Integrated Sustainability Assessment of Morocco’s Renewable Energy Transition: Comparative Analysis of Solar, Wind, and Hydropower Development

Abstract

Morocco has emerged as a prominent renewable energy leader in North Africa and a significant contributor to the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region through the extensive implementation of solar, wind, and hydropower technologies, supported by a sophisticated legal framework established since 2010. This study presents an integrated sustainability assessment of Morocco’s renewable energy transition through a structured comparative analysis of these three technologies across technical, economic, environmental, and socioeconomic dimensions. The methodology is built on a structured literature search and screening process covering 71 peer-reviewed articles and institutional reports published between 2010 and 2025. In order to facilitate the comparative sustainability assessment, sources were identified through Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and institutional repositories such as MASEN, IRENA, IEA, and the World Bank. Each technology was relatively evaluated using six sustainability criteria: energy security contribution, economic competitiveness, environmental sustainability, grid stability contribution, scalability potential, and socioeconomic impact. The assessment utilized quantitative indicators extracted from institutional databases and peer-reviewed literature with a standardized scoring framework and sensitivity analysis to determine the robustness of the technology rankings under alternative policy-priority scenarios. Technologies were comparatively scored on a standardized 1–5 scale based on quantitative proxies including installed capacity (MW), levelized cost of energy (USD/MWh), capacity factor (%), CO₂ avoided (tCO₂/GWh), jobs per MW, and dispatchability characteristics. A sensitivity analysis using five alternative weighting scenarios representing different policy priorities confirmed the robustness and consistency of the technology rankings. The comparative assessment indicates that solar energy achieved the highest scalability score (5/5), wind energy achieved the highest economic competitiveness score (5/5), and hydropower achieved the highest grid stability score (5/5), owing to its dispatchability and pumped-storage capability. The findings confirm that Morocco’s transition rests on technological complementarity rather than dominance by a single source. Structural challenges persist, including intermittency, storage insufficiency, grid modernization requirements, external financing dependency, and territorial disparities in socioeconomic benefits. The study proposes a replicable comparative sustainability assessment framework that can support renewable energy planning and policy decisions in Morocco and other emerging economies pursuing large-scale energy transitions.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the global energy sector has experienced a profound transformation driven by concerns over climate change, environmental pressures, and volatility in fossil fuel markets. As a result, the transition to sustainable energy has become a strategic priority for environmental protection, energy security, and long-term economic stability [1].

Within this global shift, Morocco has emerged as a regional leader in renewable energy development, leveraging its significant solar and wind resources alongside its strategic geographic location. Historically reliant on imported energy, Morocco has been vulnerable to external price fluctuations and supply disruptions [2].

To overcome these vulnerabilities, Morocco has implemented an ambitious energy transition strategy focused on expanding renewable energy capacity, improving energy efficiency, upgrading electricity infrastructure and enhancing national energy security [3]. This transformation is supported by institutional and regulatory reforms and large-scale infrastructure projects such as the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex and the Tarfaya Wind Farm [4]. Additionally, Morocco has advanced strategic initiatives like the Green Hydrogen Roadmap, underscoring its long-term decarbonization goals and its ambition to become a regional hub for clean energy production [5]. Prior assessments indicate that Morocco’s National Energy Strategy is based on the harmonious use of solar, wind, and hydropower resources, enabling the mitigation of variability in specific renewable technologies through diversified resource availability [6].

Beyond technological deployment, increasing attention has been directed toward the broader socioeconomic implications of renewable energy expansion. Previous studies highlight the potential impacts of renewable energy development on employment creation, local economic activity, infrastructure development, and regional growth [7,8]. However, despite the growing body of literature, comprehensive analyses integrating Morocco’s main renewable energy sectors with their broader socioeconomic impacts remain limited.

