Applying Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework to National Energy Transitions: A Study of Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity

Abstract

The energy transition stands as the central focus of Indonesia’s national energy policy, as outlined in the National Energy General Plan (RUEN). This study aims to analyze the extent to which RUEN has accommodated the principle of Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework, both from the perspective of intergenerational and intragenerational justice. Using qualitative policy analysis, the paper assesses distributive, procedural, and recognition justice within RUEN and identifies structural gaps in implementation. The study highlights that although the RUEN has established measures to support the energy transition, significant barriers remain to ensuring a fair and sustainable distribution of energy, particularly unequal energy access, limited stakeholder participation, and a slow reduction in fossil fuel dependence. The results of this study are expected to yield more inclusive and equitable policy recommendations to support the energy transition, while also enhancing RUEN’s effectiveness in achieving energy resilience, sustainability, and justice in Indonesia.

1. Introduction

The preamble of the 1972 Stockholm Declaration repeatedly emphasizes the goal of defending and improving the human environment for present and future generations [1]. Its principle one articulates “the shared conviction that humanity bears a solemn responsibility to protect and enhance the environment for present and future generations, and the equitable utilization of shared resources is recognized”. However, it included the principle that non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all humanity, both for intragenerational and intergenerational justice [2]. However, non-renewable resources produce greenhouse gas emissions that hurt the ecology [3]. As part of its affirmative policy, the Indonesian government issued Presidential Regulation Number 22 of 2017 on the National Energy General Plan (RUEN), which serves as the primary guideline for national energy management to achieve sustainable, efficient, and equitable energy security for all communities. RUEN is expected to accommodate intergenerational and intragenerational interests in realizing energy security and sustainability.

Indonesia is a country with abundant energy resources. Indonesia has the potential for more than 400,000 GW of NRE and abundant resorts [4]. The electricity sector is currently approximately 81 GW, and around 86% is still dominated by fossils, especially coal, petroleum, and natural gas, which produce relatively high emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) [5].

Indonesia faces significant challenges in sustainable, resilient, and just energy management. The national energy system relies heavily on fossil fuels, primarily coal, petroleum, and natural gas, leading to high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In 2020, Indonesia produced approximately 1.48 billion Mg of CO₂ equivalent (Gt CO₂e), accounting for 3.1% of global emissions, making it the world’s sixth-largest [6]. Apart from the electricity sector, which is still dominated by fossil fuels, these emissions are also exacerbated by deforestation, forest fires, and the use of fossil fuels in various other industries [7].

Looking ahead, the climate crisis is expected to intensify; projections from the European Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) suggest that 2024 could be the hottest year on record, with the global average temperature rising by 1.6 °C above pre-industrial levels. This marks the first time the 1.5 °C threshold in the Paris Agreement has been exceeded [8].

To meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), Indonesia has committed to reducing carbon emissions by 31.89% and achieving Net Zero Emissions (NZE) by 2050–2060. The energy transition is a central priority, shifting from fossil fuels to solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass [9]. The relatively high electricity-related emissions in 2018 accounted for around 94.64% of the total GHG emissions of 276,241 gigatons (Gt CO₂e). Increasing to 97.22% (279,863 Gt CO₂e) in 2019 [10].

Formulating and enforcing comprehensive energy and environmental laws are crucial in ensuring a just energy transition [11]. Ecological and climate justice concepts have progressively developed since the 1980s and 1990s. Energy and environmental laws are essential to regulating a country’s natural resources and influencing individual and societal behavior [12]. Another key aspect is formulating and revising policies to foster a more sustainable and equitable energy system [13].

Despite RUEN’s role as a key instrument in Indonesia’s national energy planning, academic studies that specifically analyze the extent to which this policy integrates energy justice principles in the national energy transition agenda are still relatively limited. Generally, the existing literature only focuses on technical, economic aspects and emission reduction targets, while issues related to equitable distribution of benefits, participation in decision-making processes and recognition of vulnerable groups have not received adequate attention. This gap is important, given that energy transition policies that do not consider the dimensions of justice have the potential to reproduce structural inequality and weaken sustainability in the long run. Departing from these conditions, this study uses Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework to examine RUEN not only as a technical planning document, but as a normative legal and policy instrument whose effectiveness is highly dependent on its ability to guarantee intergenerational and intra-generational justice. Unlike previous studies that emphasize economic or technical aspects, this study makes a theoretical contribution by operationalizing energy justice in the Indonesian context and highlighting structural and procedural weaknesses in the implementation of RUEN.

This study examines whether RUEN adequately incorporates energy justice principles by applying Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework [2], which assesses energy policies. Within this framework, distributive justice concerns whether RUEN ensures a fair allocation of energy benefits and burdens across economic and geographic groups while safeguarding resources for future generations. Procedural justice focuses on the inclusiveness, transparency, and meaningful participation of stakeholders in energy policy decision-making processes, particularly for vulnerable communities. Recognition justice addresses how RUEN acknowledges and responds to historical inequalities, including the impacts of fossil fuel dependency on workers, indigenous peoples, and other marginalized groups. Together, these dimensions enable a comprehensive evaluation of RUEN’s normative commitments and practical implications for a just energy transition.

In addition, Indonesia’s energy sector continues to face structural challenges that complicate the pursuit of a just and inclusive energy transition. Disparities in access to energy persist between urban and rural areas, particularly in Eastern Indonesia, where electrification and energy infrastructure development remain uneven. These conditions indicate that RUEN has not yet fully operationalized energy justice principles in practice, especially with regard to ensuring equitable access and inclusive participation for all societal groups. Moreover, the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy remains constrained by limited investment, regulatory uncertainty, and insufficient incentives for clean energy development [14]. These challenges are further exacerbated by transparency deficits and restricted public participation in energy-related decision-making processes. Taken together, these structural and governance-related limitations underscore the need for a more comprehensive assessment of RUEN through an energy justice lens.

2. Purpose of Research

This study aims to evaluate Indonesia’s National Energy General Plan (RUEN) through Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework, with a specific focus on distributive, procedural, and recognitional justice. First, to identify justice gaps within Indonesia’s current energy transition policies. Second, to analyze how these justice dimensions manifest in Indonesia’s national planning documents, particularly RUEN. Third, to offer policy recommendations that improve the fairness and inclusiveness of Indonesia’s energy transition.

