resource management through waste recovery strategies [5]. The agri-food sector, thanks to its diversification, stands out for its ability to diversify its supply chains and transform waste into a valuable resource, promoting its sustainable and efficient use [6]. For example, food waste can be used in industrial composting processes [2] or transformed into functional ingredients to improve the nutritional properties of processed foods [7].
Among the most studied agri-food sectors in terms of environmental sustainability, the olive oil industry plays a significant role in economic production and international trade. For the 2024/25 agricultural year, the International Olive Council reported that global olive oil production reached 2.5 million tonnes [8]. The European Union is the world’s leading producer, consumer and exporter of olive oil [9], but some countries in the Middle East (Turkey, Syria and Jordan) and North Africa (Tunisia, Morocco) have gained importance as olive producers in recent decades [10]. The olive oil supply chain generates residues both during the cultivation phase, such as wood, branches and leaves, and during the processing phase, with by-products such as olive pomace, mill wastewater and olive pits [11]. These residues are not only undesirable in terms of sustainability and environmental impact but also entail high management and disposal costs. It is therefore necessary to adopt strategies to improve the sustainability of the olive oil supply chain and maximise available resources [12].
To this end, it is important to distinguish between the concepts of waste and by-product, which are often used interchangeably in the literature. While the term waste generally refers to materials destined for disposal because they are no longer usable, the term by-product refers to secondary products of the production process that retain potential economic value and can be reintroduced into production cycles [13]. In line with the principles of the circular economy, various waste streams generated during olive oil production, such as olive pomace and mill wastewater, are increasingly considered by-products rather than waste, as they can be valorised through technological, organisational and market solutions [14,15].
The recovery of bioproducts from waste streams offers significant opportunities to promote resource sustainability objectives. This approach rethinks waste as a valuable resource, positioning the circular economy as a fundamental alternative to the traditional linear economy, often characterised by overproduction and excessive waste. A key difference between these two models lies in the circular system’s ability to preserve the added value of products by converting waste into resources [16]. Waste treatment, therefore, goes beyond simple disposal, becoming a means of recovery and value addition, while alleviating pressure on natural resources. The circular economy strives to minimise waste by transforming it into high-value resources, promoting reuse and creative recycling in biological and economic systems.
In this context, several studies have shown that adopting circular approaches can promote more efficient valorisation of waste and by-products generated along the olive oil supply chain. Ref. [17] demonstrate that the use of advanced recovery processes allows the transformation of wastewater, olive leaves and used oils into high-value resources, applicable in diverse sectors such as functional foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and energy. Similarly, ref. [18] highlight the potential for valorising leaves, olive pomace and pits by converting them into biomass to produce food, feed and bioenergy. Further contributions have focused on the valorisation of secondary metabolites present in olive oil production residues, highlighting their role in reducing oxidative stress and supporting the transition from linear to circular models within oil mills [19]. From this point of view, wastewater and olive leaves emerge as promising sources for obtaining high value-added ingredients for nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical products, with potential applications also in animal feed.
Alongside technological and process aspects, the recent literature has begun to analyse the valorisation of olive oil by-products from an organisational and business model perspective [20,21] examine entrepreneurial initiatives based on circular bioeconomy approaches, highlighting the role of multi-actor strategies, public policies and stakeholder perceptions in promoting greater sustainability in the supply chain. In parallel, ref. [22] propose a systematisation of the main technologies for the valorisation of wastewater, interpreting it as a resource rather than waste. Finally, ref. [23] emphasises the need for specific tools and indicators to assess the degree of circularity of oil mills, articulating the analysis on the production and use of resources, recycling and reuse practices, stakeholder involvement and waste management.
Despite this growing interest, the existing literature remains largely fragmented. Most contributions focus on specific technologies, individual waste streams or isolated applications, while the integration of these practices into a coherent business model and supply chain configuration is still largely unexplored. There is little research addressing how the valorisation of by-products can be integrated into a circular business model operating at the supply chain level, systematically combining technological solutions with organisational coordination and governance mechanisms. This gap is relevant from a theoretical point of view, as it limits the development of circular business model concepts beyond the corporate level, and significant from a practical point of view, as it limits the scalability and transferability of circular solutions in a highly fragmented and small-scale production context such as the olive oil sector. Filling this gap is therefore essential to support the transition from technically feasible circular practices to implementable and resilient circular business models at the supply chain level.
Consequently, the concept of a circular business model is based on the definition proposed by [24], which frames sustainable business models as configurations that integrate value creation, supply and acquisition mechanisms geared towards sustainability outcomes.
From this perspective, circular business models are not limited to technological solutions or improvements in resource efficiency but involve a broader reconfiguration of how economic value is generated and distributed.
Based on this interpretation, this study adopts a circular business model perspective that explicitly goes beyond the company level. While [24] mainly conceptualises the archetypes of sustainable business models at the organisational level, this study applies the same basic logic to the supply chain context. Circular business models are thus interpreted as inter-organisational configurations in which multiple actors collectively contribute to value creation through the valorisation of by-products, coordinated flows of materials and information, reverse logistics, and shared governance arrangements.
In this sense, circularity is not embedded in isolated strategies at the company level, but emerges from the alignment of value creation, delivery and acquisition mechanisms throughout the supply chain. This interpretation provides a theoretical bridge between the literature on sustainable business models and supply chain management, offering a more suitable lens for analysing highly fragmented production systems such as the olive oil sector.
The adoption of a circular business model in the olive oil supply chain could therefore promote greater overall sustainability by reducing waste, optimising resource use and creating new products and market opportunities. However, achieving this goal requires joint commitment from the various actors in the supply chain, as well as the support of targeted public policies and investment in research and innovation.
Considering the gap identified, this study aims to assess the feasibility of creating a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain that can systematically integrate waste streams and by-products into each stage of the production process, according to a closed-loop circular economy approach. The objective is to understand how the valorisation of by-products can contribute not only to reducing environmental impact, but also to creating new economic and organisational opportunities throughout the olive oil supply chain.
This work aims to answer the following research question:
RQ: Is it possible to build a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain?
To this end, through a systematic review of the literature, this study aims to support the development of a conceptual business model. The model, represented through an integrative framework, clarifies the main material flows, the actors involved and the valorisation processes that characterise a circular olive oil supply chain.