Therefore, the main objective of this study is to analyze the development of Morocco’s key renewable energy sectors—solar, wind, and hydropower—and to assess their socioeconomic impacts within the framework of sustainable development. The study is based on a bibliographic review of academic literature, policy reports, and institutional data. It is hypothesized that the expansion of renewable energy in Morocco contributes positively to socioeconomic development by enhancing energy security, generating employment opportunities, and supporting regional economic growth.

This study contributes to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive and integrated analysis of Morocco’s renewable energy landscape and its socioeconomic implications, highlighting the role of renewable energy as a driver of sustainable development in emerging economies.

The novelty of this research stems from integrating multidimensional sustainability indicators into a transparent comparative scoring framework supported by quantitative evidence and sensitivity analysis. Unlike previous descriptive reviews, the proposed framework facilitates a structured and reproducible evaluation of renewable-energy technologies and offers a transferable methodology that can be implemented in other emerging economies that are in the process of transitioning to energy. The study provides a practical decision-support instrument for renewable energy planning and policy development by integrating technical, economic, environmental, and socioeconomic dimensions within a unified evaluation framework.

2. Materials and Methods

This study uses a structured qualitative–quantitative comparative assessment to evaluate the sustainability performance of Morocco’s three main renewable energy technologies: solar, wind, and hydropower. The methodology consists of four sequential steps: (1) structured literature identification and screening, (2) thematic data extraction and classification, (3) indicator operationalization into a quantitative proxy matrix, and (4) comparative scoring with explicit justification and sensitivity analysis. The literature search procedure was intended to ensure transparency and reproducibility in the selection of relevant academic and institutional sources supporting the assessment framework.

2.1. Literature Search and Screening

Sources were identified through a structured literature search executed across four academic databases (Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar) together with institutional repositories (MASEN, IRENA, IEA, World Bank, UNDP, and GIZ). The search encompassed publications between 2010 and 2025 and adhered to a transparent identification, screening, eligibility, and selection process adapted for this comparative sustainability assessment. The year 2010 was selected as the starting boundary because it corresponds to the enactment of Law 13-09 on Renewable Energies, which formally launched Morocco’s large-scale renewable energy deployment framework and the National Energy Strategy targeting 42% renewable electricity by 2020 and 52% by 2030.

The following search strings were applied:

• («Morocco» OR «Maroc») AND («renewable energy» OR «solar energy» OR «wind energy» OR «hydropower») AND («sustainability» OR «energy transition» OR «socioeconomic impact»)
• («Morocco») AND («NOOR» OR «Tarfaya» OR «Ain Beni Mathar» OR «MASEN») AND («capacity» OR «investment» OR «employment»)
• («Maroc») AND («énergie renouvelable» OR «énergie solaire» OR «éolien» OR «hydroélectricité») AND («transition énergétique» OR «impact socioéconomique»)

Inclusion criteria: peer-reviewed articles, institutional reports, and official documents directly addressing Morocco’s renewable energy development, policy, capacity data, economic performance, environmental impacts, or socioeconomic outcomes, published between 2010 and 2025, in English or French.

Exclusion criteria: studies unrelated to Morocco’s energy sector, grey literature without institutional affiliation, documents predating the 2010 policy framework, and sources addressing unrelated sectors.

A total of 187 records were identified across all sources. After removing 24 duplicates, 163 records were screened by title and abstract. Of these, 69 were excluded for not being Morocco-specific or addressing unrelated sectors. Ninety-four full texts were assessed for eligibility; 23 were further excluded for lacking quantitative energy data (n = 10), predating 2010 (n = 6), or being unrelated to the scope (n = 7). A final corpus of 71 sources was retained: 48 peer-reviewed articles and 23 institutional reports. The complete study selection process is summarized in Figure 1.

2.2. Data Extraction and Thematic Classification

Retained sources were classified into four thematic categories: (i) technical performance and capacity data, (ii) economic and investment indicators, (iii) environmental impacts, and (iv) socioeconomic and regional development outcomes. For each technology, quantitative indicators were extracted where available, including installed capacity (MW), annual generation (GWh), capacity factor (%), levelized cost of energy proxies (USD/MWh), jobs created per MW, CO₂ emissions avoided (tCO₂/GWh), land use (km²/GWh), water dependency, and dispatchability characteristics. Where primary quantitative data were unavailable, qualitative assessments from institutional sources (IRENA, MASEN, IEA, ONEE) were used and explicitly flagged in the scoring justification.