By structuring the analysis through the lens of energy justice, this study offers a more comprehensive perspective than existing works, which typically discuss Indonesia’s energy transition only in terms of technical feasibility or renewable energy targets. This makes the article distinct in bridging policy planning with justice-based evaluation.

3. Literature Review

3.1. Previous Studies on Energy Justice in Indonesia

Previous studies on energy justice in Indonesia have identified several significant gaps. Research in this area lacks empirical case studies examining how energy justice is implemented in national energy policies, especially in developing countries such as Indonesia [15]. Most of the existing literature focuses more on theoretical discussions rather than evaluating policy implementation or offering concrete policy solutions. Consequently, there is limited understanding of how equity principles are integrated into national energy planning frameworks such as the National Energy General Plan (RUEN). Despite RUEN’s central role in directing Indonesia’s long-term energy transition, no study has systematically assessed this document through Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework to evaluate its distributive, procedural, and recognition dimensions. This creates a substantive research gap [16]. By providing the first comprehensive justice-based assessment of RUEN, this study contributes to the literature by bridging energy justice theory with empirical policy analysis and generating context-specific insights that prior research has not addressed.

3.2. The Three Pillars of Energy Justice

Energy justice consists of distributive justice, procedural justice, and recognition justice. The relationship between the energy justice concept and intergenerational justice concerns how energy resources are managed to avoid harming future generations. According to Raphael J. Heffron, the three main dimensions of the theory of energy justice are Distributive Justice, Procedural Justice, and Recognition Justice.

A detailed summary of the three pillars of energy justice, including their definitions and relevance to energy policy, is provided in Appendix A.

In this study, these dimensions are not mere concepts but direct analytical tools for assessing RUEN. Distributive justice will guide the assessment of renewable energy objectives and electrification equity in the regions. Procedural justice will be applied to examine stakeholders’ participation and transparency in the formulation and implementation of RUEN. Recognition of justice will be used to determine how RUEN addresses marginalized groups, such as indigenous communities and remote areas. This link ensures that the theoretical framework is operationalized in subsequent analysis and responds to the need for an integrated approach between theory and empirical evaluation.

Regarding recognition justice, RUEN was developed by the National Energy Council (DEN) and codified by Presidential Regulation No. 22/2017, and the draft was approved at the third plenary meeting of the DEN on 22 June 2016, clarifying interagency coordination but establishing no open public consultation protocols or matrix for community participation (e.g., draft publications, comment periods, and response to submissions). Presidential Regulation No. 73/2023 later provided for the drafting methods of RUEN/RUED, including a 10-year horizon and a five-year review and “consultation” with relevant ministries, but it does not specify comprehensive public consultation procedures, such as mandatory disclosure of drafts, participation lists, or the inclusion of feedback. The DEN consists of seven ministers and eight stakeholders (university, industry, technology, environment, and consumers) whose privileges include formal representation at the elite level, but do not guarantee direct participation by vulnerable communities beyond the chosen stakeholders. Recent DPR stakeholder selections (e.g., 2026–2030) emphasize elite verification rather than broad, documented public hearings and further narrow the upper echelons in national energy planning.

Energy justice ensures equitable access for today’s society and prevents exploitation that damages the environment, primarily through the long-term impact of greenhouse gas emissions. From the perspective of intergenerational equity, natural resources must be managed judiciously, efficiently, and sustainably so that future generations do not inherit environmental crises due to exploitative policies. Therefore, the energy transition towards cleaner sources is not merely an economic necessity but also a moral obligation to maintain the balance of ecosystems and the rights of future generations.

While the three pillars of justice are often discussed conceptually, this study applies distributive, procedural, and recognition justice as direct analytical tools to deconstruct RUEN. Distributive justice is assessed through evaluations of regional energy access, the electrification gap, and subsidy allocation. Procedural justice is evaluated by examining the mechanisms for participation in the formulation of RUEN. Meanwhile, recognition justice is applied to identify how RUEN addresses vulnerable groups.

3.3. Energy Justice in Indonesia’s Energy Transition Policy

The energy transition constitutes the principal focus of Indonesia’s national energy policy to achieve sustainability and energy security. One of the central policies regulating the energy transition is the National Energy General Plan (Rencana Umum Energi Nasional—RUEN) stipulated through Presidential Regulation Number 22 of 2017. RUEN aims to guide national energy management through strategies that include increasing the share of renewable energy, reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and advancing a just energy system.

In the context of energy justice, two primary concerns are intergenerational justice and intragenerational justice. Intergenerational justice emphasizes that the current utilization of energy resources must consider future generations’ right to access sustainable energy. Meanwhile, intragenerational justice focuses on equitable energy distribution within a generation, including equal access to energy across regions and economic groups [17]. Langhelle stated that intragenerational justice is the priority of sustainable development [18]. RUEN has set renewable energy mix targets of 23% by 2025 and 31% by 2050, aiming to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and support the achievement of Net Zero Emissions (NZE) by 2050 at the earliest and no later than 2060 [19]. However, implementing this policy faces various challenges, such as regulations that have not fully supported renewable energy investment, unequal energy access between urban and rural areas, and the continued dominance of fossil fuels.

By understanding the challenges and opportunities, the analysis of the RUEN can yield more adaptive and reconstructive policy recommendations rooted in the principles of energy justice and ensure an energy transition that is not only technically effective but also fair for all communities.

3.3.1. Harmonization of RUEN with International Law in the Global Commitment to Climate Change

As a component of the national energy policy framework, RUEN will align with international agreements, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and in force since 1994. The UNFCCC establishes the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” (CBDR), under which developed countries bear greater responsibility for addressing climate change, while developing countries, such as Indonesia, are entitled to technological support and funding for the energy transition.