2. Methods

To answer the research question, a systematic literature review (SLR) approach was used. According to [25], systematic reviews support the creation of a solid knowledge base by providing methodological rigour for specific research questions through transparent and extensive analysis of the literature, critical evaluation, and mapping of ‘knowns’ and ‘unknowns’ in the areas under investigation [26]. According to [27], there are several reasons for conducting an SLR. The most common include: (1) summarising existing evidence related to a treatment or technology, such as compiling empirical findings on the advantages and limitations of a particular agile method; (2) identifying gaps in current research to highlight areas requiring further exploration; and (3) establishing a framework or context to effectively position new research initiatives. The research objective requires a clear classification of the sample of articles into clusters based on different analytical methodologies. In particular, the study focuses on the analysis of the main by-products of the olive oil supply chain, highlighting their application in the olive oil supply chain.
SLR aims to ‘identify, evaluate and interpret research relevant to a given subject area, research question or phenomenon of interest’ [27]. SLR is a rigorous procedure and, according to [28], it is a specific methodology based on four stages: (1) identification of existing studies, (2) selection and evaluation of contributions, (3) analysis and synthesis of data, and (4) description of results to provide clear conclusions. In addition, the process model proposed by [29] included the following stages: (1) material collection, (2) category selection and (3) material evaluation.

2.1. Material Collection

The research examined the main electronic databases, Scopus and Web of Science (WoS), as they are considered the most comprehensive scientific databases [30,31]. The keywords entered in the Scopus search string ‘Article, Abstract, Keywords’ and in the WoS search string ‘Subject’ were: ‘Olive oil’ AND ‘Waste’ AND ‘Circular economy’. It should be noted that the search strings were correctly combined using Boolean AND operators to improve the accuracy of the search, including only articles that correspond to the scope of the SLR in the period from 2014 onwards, the year in which the first article on the subject was published. The collection of articles was completed on 27 June 2025.
The selection process was inspired by the PRISMA method, a structured framework that outlines the process of selecting and excluding articles for systematic review [32].
It should be noted that the PRISMA diagram refers exclusively to the 110 articles included in the systematic literature review sample. Additional references cited throughout the manuscript were used to support the theoretical framing, methodological justification, and conceptual development of the study and are not part of the reviewed corpus.
The inclusion criteria included (i) articles and reviews published in English in scientific journals [33,34,35,36].
The exclusion criteria were as follows: (i) articles that did not deal with waste from the olive oil supply chain, (ii) articles that did not mention the circular economy, (iii) articles that were behind a paywall.
Initially, 314 articles were identified in the database. After applying the exclusion criteria, 50 articles were excluded because they did not deal with by-products of the and the olive oil supply chain. In addition, 100 articles were eliminated because their reference to digital technologies did not meet the established threshold, and 54 articles were excluded because they were not available free of charge. In the end, 110 articles were analysed.