2.3. Scoring Framework and Sensitivity Analysis

Each technology was assessed on a scale of 1 to 5 based on six sustainability criteria. Although the scoring framework was primarily derived from quantitative indicators sourced from institutional databases and peer-reviewed literature, the conversion of these indicators into the standardized 1–5 performance scale necessitated an analytical interpretation of the available evidence to guarantee a consistent comparison across technologies. Technologies were ranked for each criterion based on the relevant quantitative indicator, and the resulting relative rankings were converted into standardized performance scores. The resilience of the scoring methodology was additionally assessed using sensitivity analysis using five different weighting scenarios. This method is commonly advised for evaluating the stability of composite indicator rankings under different weighting assumptions [8,9]. The score scale is delineated as follows:

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Score ⁵/₅: Strongly outperforms the other two technologies on the criterion’s evidence base

-

Score ⁴/₅: Performs well with only minor limitations

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Score ³/₅: Moderate performance with notable trade-offs

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Score ²/₅: Below-average performance with significant structural constraints

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Score ¹/₅: Weakest performer with major limitations relative to the other technologies

A sensitivity analysis was performed to assess the robustness of the proposed scoring framework by adjusting the relative weights assigned to the six sustainability criteria under five alternative weighting scenarios: (i) Baseline (equal weighting), (ii) Technical Emphasis, (iii) Economic Emphasis, (iv) Social Emphasis, and (v) Grid Stability Emphasis. The baseline scenario prioritizes all criteria nearly equally, while the remaining scenarios prioritize distinct policy objectives. The objective was to determine whether the comparative evaluation of renewable energy technologies remained consistent under alternative weighting assumptions, rather than to evaluate the uncertainty in the underlying input data or scoring procedure [10].

2.4. Methodological Limitations

The comparative sustainability assessment of this study was conducted using secondary data from institutional reports, international databases, and peer-reviewed literature. Quantitative indicators were included to increase transparency and consistency, but the comparative scoring framework necessarily includes a degree of expert judgment in interpreting quantitative evidence to qualitative descriptors and 1–5 performance scores in the cross-sector assessment.

Thus, the scoring approach should be seen as a comparative analytical tool, rather than an accurate quantitative optimization model. Moreover, certain indicators relied on reported ranges and aggregated national numbers, as technology-specific Moroccan information was not available consistently for all assessment criteria. To evaluate the robustness of the results, a sensitivity analysis was conducted using alternative weighting scenarios. The stability of the rankings produced in these scenarios implies that acceptable changes in weighting assumptions do not substantially influence the main conclusions of the study.

To minimize subjectivity, all rankings were based on clear quantitative metrics sourced from institutional statistics and peer-reviewed literature, with robustness confirmed by different weighting scenarios instead of depending on expert judgment.

Unlike a conventional narrative review, this research integrates technical, economic, environmental, and socioeconomic evidence into a transparent comparative scoring framework reinforced by quantitative indicators and robustness evaluation. This organized synthesis facilitates cross-technology comparison and offers a replicable decision-support framework for renewable energy planning.

3. Results and Discussion

The findings presented in this section are derived from the integrated comparative sustainability assessment developed in this study and are supported by evidence synthesized from institutional reports, secondary quantitative indicators, and peer-reviewed literature. The opening paragraphs summarize the principal findings of the integrated assessment, while the subsequent subsections provide a detailed discussion of each renewable energy technology and its contribution to Morocco’s energy transition.

The integrated study reveals that the interdependence of energy security, economic modernization, and environmental sustainability goals is driving Morocco’s renewable energy transformation. Renewable energy deployment has progressed beyond a sectoral electricity strategy to become an integral part of national development and infrastructure planning.