As a follow-up to the UNFCCC, Indonesia ratified the Kyoto Protocol through Law Number 17 of 2004; the Kyoto Protocol sets obligations for developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For this ratification, Indonesia has a responsibility to reduce carbon emissions. However, the RUEN lacks a precise mechanism to enforce concrete emission reductions. One of the instruments for implementing the Kyoto Protocol is the carbon market, which is currently regulated by the Financial Services Authority Regulation (POJK) Number 14 of 2023 concerning Carbon Trading through the Carbon Exchange. However, implementing this regulation faces challenges and still requires a deeper study of its legal structure and substance.

In subsequent developments, the UNFCCC gave birth to the Paris Agreement 2015, ratified by Indonesia through Law No. 16 of 2016. This agreement is more inclusive than the Kyoto Protocol because it binds all countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Under its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), Indonesia targets an independent 31.89% reduction in emissions by 2030 and a 43% reduction with international support by 2030, and aims to achieve Net Zero Emission (NZE) between 2050 and 2060.

RUEN is aligned with SDG 7 (clean and affordable energy) and SDG 13 (climate action) by setting targets for the renewable energy mix (NRE). However, its implementation still faces challenges and the incredibly inequitable distribution of energy access in remote areas. Although the principles of sustainable development have been adopted, their implementation has not been optimal in ensuring an inclusive and equitable energy transition [20], as discussed further.

As part of its global commitments, Indonesia supports various agreements with the UNFCCC, including the Glasgow Climate Pact that targets a 30% reduction in methane emissions by 2030 and the phase-out of coal-fired power plants [21]. Moreover, RUEN does not yet have a concrete policy on methane emissions, even though the energy and agriculture sectors are the main contributors to greenhouse gases [22]. In addition, the ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) 2016–2025 emphasizes transnational energy integration to increase the penetration of renewable energy. Still, this strategy has not been explicitly accommodated in national policy [23].

In addition to its involvement in the UNFCCC forum, Indonesia also participated in the G20 Bali Leaders Declaration in 2022, which affirmed the acceleration of Net Zero Emission (NZE) prior to 2060 and a more ambitious energy transition. Although the RUEN has adopted the principles of international agreements, its implementation continues to encounter challenges in enforcing and harmonizing regulations.

Concrete policies are needed to ensure the energy transition is on target and optimize international funding, such as the Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP), USD 20 billion, the Green Climate Fund (GCF), and the Adaptation Fund. However, JETP is still constrained by disbursement mechanisms, funding schemes, and transparency in utilization [24]. In addition, in January 2025, the United States’ decision to withdraw from the Paris Agreement cast doubt on the JETP [25].

In accordance with the principle of common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), developed countries should lead in mitigation and mobilize funds and technologies, while developing countries should retain policy space for growth. Indonesia’s legal obligations—the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol (17/2004) and the Paris Agreement (16/2016)—not only accept architecture but also incorporate development rights. RUEN, as a national planning instrument, operationalizes this balance. In practice, however, RUEN continues to rely on coal as a cheap and secure backup, revealing tensions in the judiciary. This conflict between the CBDR and development justice directly forms the “just transition”. Indonesia has adopted the phase reduction language for coal, joined the regional program for cross-border clean energy integration (APAEC), and introduced a carbon market framework (OJK Regulation 14/2023) to mobilize mitigation financing.

However, RUEN’s implementation report shows that transition risks are not just technocratic but also lack clearer, time-limited coal reduction and explicit equity guarantees (for low-income consumers, workers, and regions dependent on coal). Finally, Indonesia’s broader diplomatic framework (the Bali Declaration of the G20 Leaders and the Bali Agreement of the Energy Ministers) clearly links the zero-net path to energy security, affordability, and poverty alleviation. As a result, RUEN must translate these high-level commitments into binding national instruments (such as regulated retirement plans, social security funds, and equitable allocation of new renewable energy) to reconcile international climate justice with national development justice.

3.3.2. Harmonization of RUEN with National Laws and Their Implementations

Presidential Regulation Number 22 of 2017 concerning RUEN is an operational guideline for implementing the National Energy Policy (KEN) stipulated in Government Regulation No. 79 of 2014. As an operational guideline, RUEN is tasked with enacting an energy policy that aligns with the principles of energy security, efficiency, and sustainability in national environmental laws. As an implementation of KEN, RUEN should be bound by various national environmental laws and regulations governing sustainable energy management, including Law No. 30 of 2007 concerning Energy, particularly Article 11 paragraph (1), mandates the preparation of the National Energy Policy (KEN) as a guideline in sustainable energy management. As a derivative of KEN, RUEN adopts the principles of energy security and efficiency, which serve as the basis for the national energy transition strategy. Furthermore, Law No. 30 of 2009 concerning Electricity emphasizes, in Article 4 paragraph (2), stipulates that the provision of electric power must be based on energy diversification and environmentally friendly energy use. This became part of RUEN’s strategy to increase the renewable energy mix to 23% by 2025 and 31% by 2050.

In addition, Law No. 32 of 2009 on Environmental Protection and Management requires energy policies to consider aspects of environmental sustainability, as stipulated in Article 2 letter (d) and Article 43 paragraph (1). RUEN supports this policy by integrating carbon emission reduction and renewable energy development, but its implementation still faces challenges in reducing emissions from coal-based plants. Finally, Law No. 25 of 2004 concerning the National Development Planning System, particularly Article 2, paragraph (2), emphasizes that national development planning must be long-term. RUEN, which has a target until 2050, was prepared as a strategic guideline for the long-term energy transition to achieve Net Zero Emission (NZE) by 2060. RUEN, as an operational guideline for the normative implementation of national energy policies, aligns with the principles of energy security, efficiency, and sustainability in national environmental law.

To fulfill the above commitments, RUEN establishes specific national energy mix targets.

Table 1. Indonesia’s energy mix target.

Year	NRE Mix	Coal Mix	Gas Mix	Petroleum Mix
2025	23%	54%	22%	1%
2050	31%	47%	20%	2%

summarizes Indonesia’s energy mix targets as stipulated in the National Energy General Plan.

In addition, RUEN sets targets for electricity infrastructure development, especially for the provision of installed capacity of power plants. By 2025, the total installed capacity is estimated to reach 135.5 GW, consisting of 90.4 GW of fossil fuel power plants and 45.1 GW of renewable energy (NRE) power plants. By 2050, RUEN projects the installed capacity to significantly increase to 443.1 GW, consisting of 275.4 GW of fossil fuel power plants and 167.6 GW of renewable energy power plants [26].