2.2. Category Selection

Considering the research question, at this stage the analysis followed the two rules proposed by [29]: (1) categories that serve as the basis for the analysis, in which the elements of text interpretation are organised into categories based on the research questions. These categories are carefully established and refined throughout the analysis process; (2) reliability and validity criteria, which ensure that the defined categories can be clearly understood and interpreted by different people. Furthermore, again based on the studies [29], the structural dimensions and corresponding analytical categories were selected, which must be applied in the literature review to structure the field of analysis. The structural dimensions form the core of the analysis, comprising a series of analytical categories [36]. These categories aim to describe the phenomenon, improve understanding and facilitate the generation of knowledge [37]. In this article, the structural dimensions represent the main conceptual framework through which the literature addresses the issue of circularity in the olive oil supply chain, while the analytical categories describe the specific contents that characterise each dimension.
Both structural dimensions and categories can be analysed using the deductive or inductive method [29,35,36]. In the deductive approach, dimensions and categories are established based on a particular theory or existing model [38], as indicated in previous research. Consequently, these elements are determined prior to the analysis of the material [36]. In contrast, the inductive approach defines dimensions and categories following the analysis of the material, emphasising the transition from specific observations to broader generalisations [39].
To increase the reliability and quality of the analysis, the study was conducted in three stages. An initial researcher developed an initial classification of the articles. The analysis of the was based on searching for specific keywords described above, and the validation of the keywords was based on their contextualisation within the article. The results were then refined by a second researcher and subsequently subjected to a joint discussion between the two researchers to review and finalise the categorisation and classifications of the selected articles [40,41].
Critical structural dimensions were identified using an inductive approach based on content analysis [42]. An iterative process was then applied, which first involved familiarisation with the literature and the selected sample of articles [43], then allowed themes to develop and emerge organically, rather than selecting predetermined themes or patterns, and finally categorising the data accordingly [40]. Specifically, this approach was used starting from the analysis of keywords and their co-occurrence relationships within the corpus of selected articles.
Within each dimension, analytical categories were identified based on the most recurrent keywords and dominant themes associated with each cluster, allowing for a systematic description of the different components that contribute to the configuration of a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain (Table 1).
Keywords related to waste treatment, recovery processes and extraction techniques were initially treated as separate dimensions but were subsequently integrated into the ‘chemistry of valorisation’ category, as they consistently referred to chemical and technological processes aimed at recovering value from by-products.
Similarly, terms associated with phenolic compounds, antioxidants and secondary metabolites were initially coded into multiple subcategories and subsequently consolidated into the category of bioactive compound production, reflecting a common focus on high-value products derived from by-products. Finally, broader conceptual keywords referring to sustainability, circularity, and resource efficiency were aggregated into the circular economy category, which captures the general conceptual framework in which valorisation practices are embedded.
The final set of analytical categories therefore represents a stable and theoretically coherent synthesis of the dominant themes emerging from the literature.
For the analysis of keywords, the iterative process was developed using NVivo13software, as it can significantly improve the management and analysis of qualitative data [44], while VOSviewer® (v 1.6 15) was used for mapping and categorising the selected material, as this software allows the transformation of bibliometric data into graphical representations in terms of co-occurrence and similarity [45].

3. Results

3.1. Material Evaluation

A total of 110 articles were summarised and analysed in this review. Figure 1 shows the process followed for the selection and analysis of articles.
Each article included in the final sample was assigned to a dominant analytical category derived from the cluster analysis, reflecting its primary conceptual focus on “circular economy”, “valorisation chemistry”, or the “production of bioactive compounds”. This classification is reported in Supplementary Table S1.
This section reports the results, showing the structural dimensions assessed by the inductive approach.

3.1.1. Keyword Analysis

Word Cloud analysis provides an initial representation of the dominant themes in the literature on the circularity of the olive oil supply chain, allowing us to identify the most recurring concepts in the articles analysed. Specifically, NVivo software was used for the Word Cloud analysis, focusing on the top 50 most frequently occurring words [46].
As shown in Figure 2, the terms ‘olive’, ‘water’ and ‘waste’ emerge as the most frequent keywords, highlighting the centrality of waste and water management in olive oil production processes [47,48,49]. The Word Cloud highlights an approach to circularity that is strongly oriented towards technological enhancement processes. In fact, keywords related to the operational and technological phases of by-product valorisation, such as ‘extraction’, ‘process’, ‘treatment’ and ‘chemical’, are prominent, indicating a strong orientation in the literature towards solutions based on chemical and technological transformation processes [50,51,52,53,54,55,56]. The significant presence of terms such as ‘compounds’, ‘phenolic’, ‘polyphenols’ and ‘antioxidants’ also confirms the focus on the production of high-value compounds from the by-products of the olive oil supply chain [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74].
The environmental dimension emerges as another key element, as suggested by the frequency of the term ‘environmental’, reflecting the role of sustainability as a fundamental driver of by-product recovery strategies.
In addition to highlighting the most recurring themes, the keyword analysis provides an initial overview of how circular business models are conceptualised in the olive oil sector. The predominance of terms related to by-products, extraction processes and environmental impact suggests that circularity is understood primarily in technical and material terms, rather than in terms of value creation, delivery mechanisms and acquisition. This pattern indicates that existing studies tend to address circularity as a set of technological solutions, with limited attention to business model configuration and supply chain coordination.