The results also show that the use of renewable energy boosts infrastructure modernization, industrial growth, macroeconomic stability, and the attraction of foreign investment. However, the shift continues to encounter structural challenges such as grid integration limits, financial dependence, storage shortage, and regional variations in socioeconomic advantages.

Despite the significant employment and investment created by renewable energy development, socioeconomic advantages are spatially uneven. Solar development has mainly advantaged the Drâa-Tafilalet region via employment and industrial initiatives near Ouarzazate, whilst wind investments have predominantly provided benefits in Tangier-Tétouan-Al Hoceïma and Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra. In contrast, numerous inland and rural areas continue to have more limited long-term industrial development, despite the presence of renewable energy infrastructure. Enhancing local supply chains, vocational education, and regional manufacturing would reinforce territorial inclusivity and optimize the allocation of socioeconomic advantages.

The analysis demonstrates that Morocco’s transition is largely driven by the obligation to reduce fossil-fuel import dependency while responding to growing electricity demand and international climate commitments. Solar, wind, and hydropower technologies are complementary components of the national energy system, contributing variously to technical performance, economic competitiveness, and grid stability.

Solar energy emerges as the dominating expansion industry due to Morocco’s high solar potential and large-scale investments, but intermittency and storage dependency remain significant issues. Wind energy has a high economic competitiveness and deployment potential, particularly in coastal regions with ideal wind conditions. Despite its limited scalability, hydropower contributes significantly to grid stabilization and renewable integration.

Overall, the assessment findings show that Morocco’s transition to renewable energy is a complex and dynamic process influenced by interactions between institutional governance, economic competitiveness, technology advancement, and environmental sustainability considerations.

3.1. Morocco’s Energy Landscape

Morocco’s energy sector has seen tremendous transformation over the last two decades, establishing the country as a pioneer in renewable energy production in the MENA region. Faced with high energy import dependency, fast urbanization, and rising electricity consumption, Morocco launched an ambitious energy transition strategy centered on sustainability, energy security, and economic resilience. This shift has been aided by good geographical conditions, evolving regulatory frameworks, and international collaboration. Simultaneously, institutional and regulatory reforms have enhanced sustainability goals by incorporating them into sector policies. As power consumption has risen, installed generation capacity has steadily increased, with renewable energy emerging as an important component of the national energy mix, despite the fact that the industrial sector continues to be the greatest electricity consumer [11]. According to recent estimates, Morocco’s power system continues to confront structural challenges from rising demand, energy security concerns, and decarbonization goals. Despite tremendous progress in renewable energy deployment, fossil fuels, particularly coal, continue to play a vital role in power generation, demonstrating the trade-offs between cost efficiency, system dependability, and environmental commitments [12]. At the same time, Morocco’s commitment to diversifying its energy mix and enhancing long-term energy resilience is seen in the expansion of renewable capacity and grid modernization programs.

In this context, the following chapter provides an overview of Morocco’s energy landscape, focusing on the current energy situation, the renewable energy regulatory framework, and the socioeconomic impacts of sustainable energy integration.

3.2. The Potential of Renewable Energies in Morocco

Morocco’s renewable energy transition is further influenced by structural constraints due to its large reliance on imported energy and limited domestic hydrocarbon resources. In response, the government unveiled the National Energy Strategy (NES), which included energy efficiency initiatives along with ambitious targets to expand renewable energy capacity via balanced contributions from hydropower, solar, and wind [13,14]. Morocco’s abundant solar irradiation and wind potential have been well documented in the literature, supporting large-scale renewable deployment [15,16]. Although renewable technologies encountered initial economic and technological challenges, their growing worldwide competitiveness has enhanced their significance in Morocco’s long-term energy diversification policy [13].