However, the realization of the renewable energy mix has only reached 13.93% as of semester 1 of 2024 [27]. Strategic and collaborative efforts remain essential to achieving the targets outlined in the National Energy General Plan (RUEN), as Indonesia’s installed power plant capacity has yet to reach 93 GW. Of this amount, around 79.75 GW (85%) comes from fossil-based plants [28].

RUEN does not have a strong enforcement mechanism; this is evident in the achievement of the target, which is still far from the target set, so it is more normative than implemented. The RUEN is still too lax on reducing coal emissions, contrary to the recommendation of the IPCC’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to limit global warming to around 1.5 °C, meaning there should be no further increase in the amount of global emissions released into the atmosphere before 2025 and then a reduction of 43% by 2030 [29].

If the RUEN target is not met, Indonesia risks failing to fulfill the Paris Agreement, which has been ratified through Law Number 16 of 2016, and could face consequences in terms of legal and economic aspects, such as pressure from international financial institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank to reduce investment in the energy sector if Indonesia does not show progress in the energy transition. Trade sanctions from other countries if Indonesia continues to rely on coal.

4. Materials and Methods

Given the normative and governance-oriented nature of energy justice, this study required an analytical approach that went beyond purely quantitative or technical evaluations. Therefore, a qualitative policy analysis grounded in legal and governance studies was used to systematically examine how equity considerations are integrated in RUEN through Heffron’s Energy Justice Framework. Primary data consisted of official policy documents, including Presidential Regulation No. 22/2017 on RUEN, relevant national energy regulations, and Indonesia’s climate policy instruments. Secondary data were obtained from peer-reviewed academic literature, government reports, and international energy databases.

The analysis was conducted in three stages. First, justice-related provisions were identified through a systematic reading of policy texts, focusing on energy distribution, participation mechanisms, and the treatment of vulnerable groups. Second, these provisions were analytically mapped onto the three dimensions of energy justice—distributive, procedural, and recognition justice. Third, the study critically assessed gaps between policy objectives and implementation outcomes, particularly in relation to intergenerational and intragenerational equity. This framework-based qualitative analysis enables a structured evaluation of RUEN beyond technical performance, emphasizing its normative and justice-oriented implications.

5. Result

5.1. Distributive Justice

Does RUEN Accommodate Energy Justice?

From an intergenerational justice perspective, RUEN must ensure sustainable energy for future generations by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and preventing long-term environmental damage. The inability to achieve renewable energy targets jeopardizes the well-being of future generations with resource depletion and ecological harm [30]. While in terms of intragenerational Justice– Ensures equal access to energy for all communities, regardless of economic standing or geographic location. A just RUEN must bridge existing energy disparities, particularly for rural and low-income populations, ensuring an inclusive energy transition.

Intergenerational equity emphasized that the current use of energy resources should not be detrimental to future generations; in other words, energy exploitation must be carried out sustainably so that future generations can continue to access the same resources without worsening environmental impacts [31]. Intragenerational Equity emphasizes the equitable distribution of energy within a generation, across regions, between social groups, and between industrial sectors and the general public [32]. The gap in energy access between urban and rural areas and between higher- and lower-income groups remains a significant challenge for Indonesia’s energy policy [31]. RUEN, as the main guideline for national energy management, is expected to ensure a balance between current energy use and the sustainability of energy resources. Consequently, the analysis of the RUEN needs to examine the extent to which this policy has addressed the issue of justice in the access to and use of energy for the entire community.

5.2. Procedural Justice

In the context of RUEN, energy justice should accommodate recognition, distributive, and procedural justice for both intergenerational and intragenerational purposes [33]. Intergenerational Justice affirms that future generations possess the right to lead fulfilling lives undisturbed by the damage our current energy systems inflict on the environment [13]. The intergenerational justice point refers to the distribution of energy resources and benefits that not only meet the needs of the current generation but also ensure that future generations still have access to sustainable energy in line with various global policies, one of which is the SDGs, which encourage the energy transition towards cleaner and more affordable sources [34].

Intragenerational Justice, meanwhile, holds that all individuals today have a right to reasonable access to energy services [13]. Consequently, each of us has a moral responsibility to ensure that today’s children and future generations are safe. Intragenerational justice focuses on equal access to energy within the current generation, both between geographical regions and economic groups and between the industrial sector and the general public.

Procedural Justice, though less visible, plays a critical role in ensuring that the processes surrounding energy decision-making are fair, inclusive, transparent, and accountable. In the context of RUEN, this includes whether marginalized communities, local populations, women, and civil society are meaningfully involved in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of national energy policies. However, participatory mechanisms in the development of RUEN remain limited, often dominated by technocratic and centralized decision-making structures, thereby restricting the voices of those most affected by energy transitions.

The National Energy General Plan (RUEN) document, regulated by Presidential Regulation Number 22 of 2017, which is a derivative of the National Energy Policy (KEN) in Government Regulation Number 79 of 2014, serves as a strategic policy instrument that operationalizes KEN. Moreover, some of the main aspects of the electricity sector that are accommodated in the RUEN include:

Reducing dependence on fossil energy through increasing the new and renewable energy mix by 23% in 2025 and 31% in 2050 [35]. This provision refers to Article 9 paragraph (2) of Government Regulation No. 79 of 2014, which sets the direction of national energy policy to support the energy transition as part of a long-term energy security strategy.

As affirmed in the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities in the UNFCCC, each country must reduce emissions. Still, their contribution level differs according to their economic and technological capacity. In this context, Indonesia, as a developing country, still faces various challenges in the energy transition, including a high dependence on coal, relatively high NRE investment costs, and limited clean energy infrastructure and technology.