3.1.2. Cluster Analysis

Considering the evidence that emerged from the Word Cloud analysis, a co-occurrence analysis of keywords was conducted to explore the relationships between the main concepts present in the literature and identify their underlying thematic structures. To this end, VOSviewer software was used, which is widely used in bibliometric studies for the visualisation and analysis of knowledge networks based on keyword similarity [45].
The analysis is based on a binary counting approach and includes only keywords that appear at least five times in the corpus of articles analysed. After a process of data cleaning and normalisation, a total of 1549 keywords were identified, of which 72 met the inclusion criteria. Network visualisation allows each keyword to be represented as a node, whose size reflects its frequency of occurrence, while the distance between nodes is inversely proportional to their co-occurrence, indicating the strength of the conceptual relationship between the terms [75].
The results show that the most frequently occurring keywords are ‘circular economy’ (63 occurrences) and ‘olive oil’ (60 occurrences), confirming the centrality of the circular paradigm applied to the olive oil supply chain [76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84]. Among the most frequently analysed by-products are “olive pomace” (18 occurrences), “olive tree” (17 occurrences) and “mill wastewater” (16 occurrences), together with “polyphenols” (16 occurrences), highlighting the key role of waste as a potential high added-value resource.
The VOSviewer clustering algorithm allowed us to identify three main clusters, which can be interpreted as distinct but interconnected thematic domains within the analysed literature (Figure 3).
The first cluster, consisting of 30 elements, brings together contributions that address the issue of circularity in the olive oil supply chain from a systemic and environmental perspective [85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109]. The keywords associated with this cluster refer to the assessment of the environmental impact of production waste, such as ‘biomass’ and ‘olive pomace’, through tools such as ‘life cycle assessment’. This cluster reflects a line of research focused on measuring environmental performance and assessing the overall sustainability of waste recovery practices, providing the framework for circular supply chain strategies [110,111,112,113].
The second cluster, consisting of 22 elements, focuses mainly on the analysis and chemical valorisation of ‘oil mill wastewater’ [114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128]. The most representative keywords are related to phenolic compound extraction processes, highlighting a shift in the literature towards the development of technologies aimed at recovering high-value molecules. This cluster highlights the potential of wastewater not only as waste to be managed, but as a strategic resource for producing ingredients for knowledge-intensive sectors, such as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals [129,130,131,132].
The third cluster, consisting of 20 members, also focuses on the chemical analysis of by-products, but with a specific focus on the transformation of solid and liquid residues into bioactive compounds, particularly antioxidants [133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149]. The keywords associated with this cluster refer to the characterisation of the chemical properties of by-products and conversion processes aimed at creating new high-value products. This cluster highlights a perspective oriented towards creating economic value through product innovation, rather than focusing exclusively on the environmental management of by-products [150,151].
Taken together, the three clusters highlight how the literature on the olive oil supply chain addresses circularity mainly through a combination of environmental assessments and technological-chemical processes for the valorisation of by-products.
The structure of the clusters provides insights into the feasibility of a circular business model in the olive oil supply chain. The clear separation between clusters focused on environmental assessment, chemical valorisation and the production of bioactive compounds reflects a fragmented knowledge base in which different dimensions of circularity are addressed in isolation.
From a feasibility perspective, the predominance of clusters related to valorisation technologies and environmental assessment suggests that the technical and conceptual foundations for circular value creation are well established [152]. The identified clusters mainly inform the value creation dimension of circular business models, demonstrating the potential to transform by-products into high-value outputs.
However, the absence of a distinct cluster explicitly addressing business models, supply chain coordination or governance mechanisms indicates that circular business models are rarely analysed as integrated, inter-organisational configurations [153]. This fragmentation has implications for translating technically feasible solutions into implementable business models at the supply chain level [154]. It also connects to the research question, highlighting that the main obstacles to feasibility do not lie in technological limitations, but in the lack of organisational integration and coordinated governance across the supply chain.