3.3. Limitations and Strategic Aims of Morocco’s Electricity Sector

Despite the gradual diversification of Morocco’s electricity mix, coal served as the dominant source of electricity production during the study period (Figure 2). The total electricity generation increased from approximately 24,000 GWh in 2010 to approximately 30,000 GWh in 2022. Coal generation remained the largest contributor to national electricity production, increasing from approximately 10,000–11,000 GWh in 2010 to approximately 15,000 GWh in 2022 [2]. During the same period, the generation of natural gas decreased from approximately 5000–5500 GWh to approximately 4000–4500 GWh, while the generation of electricity from oil and other fossil fuels progressively decreased. The Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex and large-scale wind farms were the primary factors contributing to the substantial increase in renewable electricity generation that occurred after 2015. Wind generation increased from approximately 1000 GWh in 2010 to over 4000 GWh in 2022, while solar generation increased from negligible levels to approximately 2000 GWh. Throughout the study period, hydropower generation remained relatively consistent at approximately 2000–3000 GWh, which is indicative of hydrological variability rather than significant capacity additions [17]. The overall contribution of renewable electricity continued to increase despite the temporary reduction in natural gas generation and the increased short-term reliance on other fossil fuels to maintain electricity supply security due to the suspension of the Maghreb–Europe Gas Pipeline in 2021 [2]. Previous modeling studies have also suggested that a substantial increase in renewable penetration is technically feasible, provided that grid flexibility, energy storage, technological diversification, and regulatory coordination continue to improve [18].

Although Figure 2 depicts the evolution of Morocco’s electricity generation mix and the increasing role of renewable energy sources, the broader implications for national energy security are not completely captured by changes in the generation portfolio. In order to more accurately evaluate the influence of renewable energy deployment on Morocco’s energy transition, it is also necessary to analyze the country’s reliance on imported energy resources and the patterns in electricity demand. The evolution of national electricity consumption and the energy dependency ratio between 2004 and 2020 is therefore presented in Figure 3, which complements the previous analysis. Together, these indicators present an indication of whether the expansion of renewable electricity generation has helped to reduce Morocco’s structural dependence on imported fossil fuels while simultaneously satisfying the country’s growing electricity demand.

Figure 3 illustrates two national energy indicators for the period 2004–2020: Morocco’s energy dependency ratio, represented as the percentage of total primary energy sourced from imports (right axis, %), and national electricity consumption, quantified in gigawatt-hours (left axis, GWh). Electricity consumption rose consistently from over 18,500 GWh in 2004 to almost 28,000 GWh in 2020, indicative of persistent economic expansion, urbanization, industrial advancement, and heightened electrification. Throughout the same timeframe, Morocco’s energy dependency regularly ranged from roughly 90% to 96%. The reliance ratio attained local maxima of roughly 96% in 2008 and 2014, then decreased to around 91% by 2020. Although Morocco continued to extensively rely on imported fossil fuels to meet national energy demand, the rapid deployment of renewable energy projects, particularly after 2015, coincided with this moderate reduction [2,17,19]. The concurrent rise in electricity usage and slow reduction in energy dependency demonstrate that the implementation of renewable energy has enhanced energy security while not entirely eliminating import dependence. Morocco’s energy dependency remains among the highest in the region, despite this progress. This underscores the ongoing necessity for the country to expand renewable energy, implement energy efficiency measures, adopt storage technologies, and increase electrification in order to fulfill its long-term energy transition objectives and climate commitments under the Paris Agreement [5].

3.4. Solar Energy in Morocco

3.4.1. Solar Resources in Morocco

Figure 4 below illustrates the spatial distribution of Morocco’s solar resource, quantified by Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) in kWh/m²/day. GHI is the most pertinent solar resource metric for photovoltaic (PV) systems as it encompasses both direct and diffuse sun energy incident on a horizontal plane. Morocco has one of the strongest solar potentials in Africa and the MENA region, with average Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) values varying from roughly 4.8 kWh/m²/day in the northern Mediterranean area to over 6.8 kWh/m²/day in the southern Saharan regions, confirming the country’s exceptional solar resource and its strategic role in the national energy transition [20,21]. Areas such as Ouarzazate, Midelt, Laâyoune, and Dakhla have the highest irradiation levels, rendering them especially appealing for extensive photovoltaic deployment.