RUEN emphasized increased investment in the new renewable energy (NRE) sector, including solar, hydro, wind, and geothermal. This is in line with Article 14, paragraph (2), Presidential Regulation Number 4 of 2016 on the Acceleration of Electricity Infrastructure Development [36], which encourages NRE investment acceleration through simplifying licensing and regulations. This policy aims to increase investment attractiveness through fiscal incentives and regulatory ease to accelerate the clean energy transition. To achieve this target, the government has set the provision of NRE power generation capacity of at least 45.1 GW with the following details: (1) Geothermal Power Plant (GPP) 7.2 GW (16%), (2) 18 GW hydropower (39.8%), (3) Mini-hydro Power Plant and Micro-hydro Power Plant GW (6.6%), (4) Bioenergy Power Plant (BPP) 5.5 GW (12.2%), (5) Solar PV 6.5 GW (14.4%), (6) Wind Power Plants (WPP) 1.8 GW (4%), (7) Other NRE Power Plants 3.1 GW (6.9%).

Furthermore, to achieve a sustainable energy transition, the government targets to increase NRE contribution to at least 31% by 2050, with a total NRE power generation capacity of at least 167.6 GW which includes: (1) GPP 17.5 GW (10.5%), (2) Hydroelectric Power Plant (HPP) 38 GW (22.7%), (3) Mini-hydro Power Plant and Micro-hydro Power Plant 7 GW (4.2%), (4) BPP 26 GW (15.5%), (5) Solar Power Plants (SPP) 45 GW (26.8%), (6) WPP28 GW (16, 7%), (7) Other PLT EST 6.1 GW (3.6%) [26].

Energy diversification and efficiency policies in the electricity sector focus on optimizing the use of renewable energy, minimizing transmission and distribution losses, and promoting energy-efficient equipment [37]. These initiatives are detailed in the 2021–2030 Electricity Supply Business Plan (RUPTL), a strategic document by PT PLN (Persero) to implement the national energy policy. The plan targets over 50% of additional power capacity from renewable sources, including hydropower, geothermal, wind, and solar energy. In addition, energy losses in transmission and distribution networks have been further reduced through the implementation of Smart Grids, which enable the integration of renewable energy generation and the automation of distribution systems [38].

Regulatory, RUEN emphasizes the need to switch to clean energy with the above policies, which align with the new renewable energy (NRE) target. However, the proportion attached to the RUEN is still relatively high, and it can be said that fossil energy still dominates. Renewable energy, including geothermal, hydropower, and solar power, is increasing in the energy mix. Then, there will be a reduction in dependence on petroleum, with natural gas remaining a significant role in the national energy system [39].

RUEN seeks to create policies that support sustainable energy, including the electricity sector, but implementation remains uneven, as seen in 2019. In 2022, dependence on fossil fuels will still be high, at more than 60% [40]. The latest data in 2023 shows that around 67% of power plants in Indonesia still use coal as their primary fuel. Then, in the mix, coal accounted for 40% of the national energy mix 46% and petroleum, 30.18%. Meanwhile, the contribution of new and renewable energy (NRE) only reached 13.09%, still below the set target [27].

In RUEN, fossil energy, including all industrial raw materials, is still a top priority. One of the policies in place is to control coal production, with a maximum target of 400 million Mg since 2019 [35]. However, production remains high, reflecting significant challenges in the transition to clean energy. Although the government provides various incentives, the use of NRE remains limited due to high production costs and insufficient support for domestic industries. The realization of NRE investment in the first half of 2023 only reached 29.4% of the target of 1.8 billion US dollars, reflecting the still weak push for renewable energy development [35].

In addition, several aspects that are still a concern related to intragenerational justice from the electricity sector itself, including inequality of access to electricity between urban and rural areas. Data reveals that remote regions continue to lack adequate access to electricity. In 2016, around 7 million households (28 million Indonesians) lacked electricity, with electrification rates nearing 100% in Java but remaining below 70% in eastern Indonesia [41]. The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (EMR) has set the Electrified Village Ratio (RD) and Electrification Ratio (RE) targets for the fourth quarter of 2024. The national Electrified Village ratio was 99.92%, while PLN’s exceptional RD achievement reached 93.05%. The national electrification ratio reached 99.83%, with PLN’s RE of 98.45%. This figure increased from the previous quarter.

Despite these improvements, access gaps remain evident. By the end of December 2023, the number of households without electricity is projected to be 185,662. Meanwhile, as many as 140 villages remain unelectrified. Of these, 12 villages are in Southwest Papua, 56 in Mountainous Papua, 47 in Central Papua, and 16 in South Papua [42].

In addition to access disparities, intragenerational justice challenges are also reflected in the gaps in energy subsidies. Fossil fuel subsidies tend to benefit the upper-middle class more than low-income people who need cheap energy, so the principle of solutions has not been realized in proportion or equity. Furthermore, in the National Energy General Plan (RUEN), the environmental and health repercussions of using fossil fuels are primary concerns, especially for vulnerable groups such as miners, communities near coal-fired power plants, women, children, and people on low incomes. RUEN also stated that emissions from fossil-based power plants contribute to air pollution, respiratory disorders, and climate change, significantly impacting people’s health and well-being [43].

Looking at the issues discussed above, both intergenerational and intragenerational justice considerations have been implicitly incorporated into RUEN. However, significant challenges remain in their practical implementation. One major obstacle lies in the fact that policies, regulations, and incentives for NRE developers remain limited compared to those for fossil fuel subsidies, making them less attractive to investors. In addition, infrastructure and technology, as well as limited electricity transmission networks, hinder the large-scale adoption of renewable energy. Cost considerations also remain a critical issue. The NRE production costs are still higher than those of fossil energy in the short term. The average price of electricity from NRE is Rp1500 (USD 0.09) per kWh, while electricity from fossil fuels is priced between Rp500 (USD 0.03) and Rp700 (USD 0.04) per kWh. However, in the long term, NRE tends to be cheaper and more sustainable [44]. The decline in the price of NRE technology, such as Solar Power Plants (SPP) and Wind Power Plants (WPP), is a positive sign. For example, the cost of electricity from Cirata solar PV is USD 5.8 per kWh, which is more competitive than that of some fossil-based plants [38].

From the standpoint of intragenerational justice, RUEN continues to face obstacles to improving the renewable energy mix, which exacerbates regional inequality in access to electricity [45]. People in remote areas still depend on fossil-fuel power plants or lack adequate access to electricity. The dominance of coal in the energy mix also leads to uncompetitive electricity prices, thereby burdening the lower-middle-income group. This shows that distributive justice in the RUEN is still not optimally achieved, as the benefits of the energy transition have not been felt equally across the entire community.