4. Discussion

The olive oil sector is one of the most complex agri-food chains from a sustainability perspective, as it is characterised by the production of highly polluting waste which, if not properly managed, can have significant environmental, economic, and social impacts [155]. In this context, the adoption of approaches based on the circular economy and innovation in production systems emerges as a strategic response to the growing challenges facing the sector. The cluster analysis highlights how the literature on the circularity of the olive oil supply chain is strongly oriented towards two main areas of research: on the one hand, the assessment of environmental performance; on the other, the technological and chemical valorisation of by-products through extraction processes aimed at recovering high-value compounds. In particular, the clusters identified demonstrate solid scientific maturity in the environmental and technological dimensions of circularity, in particular olive pomace and olive water, as potential resources rather than waste.
The first cluster, focused on circular economy principles and environmental performance assessment, supports the development of circular business models by providing system-level tools to assess environmental impact and resource efficiency. However, its limited involvement in organisational and market aspects limits its contribution to the operational design of circular business models at the supply chain level.
The second cluster, focusing on chemical valorisation processes and extraction technologies, demonstrates the technical feasibility of transforming by-products into high-value products. At the same time, this cluster remains largely disconnected from issues of coordination, scalability and market integration, which limits its relevance for understanding how such technologies can be integrated into coherent business model configurations.
The third cluster, which deals with the production and application of bioactive compounds, further strengthens the technological maturity of by-product valorisation, but similarly lacks explicit attention to inter-organisational collaboration and supply chain integration.
Table 2 summarises these insights by visually linking the cluster-based findings to the key dimensions of the emerging circular business model framework.
However, the analysis also reveals significant conceptual fragmentation. Technological solutions and environmental outcomes are rarely analysed from an integrated supply chain perspective that systematically considers organisational, economic and governance implications. That is, while the literature provides abundant evidence on the technical feasibility of by-product valorisation, less attention is paid to how such practices can be integrated into a coherent circular business model at the supply chain level ( ). This imbalance between the technical and managerial dimensions is a critical element that limits the transferability of the proposed solutions on an industrial scale.
These limitations are not only conceptual, but are also rooted in a series of organisational, economic and institutional barriers that hinder the transition from the current fragmented configuration to an integrated circular business model.
The persistence of this fragmented approach can be explained by several barriers to entry that companies face when attempting to transition to an integrated circular business model. At the organisational level, the olive oil supply chain is characterised by a high degree of fragmentation, small company size and limited managerial capacity, which constrain coordination and joint investment among actors [154].
Economic barriers further limit integration, particularly due to the high initial investments required for waste valorisation technologies and uncertainty about returns, especially in the absence of stable business-to-business markets for bio-based products [24]. Logistical constraints related to seasonality and the geographical dispersion of production sites also complicate the management of reverse flows within existing supply chain structures [156].
Finally, institutional and governance-related barriers, such as regulatory uncertainty and limited access to targeted incentives, contribute to slowing down the adoption of circular business models [157]. Taken together, these barriers help explain why existing studies tend to focus on isolated technological solutions rather than fully integrated supply chain configurations.
Consequently, the following research question is addressed:
Is it possible to build a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain?
The results of the analysis show that the valorisation of by-products is the main entry point through which circularity is addressed in the literature on the olive oil supply chain. The growing focus on the recovery of production residues and the rethinking of production, sales and consumption models emerges as a response to the environmental challenges associated with the expansion of olive cultivation, increased production volumes and the seasonality of processing, often characterised by low efficiency [158]. In this context, circularity is interpreted as an approach that combines environmental protection with broader sustainability objectives, including food quality, human health, energy efficiency and local development [159].
However, in order to achieve an effective circular business model through by-product recovery practices, it is essential to adopt an approach that goes beyond a single process or technology. The literature reviewed indicates that, although the adoption of advanced recovery technologies is a necessary condition, it is not sufficient to ensure a structural transformation of the supply chain. Without an integrated vision, such solutions risk remaining isolated interventions, unable to systematically influence the organisation of production and the configuration of value flows.
From this point of view, the integration of chemical, economic and technological dimensions emerges as a crucial step towards building a truly circular business model. From a chemical point of view, it is essential to develop selective processes that maximise the recovery of valuable compounds while reducing the production of unwanted by-products [160]. From an economic point of view, the internalisation of valorisation processes within the supply chain makes it possible to reduce disposal costs while generating new revenue streams. Finally, the contribution of technology is fundamental to making these processes scalable, competitive and sustainable, optimising resource efficiency and minimising environmental impact [152,161]. Circularity, therefore, is not only a h l and environmental strategy, but an opportunity to reshape the value creation model along the entire olive oil supply chain, laying the foundations for a production model that combines environmental sustainability, economic resilience and product innovation.
The adoption of a circular business model at the supply chain level has significant organisational and logistical implications, which emerge clearly from the literature review. The management of by-product flows requires effective coordination between heterogeneous stakeholders, often characterised by small company sizes and significant geographical dispersion. In this context, logistics plays a strategic role, acting as an enabler for the collection, processing and redistribution of by-products along the supply chain [21].
Business-to-business relationships emerge as the main channel through which products derived from the valorisation of by-products are placed on the market. Energy produced from biomass, functional feeds and bioactive compounds are mainly used in other industrial sectors, making it necessary to build stable, long-term collaboration networks [21]. In this scenario, the use of digital tools to optimise logistics flows, such as geographic information systems (GISs), allows for more efficient collection routes to be planned, reducing transport times and distances and mitigating inefficiencies related to the seasonality of production [161,162].