The graphic shows that the majority of Morocco’s regions receive over 5.5 kWh/m²/day, significantly surpassing the global average of about 3.5–4.0 kWh/m²/day. This advantageous solar resource has facilitated the swift advancement of utility-scale solar initiatives, such as the Noor Ouarzazate complex and the following photovoltaic installations [22]. In the context of concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies, Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) serves as the most suitable resource indicator, as CSP systems depend solely on direct beam radiation. Published evaluations reveal that DNI values in areas like Ouarzazate and Drâa-Tafilalet approximate 2400–2800 kWh/m²/year, positioning Morocco as one of the most advantageous CSP locations worldwide and validating the establishment of the Noor I–III concentrated solar power plants [22,23]. Therefore, while Figure 4 presents GHI to assess photovoltaic potential, DNI values are also addressed to provide a more accurate assessment of CSP suitability.

3.4.2. Main Solar Projects

Morocco announced the National Solar Plan in 2009 to increase solar energy in its electrical mix, particularly through the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex. This flagship project combines concentrated solar power (CSP) and photovoltaic (PV) technology with thermal storage systems to provide electricity after sunset [22]. Beyond Noor Ouarzazate, Morocco has expanded its solar portfolio to include a number of PV and hybrid CSP-PV projects in the country’s inland and south.

Table 1. Major Solar Power Developments in Morocco: Installed Capacity, Technology and Project Status.

Project Site/Location	Installed Capacity (MW)	Land Area (Ha)	Year of Commissioning	System Type	Status	Data Verified
Aïn Beni Mathar (Oriental Region)	470	160	2010	Hybrid CSP integrated with combined cycle gas turbine	Operational	January 2026
Noor Ouarzazate I	160	480	2016	CSP with molten-salt thermal storage (~3 h)	Operational	January 2026
Noor Ouarzazate II	200	610	2018	Parabolic trough CSP with >7 h of thermal storage	Operational	January 2026
Noor Ouarzazate III	150	582	2018	Solar tower CSP with >7 h thermal storage	Operational	January 2026
Noor Ouarzazate IV	72	137	2018	Photovoltaic PV with tracking system	Operational	January 2026
Noor Laâyoune I	85	240	2018	Photovoltaic PV with tracking system	Operational	January 2026
Noor Boujdour I	20	60	2018	Photovoltaic PV with tracking system	Operational	January 2026
Sidi Bennour PV Station	48	Data pending	2023	Photovoltaic (PV)	Operational	January 2026
Noor Midelt I	800	939	Under development	Hybrid CSP-PV configuration	Planned	January 2026
Noor Midelt II	210	Data pending	Under development	Hybrid CSP-PV configuration	Planned	January 2026

Source: Data validated as of January 2026 using MASEN [22], Ministry of Energy Transition and Sustainable Development [3], and World Bank renewable energy databases [2]. “Data pending” indicates that at the point of verification, no reliable public information was available.

below shows the key solar installations that are currently operational or planned in the country. Although these initiatives have produced notable socioeconomic and environmental advantages, issues with cost competitiveness and operational limitations still exist [2,9].

3.5. Wind Energy Potential in Morocco

Morocco has considerable wind energy potential, particularly along the coast and in the north, with the available resources estimated at around 25,000 MW considering onshore locations with an average wind speed higher than 6 m/s [17,25]. To leverage this resource base, Morocco has been progressively increasing its wind power infrastructure, achieving an installed capacity of 1500 MW in 2021. As part of its overall renewable electricity targets, Morocco has set a formal goal of 6200 MW of installed wind capacity by 2030 under the revised National Energy Strategy [3,22]. Research also suggests that the expansion of wind energy is accelerating and becoming more integrated into the country’s electrical grid [21]. However, some assessments suggest that wind capacity could approach 10,000 MW by 2030 in accelerated deployment scenarios, but this should be considered a scenario-based projection rather than an official goal [24]. Due to its favorable wind resources and ongoing investments, wind energy is expected to meet an increasing share of Morocco’s national electricity demand in the coming decades [22].