5.3. Recognition Justice

RUEN’s still-lax policy for reducing coal emissions slows the energy transition and further damages the environment by increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [46]. This could hurt intergenerational interests and exacerbate the current intragenerational energy inequality. As a result, the energy transition targets in the RUEN are challenging to achieve, and the commitment to the Paris Agreement is weakening.

In conclusion, the RUEN has, in principle, incorporated the concept of energy justice to serve both intergenerational and intragenerational interests by targeting an increase in the share of renewable energy. However, there is still a significant gap in its implementation. Dependence on fossil energy remains high, the energy transition is slow, and the realization of the renewable energy mix is still far from the target.

From the perspective of distributive justice, inequality still occurs in the distribution of benefits and burdens of the energy transition [47]. Dependence on coal creates long-term environmental impacts, such as extreme climate change and stranded assets, which burden future generations (intergenerational justice). Meanwhile, uneven access to electricity, the untargeted distribution of energy subsidies, and environmental impacts enable groups to demonstrate that inequalities persist in the national energy policy (intragenerational justice).

From the standpoint of recognition justice, the groups most affected by the energy transition, such as indigenous peoples, coastal communities, rural populations, and women, remain insufficiently acknowledged in the policymaking process. Their knowledge systems, environmental relationships, and social vulnerabilities are often excluded from formal planning, which tends to prioritize technocratic and market-based approaches. This lack of recognition not only undermines the legitimacy of the energy transition but also perpetuates structural injustices. The absence of gender-sensitive and culturally responsive policies in RUEN highlights how social dimensions of justice remain marginalized. Consequently, the transition risks reinforcing existing inequalities rather than correcting them, as it fails to center the voices and interests of those disproportionately impacted [20], such as indigenous peoples, women, and coastal or rural communities. This persistent lack of recognition undermines the legitimacy and inclusivity of the transition, while weak transparency and participatory mechanisms, particularly in remote areas, further limit meaningful public engagement in energy planning.

RUEN did not recognize or protect marginalized constituencies in its policy text or implementation. The objectives of renewable energy do not align with the binding provisions of free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC), gender-sensitive budgets, complaints, and benefits-sharing mechanisms, or local access requests. Indigenous communities in Kalimantan and Sulawesi are faced with insufficient consultations and compensation for geothermal and hydroelectric projects, disproportionately high energy poverty, and households led by women that cannot use targeted programs or reliable food and electricity indicators, while traditional fishing communities in Maluku and Nusa Tenggara are disadvantaged by high tariffs and insecure supply, which undermine political legitimacy, concentrate transitional burdens on already vulnerable groups, and re-represent structural inequality in generations and generations.

In addition, from procedural justice, public involvement in the formulation of energy policies remains constrained, especially for people in remote areas with minimal access to information and decision-making processes [48]. The lack of transparency in energy policy further impedes meaningful public participation, hindering the advancement of a just and inclusive energy transition [49]. Neither RUEN nor its attachment provides evidence of systematic public consultation (excluding published drafts, participants, summary of submissions, and adoption/dismissal of public comments). The 2016 DEN plenary record shows a pathway of internal approval between agencies, rather than an open consultation forum involving indigenous communities, low-income households, women-led households, or coastal fishing communities, groups that are directly affected by the transition. In contrast, the JETP process in Indonesia, launched in 2025, held public consultations on its progress report (including open access and feedback), demonstrating that transparent and inclusive mechanisms in national energy governance are possible, even if they are not included in the RUEN cycle.

With these various challenges, it can be concluded that the principle of energy justice sustainability has not been fully realized in the RUEN. It is necessary to strengthen policies that favor a just energy transition, accelerate investment in renewable energy, and increase transparency and community participation to achieve equitable energy security for current and future generations. The lack of recognition for vulnerable groups such as indigenous peoples, women, and coastal or rural communities undermines the legitimacy and inclusivity of the transition. Furthermore, transparency and participatory mechanisms in energy planning remain weak, particularly for those in remote areas.

5.4. Gaps and Challenges of RUEN Implementation

Three contributions to energy justice for intergenerational and intragenerational justice are Distributive Justice, Procedural Justice, and Recognition Justice. The framework parameter is from the energy justice law and policy triangle, with economics, politics, and the environment at its core. Energy justice is advanced here by providing a solution to the energy trilemma, as it is a more effective way of conceiving energy problems; it not only challenges the trilemma but, in essence, goes beyond it [50].

Heffron emphasized that intergenerational energy justice must prioritize sustainability, emission reduction, and responsible energy management. Implementing a just energy transition also requires a social contract formulated and regulated through a legal framework [51]. For this reason, developing an energy justice framework that includes key principles such as availability, affordability, fair processes, and good governance is necessary.

However, unequal access to electricity, untargeted subsidies, exclusion of marginalized groups, and limited public participation in policymaking processes reveal structural and procedural deficiencies in the current governance model. These gaps hinder the realization of distributive, procedural, and recognition justice in Indonesia’s energy transition and indicate that RUEN implementation has yet to fully integrate the foundational pillars of energy justice. Similar governance challenges have been addressed differently in other national contexts. For example, China’s ecological civilization framework adopts a polycentric governance model that combines flexibility, market incentives, and binding law enforcement to support adaptive and accountable energy transition governance [52]. Furthermore, recent studies on energy justice in the Global South show that principles of justice are interpreted and implemented differently in various national policy contexts, rather than following a single universal model [53], underscoring the importance of governance design in shaping energy justice outcomes.

One of the most visible manifestations of these governance deficiencies, particularly in the context of intragenerational justice, is the unequal distribution of energy access within a single generation. Uneven distribution of benefits and energy burden can exacerbate inequality [54]. Therefore, equitable access to energy, including for disadvantaged regions, must be ensured to achieve 100% national electrification by 2030. Electricity tariff policies that subsidize affordable, targeted energy prices for vulnerable groups are also essential for realizing energy justice.