The use of geographic information systems (GISs) also makes it possible to identify strategic hubs for the collection and processing of by-products, improving distribution to treatment plants or secondary markets and helping to reduce transport-related emissions by up to 25%. These tools strengthen the economic and environmental sustainability of the supply chain by enabling more efficient routing [163], load consolidation and spatial coordination of reverse flows [164,165,166].
Access to GIS-based solutions does not necessarily require individual small producers to develop internal technical capabilities. In the olive oil sector, typically characterised by small-scale and fragmented production [154], GIS tools can be adopted through cooperation agreements, shared service platforms or third-party logistics providers [167]. Public institutions, producer associations and regional consortia can play a key role by providing centralised digital infrastructure or decision support tools that small producers can use collectively [168]. In this way, GIS-based planning becomes an accessible and scalable solution that supports the integration of by-product management at the supply chain level without imposing excessive technological or financial burdens on individual companies [169].
Furthermore, the implementation of a circular business model in the olive oil supply chain requires the existence of adequate governance mechanisms and a favourable institutional framework. The literature highlights how targeted public policies, dedicated financial instruments and public–private partnerships can reduce the risks associated with the initial investments required for by-product valorisation technologies [170].
In this sense, governance plays a cross-cutting role, acting as a coordinating element between technological innovation, collaboration between stakeholders and the long-term sustainability of the model. The creation of strategic partnerships with agricultural, cosmetic and energy companies enables the integrated valorisation of by-products, reducing dependence on chemical fertilisers and contributing to the decarbonisation of production activities [171,172]. At the same time, the involvement of research institutes, universities and technology companies promotes the development of new skills and technologies, increasing the competitiveness of the supply chain and facilitating access to emerging markets [21,152].
Emerging evidence indicates the conceptual and technical feasibility of developing a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain. The literature reviewed shows that the scientific knowledge and technological solutions needed to valorise by- s are widely available and well established. However, the full implementation of this model requires a shift from fragmented approaches focused on individual technological solutions to an integrated supply chain configuration that combines by-product valorisation, organisational coordination and shared governance [20,173].
The predominance of technological and environmental perspectives in the existing literature also influences the way in which circular business models are implicated. The concept of value creation is often examined separately from its realisation and acquisition mechanisms, which have limited connection with supply chain structures and governance frameworks. This partial conceptualisation has a restrictive effect on the interpretation of circular business models as systemic configurations, thus reinforcing a fragmented understanding of circularity [24].
This study reconceptualises circular business models by explicitly combining them with a supply chain perspective, showing how circular value creation in the olive oil sector depends on inter-organisational coordination, reverse logistics and enabling governance mechanisms.
In this context, the proposed conceptual model (Figure 4) represents an interpretative synthesis of the main elements emerging from the literature, offering a key to understanding how circularity can be made operational at the supply chain level. The model is intended as an analytical tool to support strategic decisions and guide research on circular business models in the olive oil sector.
Overall, the discussion highlights that circularity in the olive oil sector cannot be understood solely in terms of technological enhancement processes. Rather, the feasibility of circular business models depends on how these processes are integrated within integrated supply chain configurations, supported by effective governance arrangements and collaboration between multiple actors. Firstly, circularity in the olive oil sector is mainly focused on the valorisation of by-products as a central mechanism for value creation. Secondly, the literature emphasises the need to go beyond isolated technological solutions and consider circularity as a system-level phenomenon, requiring coordination across multiple stages of the supply chain. Thirdly, organisational and governance conditions emerge as critical factors influencing the feasibility of integrating circular practices at scale.
These insights are brought together in the conceptual framework presented in Figure 4, which provides an integrated representation of how a circular business model can be conceptualised at the supply chain level. Within this framework, the conceptual framework translates the logic of value creation, delivery and capture from [24] to the supply chain level. The valorisation of by-products represents the central mechanism of value creation, the configuration of the supply chain reflects the distribution of value across organisational boundaries, and market valorisation enables value capture, supported by governance structures and partnerships.
The framework provides a structured representation of how a circular business model can be conceptualised at the supply chain level in the olive oil sector. The framework is organised into several interconnected levels that reflect the main thematic areas that emerged from the literature review and bibliometric analyses.
At its core, the model places the valorisation of by-products as a fundamental business logic underlying circular value creation. This central position reflects the strong emphasis in existing studies on technological and chemical processes aimed at recovering value from olive oil by-products, such as material analysis, extraction and the generation of bioactive products [19,22]. These activities represent the most established dimension of circularity in the literature and form the starting point of the circular configuration.
Around this core, the framework explicitly introduces a supply chain configuration layer, which represents the main conceptual advancement of the study. Rather than framing circular business models as company-level strategies, the model highlights how circularity emerges through coordinated interactions between multiple actors along the supply chain [15,24,156]. At this level, upstream activities, reverse logistics, business-to-business (B2B) relationships, and the marketing of bio-based products are integrated to show how material, information, and value flows must be aligned to go beyond isolated technological solutions.
Finally, the external level captures the enabling conditions that support the implementation and scaling up of circular business models. Partnerships with industrial players and research centres facilitate access to knowledge, infrastructure and innovation capabilities, while policy and governance mechanisms, such as regulation, incentives and public support, create the institutional environment necessary to reduce coordination failures and barriers to entry [20,152]. Overall, the framework synthesises the fragmented knowledge in the literature into an integrated supply chain perspective, illustrating how circular business models in the olive oil sector depend on the interaction between technological enhancement processes, organisational coordination and enabling governance mechanisms.