3.5.1. Wind Resource in Morocco

Figure 5 depicts the geographical distribution of Morocco’s wind resources, determined by the mean annual wind speed at a hub height of 50 m (m/s). The figure illustrates that the nation’s peak wind potential is centered along the Atlantic coastal corridor, spanning from Tangier–Tétouan to Dakhla, where mean annual wind speeds typically range from 7.5 to over 10 m/s. Conversely, inland Atlantic areas demonstrate moderate wind velocities of roughly 5–7 m/s; the Middle Atlas registers values ranging from 6 to 8 m/s, whereas the eastern interior typically encounters lower wind speeds of 3–5 m/s. The spatial variations explain the geographical concentration of Morocco’s major wind farms in coastal areas such as Tarfaya, Tangier, Essaouira, and Dakhla, where elevated and more consistent wind speeds optimize energy output and enhance project economics. Empirical research indicates that the establishment of wind farms in Morocco has predominantly focused on regions with consistent wind patterns to maximize technical performance, elevate capacity factors, and improve long-term operational efficiency [26]. The expansive, high-quality wind corridor, coupled with an estimated technical wind potential of 25,000 MW, offers a robust resource foundation for the ongoing development of wind energy in Morocco’s renewable electricity strategy [17,25].

While Figure 5 offers a national overview of Morocco’s wind resource distribution, the subsequent figure focuses on the country’s highest-potential wind regions where the most favorable wind conditions are concentrated. This detailed perspective emphasizes the locations that have received major wind energy investments and illustrates how Morocco’s geographical benefits support both electricity generation and emerging uses such as renewable-powered desalination and green hydrogen production.

Figure 6 depicts a closer view of Morocco’s highest wind-resource zones, emphasizing the outstanding wind conditions along the Atlantic coastal corridor and southern regions. In addition to its established onshore wind sector, Morocco has significant offshore renewable energy potential along its Atlantic coastline. The nation’s vast coastal area presents advantageous wind conditions for prospective offshore wind projects, especially at Safi, Essaouira, and the southern Atlantic coast, where elevated and relatively consistent wind speeds facilitate substantial electricity production. Utilizing these offshore resources might enhance Morocco’s renewable energy portfolio, bolster long-term energy security, and facilitate future green hydrogen production [13]. Mean annual wind speeds surpass 10 m/s in many regions, notably at Tarfaya, Laâyoune, Dakhla, and portions of the Atlantic coastline, providing particularly favorable circumstances for utility-scale wind energy production. The reliable and superior wind patterns have enabled the establishment of Morocco’s largest wind farms, significantly enhancing the role of wind energy in the national renewable electricity portfolio. In addition to electricity generation, the presence of robust and dependable wind resources facilitates the development of integrated applications, such as wind-powered seawater desalination, recognized as a viable solution for mitigating water scarcity in coastal areas [27]. The prevalence of elevated wind speeds in these regions enhances Morocco’s competitive edge for the ongoing development of wind energy and other renewable energy-based industrial applications.

While Figure 6 illustrates the geographical distribution of Morocco’s wind resources, resource availability alone does not determine renewable energy deployment. The advancement of wind projects is contingent upon grid accessibility, infrastructure availability, investment priorities, environmental limitations, and national energy strategy. Consequently, Figure 7 enhances the resource assessment by demonstrating how Morocco has converted its most advantageous wind-resource regions into operational and proposed wind-energy initiatives.