However, despite its implementation, inequality in access to electricity remains a significant challenge. The current electricity infrastructure is still not fully integrated. Electricity transmission in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua is not fully connected, hindering equitable energy supply. As a result, the national electrification rate has only reached 88.5%, indicating that around 29.4 million households in Indonesia have not yet received electricity [48]. A total electrification ratio obscures heterogeneity in relation, reliability, and affordability. Other unskilled and unreliable households are concentrated disproportionately in rural and remote areas, including low-income households, indigenous communities, and female heads of households. Beyond mere connection, time to connect and the cost of last-mile access result in a systematic lack of energy capacity. Therefore, an equitable electrification agenda should include access mandates by place, lifeline tariffs for vulnerable consumers, and dedicated off-grid/mini-grid deployments where transmission expansion is not cost-effective, so that regional and income differences can be narrowed rather than remaining behind a single national average.

Procedural fairness ensures that future generations can formulate sustainable energy policies [55]. People have the right to participate in energy decision-making, especially those directly impacted by it. Therefore, energy investment decisions must take into account the rights of affected communities [56] to ensure that intragenerational and intergenerational interests are accommodated inclusively and equitably.

Recognition of justice is needed to account for the impact of energy policy on future generations and to prevent excessive exploitation of energy resources. The participation of young people in energy planning is crucial so that the policies prioritize not only short-term interests but also long-term sustainability [57]. Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG)-based policy transparency must be strengthened to ensure accountability and openness in energy management [58].

Furthermore, recognizing the rights of communities affected by the energy transition must be integral to a just policy. This encompasses preventing the marginalization of low-income people in energy policy, ensuring compensation funds for coal industry workers affected by decarbonization, and increasing investment in renewable energy in disadvantaged areas. By adopting this approach, the energy transition is oriented towards economic growth and prioritizes intergenerational balance and social inclusivity [59].

The energy justice paradigm must reflect the balance between intergenerational and intragenerational interests. Currently, RUEN has not explicitly accommodated this principle. Therefore, increasing the fossil energy reduction target by more than 50% is necessary, underpinned by advances in smart grids and energy storage systems to ensure sustainability.

In the context of intrageneration, energy policies must ensure equal access, especially for disadvantaged regions, and implement needs-based subsidies to make energy prices affordable for vulnerable groups. This approach aims to create an energy system that is efficient, sustainable, and also equitable for all levels of society today and in the future [60].

However, the development of renewable energy continues to face significant challenges; foremost among them is the persistence of large fossil fuel subsidies that distort markets and hinder the competitiveness of renewable energy. These structural imbalances disincentivize private sector investment and delay the transition to cleaner energy systems [61].

The current RUEN has not explicitly balanced intergenerational and intragenerational justice in energy transition policies. The ideal approach to energy justice sustainability requires a balance between the two: ensuring that energy remains available to future generations while ensuring a fair and inclusive energy distribution for today’s society. For this reason, RUEN needs to set a target to reduce fossil fuel use by more than 50% within a specified period, supported by strengthening clean energy infrastructure, such as smart grids and energy storage systems. Electrification in disadvantaged areas must also be accelerated to reduce energy access inequality.

Regarding funding, Indonesia cannot solely depend on the Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP). An independent strategy is required through blended finance, such as using green bonds, pension funds, and a more targeted carbon tax. With this approach, the energy transition can be more sustainable and equitable for all generations.

In addition, the phase-out strategy for Steam Power Plants (SPPs) must be implemented gradually and adaptively to avoid the risk of stranded assets. Instead of abruptly halting operations, the repurposing policy presents a more sustainable alternative. Biomass co-firing technology and converting coal-fired power plants to hydrogen or ammonia-based plants offer a more realistic approach to the transition, especially given the long-term contracts that still bind most coal-fired power plants in Indonesia.

On the other hand, the acceleration of renewable energy development must be oriented towards more cost-effective and locally driven solutions [62]. Dependence on large-scale projects utilizing imported technology needs to be reduced through an energy decentralization strategy. With the support of fiscal incentives, rooftop Solar Power Plants (SPP) for the residential and small industrial sectors can increase community participation in the energy transition. In addition, optimizing micro hydro and bioenergy power plants in remote areas can help reduce dependence on fossil-based energy, especially diesel, which remains dominant in regions with limited access to electricity.

Energy subsidy reform is crucial to ensure a just transition [63]. Currently, fuel subsidies benefit the middle and upper classes more. Therefore, fiscal support must be diverted to renewable energy, such as incentives for installing rooftop solar power plants for poor households and MSMEs. Implementing progressive electricity tariffs can also be a solution, where high consumption is charged more expensive tariffs while vulnerable groups still have access to affordable energy. Integrating this policy with the carbon market mechanism will accelerate decarbonization and ensure sustainable energy equity.

In addition to financial and policy aspects, capacity building and technology transfer are key elements in the energy transition [45]. Indonesia’s reliance on imported renewable energy technology increases the cost of clean energy projects. Therefore, local policies must encourage at least 50% of the domestic component to accelerate the development of national industries and create jobs. Strengthening international partnerships in technology transfer and workforce training is also needed so that Indonesia is not just a foreign technology market but can build independent and sustainable national capacity [64]. With innovative funding strategies, a gradual transition from coal-fired power plants, the development of locally based renewable energy, and fairer subsidy reforms, Indonesia can accelerate the energy transition sustainably without sacrificing economic stability and public welfare.

Current subsidy structures have regressive features: universal or poorly targeted subsidies disproportionately benefit higher-consumption households and grid-connected urban users while crowding out fiscal space for renewables in disadvantaged regions. At the same time, fossil fuel price support suppresses the competitiveness of distributed renewables and locks in pollution burdens around coal- and diesel-fired clusters sited near lower-income and rural communities. A justice-consistent reform would reallocate subsidies toward lifeline blocks and clean cooking for the poorest deciles, phase down fossil fuel support, and redirect fiscal savings toward distributed solar, micro-hydro, and storage in Eastern and remote provinces. This realignment directly links budget flows to fairness outcomes by alleviating energy poverty where it is most acute.