5. Conclusions

This study systematically analysed the existing literature on the valorisation of by-products in the olive oil supply chain, with the aim of developing a circular business model for the olive oil supply chain. This study makes a distinctive contribution to the existing literature on the circular economy and agri-food systems. Unlike the existing literature, which has addressed the valorisation of by-products from a technological and environmental perspective, this research explicitly conceptualises circularity as a business model configuration at the supply chain level. The present study integrates circular business model theory with a supply chain perspective, thus offering a new analysis of circular value creation. This is defined as an inter-organisational phenomenon shaped by coordination, governance and collaboration mechanisms.
In this sense, the proposed framework does not introduce a new technological solution for the sector but rather provides an integrative conceptual lens that explains why technically feasible circular practices often fail to spread in fragmented agri-food supply chains. This distinction allows the study to integrate and expand existing research, highlighting the organisational and governance dimensions that underpin the effective implementation of circular business models in the olive oil sector.

5.1. Implications

From a management perspective, the results suggest that the valorisation of by-products can be a strategic lever for reconfiguring the value creation model in olive oil companies. The integration of by-product recovery and transformation processes within the supply chain not only reduces waste disposal costs but also generates new revenue streams through the production of renewable energy, bioactive compounds and other high value-added products.
For producers, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises that dominate the olive oil sector, the results highlight that the transition to circular business models cannot be based solely on technological investments. On the contrary, collective solutions emerge as critical factors for accessing valorisation technologies and achieving economies of scale.
The proposed framework provides managers with a conceptual tool for understanding how technological decisions must be accompanied by consistent organisational and logistical choices. Specifically, waste stream management requires a high level of coordination between different stakeholders and the development of stable business-to-business relationships, ensuring the successful positioning of products derived from waste recovery. In this sense, the model highlights the importance of investing not only in recovery technologies, but also in supply chain management capabilities and logistics planning tools, elements that are often overlooked in circular transition strategies.
From a theoretical point of view, the study contributes to the literature on circular economy and circular business models by providing a structured synthesis of the main dimensions through which circularity is addressed in the olive oil supply chain. Cluster analysis highlights how existing research is strongly oriented towards environmental and technological aspects, while organisational, economic and governance implications are less explored.
The proposed conceptual framework therefore provides a basis for future studies aimed at integrating business models, supply chain management and the circular economy. In particular, the work encourages the development of empirical research that tests the model in real-world contexts, analysing how the various dimensions interact and influence the environmental and economic performance of businesses. Furthermore, the model can be extended and adapted to other agri-food supply chains characterised by high waste production, fostering comparative theoretical progress in the field of circular production systems.
Beyond its managerial and theoretical implications, this study highlights significant social and policy implications. At the local level, the internal valorisation of by-products can support rural development by strengthening relationships between businesses, communities and territories, while promoting job creation, the dissemination of skills and more responsible management of natural resources [174]. These effects are particularly relevant in olive oil-producing regions dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises, where circular practices can improve local resilience and reduce environmental pressures.
However, the results also show that the implementation of circular business models in such contexts depends mostly on the presence of favourable public policies and institutional frameworks. Targeted economic incentives are key to mitigating the high initial costs associated with valorisation technologies and reducing the financial risks faced by small producers. At the same time, regulatory frameworks that clarify the status of by-products and facilitate their reuse within and across supply chains can reduce administrative barriers and support the development of the market for bio-based products.
However, findings show that implementing these models requires a supportive institutional framework. Targeted public policies, economic incentives and financial support instruments are essential to reduce barriers to entry and support the initial investments required for the adoption of circular technologies and practices. In this sense, governance plays a central role in coordinating technological innovation, collaboration between stakeholders and the long-term sustainability of the supply chain.