6. Discussion

The findings of this study highlight that RUEN’s approach to Indonesia’s energy transition reflects the interplay between policy ambition and equity-related constraints. While the RUEN expresses a long-term commitment to renewable energy development and emissions reduction, its implementation shows that there are challenges in ensuring equitable distribution, inclusive decision-making, and adequate recognition of vulnerable groups. Interpreting these findings through an energy justice lens emphasizes that the effectiveness of national energy planning cannot be measured solely based on technical targets, but must also be evaluated based on social and governance implications.

The National Energy General Plan (RUEN) is consistent with prevailing national regulations, including Presidential Regulation No. 22/2017, the Energy Law, environmental protection laws, and international commitments. However, its execution remains inadequate due to the absence of robust enforcement mechanisms for non-compliance and the lack of an aggressive transition strategy from coal to renewable energy. There are no explicit penalties for failing to meet RUEN targets. Energy policies that continue to prioritize the interests of the coal industry suggest that Energy Justice Sustainability, in terms of intergenerational and intragenerational equity, is not yet fully integrated into policy design and implementation.

To ensure the effective implementation of the principles of energy justice, Indonesia’s policy framework must consider the technical characteristics and system implications of various renewable energy sources. Hydropower and bioenergy are transitional energy sources and flexible balancers of base and peak load amid massive renewable energy development. They play a crucial role in providing stable generation to support a just transition. In contrast, large-scale solar PV can introduce operational variability due to weather dependence, leading to intermittency and requiring efficient, expensive energy storage to ensure a continuous energy supply. This can be a barrier for countries that lack sufficient financial resources. Therefore, integrating these technical considerations into the RUEN implementation roadmap is crucial to prevent uneven energy reliability across regions and to avoid disproportionately burdening communities in areas with weaker grid infrastructure.

Several policy measures could be considered to fortify energy justice within RUEN: Enhancing incentives and blended finance mechanisms to accelerate renewable energy deployment without over-reliance on foreign funding. Implementing a phased coal phase-out strategy through repurposing to prevent stranded assets. Promoting community-driven energy solutions, such as rooftop solar and micro-hydro, to mitigate energy access disparities. Reforming subsidies to prioritize renewable energy incentives for low-income households. Strengthening technology transfer mechanisms and augmenting local content requirements in renewable energy projects. Ensuring broader public participation, particularly among vulnerable groups and youth, by adopting Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) principles and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG)-based policies. These measures could help integrate energy justice into national energy planning, ensuring a fairer transition for current and future generations.

To balance RUEN’s intra- and inter-generational justice, structural tensions must be recognized: rapid reductions in coal emissions and ecological risks (inter-generational justice) reduce the cumulative emissions of future generations but can cause short-term losses to current workers, regions, and low-income consumers (intra-generational justice). The commitments of Indonesia under the UNFCCC and the Glasgow Climate Pact to “progress towards unabated coal power” are the long-term benchmarks of equity, but the priority of RUEN on affordability and energy security highlights the immediate claims of equity, maintaining stable tariffs and expanding access, especially in grids that are still dependent on coal. Against this standard, RUEN demonstrated deficiencies in balancing. There are no binding retirement schedules or eligibility rules for the “no new” unabated coal, and there are no social guarantees commensurate with the scale of labor migration in coal regions (e.g., structured training, regional diversification funds, guaranteed benefit allocations).

The result is a policy that can achieve the development justice objectives on paper (access, affordability) but delays the benefits from accelerated decarbonization for generations. External assessments of Indonesia’s energy plan further indicate imbalanced financing and weak implementation signals, resulting in prolonged coal availability and slow renewable deployment. In order to address the conflict, RUEN should set out a three-part strategy: first, adopt a time-bound coal reduction policy associated with deliverable international support (contractual financing, technological transfer), with prioritization of the retirement of plants near vulnerable communities and strict “no new-unabated” rules; second, establish equity safeguards—lifeline tariffs and targeted clean cooking; third, integrate regional energy to transfer renewable generation to demand centers and publish an indicator dashboard so that near-term.

7. Conclusions

This study shows that Indonesia’s General National Energy Plan (RUEN) is not only a strategic policy instrument for the energy transition, but also addresses intersecting issues of equity, governance and sustainability. Through the Energy Justice framework, the strengths and limitations of the RUEN highlight the importance of incorporating equity considerations in national energy planning to ensure a just and inclusive transition.

Based on this assessment, this study highlights three main conclusion points. First, to address the gap in recognition of justice, the revision of RUEN should include gender and social inclusion impact assessments for all major energy projects and political instruments. These tools will ensure that vulnerable groups such as women heads of household, indigenous communities, and coastal fishermen are explicitly considered in project design and monitoring. The inclusion of these requirements will transform recognition of aspirational language into effective obligations, strengthening legitimacy and inclusion in the energy transition.

Second, to overcome procedural and distribution gaps, RUEN should adopt formal public consultation protocols that include draft disclosure, a minimum comment period, reporting on participant composition, and a comment-response matrix to document how feedback is integrated. At the same time, equitable distribution requires location-based electrification mandates, targeting the deployment of mini-grids and rooftop solar in remote provinces, and low-income households to pay lifeline taxes. These measures reduce regional differences and ensure that affordability and reliability are supported by equity indicators, such as household energy expenditure and the SAIDI/SAIFI scores of remote feeders.

Third, to reconcile tensions between generational and intragenerational justice, RUEN must enact time-limited coal-reduction plans linked to international financial and technology-transfer commitments. This should be combined with a just transition program that supports workers and communities dependent on coal and offers regional income support, training, and diversification. Without these safeguards, rapid carbon reduction could cause short-term social damage, even if it brings long-term environmental benefits. A balanced approach will align RUS with global climate obligations while protecting national development justice.

Finally, to close funding and accountability gaps, RUEN should establish a closed-loop fiscal mechanism that allocates carbon tax and carbon market revenues solely to transitional measures, including labor retraining and the deployment of renewable energy in underserved areas. The RUEN Justice Dashboard should publicly report on progress in emissions reduction, coal retirement, equity indicators, and participation measures. These instruments will not only ensure fairness but also transparency and measurable outcomes, supporting the sustainability and inclusion of Indonesia’s energy transition.