5.2. Limitations and Future Steps

This study has several limitations. First, the systematic literature review is based on a manual selection process which, while allowing for greater control over the quality of sources, may have excluded relevant contributions not indexed in the databases considered or published in languages other than English. Secondly, the approach adopted is predominantly conceptual and does not include empirical validation of the proposed model, limiting the ability to assess the applicability of the framework in real operational contexts.
Although the selection of keywords was carefully designed and refined iteratively, this approach may have influenced the composition of the final sample, potentially under-representing studies addressing circular practices using alternative terminology or conceptual frameworks.
A further limitation concerns the use of bibliometric techniques and their implications for the generalisability of the results. Although bibliometric analysis is effective in identifying dominant research patterns and thematic clusters, it captures associations rather than causal relationships and does not assess the practical effectiveness of the identified approaches. Given these limitations, future research could focus on empirical case studies aimed at testing the proposed circular business model in different territorial and organisational contexts. Comparative analysis of companies of different sizes and production capacities could help to understand how circular economy strategies vary according to the structural characteristics of companies and local production systems.
Further developments could include the development of indicators to assess the effectiveness of circularity strategies in terms of environmental, economic and social performance, as well as the analysis of the return on investment associated with waste recovery. Finally, future research could explore the role of public policies and governance mechanisms in facilitating the spread of circular business models, helping to develop more effective strategies for the sustainable transition of the olive oil supply chain and other agri-food sectors.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su18052355/s1, Table S1: Characteristics of the included studies; Prisma checklist.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.P. and F.P.; methodology, M.P.; validation, F.P.; formal analysis, M.P.; data curation, M.P.; writing—original draft preparation, M.P.; writing—review and editing, F.P.; visualisation, M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT 5.2 for the purposes of study design. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication. The authors have given their consent to be included.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
SLRSystematic Literature Review
WoSWeb of Science
GISGeographical Information System
B2BBusiness to Business

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Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram. Source: authors’ elaboration.
Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram. Source: authors’ elaboration.
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Figure 2. Orange keywords denote the highest-frequency terms. Black keywords displayed in larger font represent the subsequent most frequent terms, whereas smaller-sized words indicate lower-frequency occurrences. Source: data from NVivo.
Figure 2. Orange keywords denote the highest-frequency terms. Black keywords displayed in larger font represent the subsequent most frequent terms, whereas smaller-sized words indicate lower-frequency occurrences. Source: data from NVivo.
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Figure 3. The first cluster (red), refers to circular economy; the second cluster (green), comprises valorisation chemistry; the third cluster (blue), refers to production compounds bioactives. Source: data from VOSviewer.
Figure 3. The first cluster (red), refers to circular economy; the second cluster (green), comprises valorisation chemistry; the third cluster (blue), refers to production compounds bioactives. Source: data from VOSviewer.
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Figure 4. Emergent conceptual framework for a circular business model in the olive oil supply chain. Source: authors’ elaboration.
Figure 4. Emergent conceptual framework for a circular business model in the olive oil supply chain. Source: authors’ elaboration.
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Table 1. Approach, structural dimensions and analytical categories.
Table 1. Approach, structural dimensions and analytical categories.
ApproachStructural DimensionsAnalytical Categories
InductiveKeyword analysisMost cited keywords
Cluster analysisCircular economy
Valorisation chemistry
Production compounds bioactives
Source: authors’ elaboration.
Table 2. Linking cluster-based results to circular business model dimensions (according to [24]).
Table 2. Linking cluster-based results to circular business model dimensions (according to [24]).
Review ResultsAnalytical InsightsEmerging Circular Business Model Framework
Keyword analysis
  • Strong technological and environmental maturity
  • Fragmentation of organisational and managerial perspectives
  • Limited supply chain integration
  • Weak attention to governance and coordination mechanism
VALUE CREATION
By-products valorisation
Cluster analysisVALUE DELIVERY
Supply chain configuration
Reverse logistics
B2B relationships
VALUE CAPTURE
Sale of bio-based products
ENABLING CONDITIONS
Governance
Partnership
Source: authors’ elaboration.
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Provenzano, M.; Pacchera, F. Towards a Circular Business Model in the Olive Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Literature Review and Conceptual Framework. Sustainability 2026, 18, 2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052355

AMA Style

Provenzano M, Pacchera F. Towards a Circular Business Model in the Olive Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Literature Review and Conceptual Framework. Sustainability. 2026; 18(5):2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052355

Chicago/Turabian Style

Provenzano, Mariagrazia, and Francesco Pacchera. 2026. "Towards a Circular Business Model in the Olive Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Literature Review and Conceptual Framework" Sustainability 18, no. 5: 2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052355

APA Style

Provenzano, M., & Pacchera, F. (2026). Towards a Circular Business Model in the Olive Oil Supply Chain: A Systematic Literature Review and Conceptual Framework. Sustainability, 18(5), 2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18052355

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