Figure 7 illustrates the geographical distribution of Morocco’s major wind energy plants, encompassing both existing and proposed projects. Active wind farms are primarily located along the Atlantic coastal corridor and in northern regions, specifically in Tangier–Tétouan, Essaouira, Tarfaya, Laâyoune, and Boujdour, aligning with the high-wind zones depicted in Figure 6. The most extensive commissioned project is the Tarfaya Wind Farm (301 MW), with further projects anticipated in Midelt, Taza, and the southern corridor. In 2023, Morocco possessed over 1900 MW of installed wind capacity, with more expansion anticipated under the national renewable energy policy [22]. The strong correlation between wind-resource availability and project location indicates that site selection has mostly focused on regions with consistent mean annual wind speeds exceeding 7.5 m/s, thus optimizing energy output and financial viability. However, continuous investment in transmission infrastructure, grid adaptability, energy storage, and favorable regulatory frameworks will be essential to fully harness Morocco’s significant wind energy potential, as effective large-scale renewable energy integration relies on both supportive policy structures and sufficient power system flexibility to ensure electricity system reliability [28,29].

Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 collectively establish the analytical foundation for the sustainability ratings attributed to wind energy under the comparative assessment framework. Figure 5 illustrates the extensive geographical distribution of Morocco’s wind resources, especially along the Atlantic coastline corridor and southern areas where average annual wind speeds typically surpass 7.5–10 m/s. These advantageous wind patterns justify the high economic competitiveness (5/5) assigned to wind energy, as stronger and more consistent wind regimes improve capacity factors, reduce electricity generation costs, and enhance long-term project profitability [25].

Figure 6 enhances this evaluation by depicting the geographical distribution of Morocco’s high-wind-resource areas, encompassing both onshore and offshore potential. The availability of substantial undeveloped wind-resource areas supports the high scalability potential (4/5) attributed to wind energy, proving that substantial opportunities remain for future capacity expansion beyond existing installations [27].

Figure 7 converts this resource promise into tangible infrastructure implementation, illustrating that most operational wind farms are situated within the high-wind areas shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6, especially along the Atlantic coastline corridor. The proposed initiatives in Midelt, Taza, and the southern regions signify ongoing growth in locations with advantageous wind resources. The close correlation between resource availability and project location illustrates the technical viability of Morocco’s wind-energy strategy, while underscoring the significance of transmission infrastructure, grid integration, and regional planning, which were factored into the assignment of the grid stability contribution (3/5) and energy security contribution (4/5) scores in the comparative sustainability assessment. These numbers together offer spatial evidence supporting the elevated technical feasibility, economic competitiveness, and long-term scalability ratings attributed to wind energy in Morocco’s renewable energy transition [24,25,27].

3.5.2. Latest Wind Projects in Morocco

Recent developments suggest that Morocco’s wind energy sector will continue to grow, fueled by good resource conditions and continuous investment. Empirical studies confirm the long-term reliability and regional variability of Morocco’s wind regimes, reinforcing the technical feasibility of further wind-power deployment [25]. Building on these advantages, Morocco has expanded large-scale wind projects, particularly in southern regions, through international partnerships with companies such as Masdar, AMEA Power, and TAQA, in line with national capacity expansion and energy transition objectives [30].

Table 2. Major Wind Energy Projects in Morocco by Development Status.

Wind Project/Location	Installed Capacity (MW)	Year of Commissioning	Technology/Notes	Status	Data Verified
Al Koudia Al Baida (Tetouan)	54	2000	Morocco’s first utility-scale wind farm	Operational	January 2026
Amogdoul (Essaouira)	60	2007	Onshore wind farm	Operational	January 2026
Tangier I (Beni Mejmel)	140	2011	Large-scale onshore wind farm	Operational	January 2026
Tarfaya Wind Farm	301	2014	One of Africa’s largest wind farms	Operational	January 2026
Akhfenir I and II (Laayoune)	204	2014–2016	Onshore wind farm complex	Operational	January 2026
Jbel Khelladi (Tangier)	120	2018	Onshore wind farm	Operational	January 2026
Afissat I (Boujdour)	200	2018	Siemens wind turbines	Operational	January 2026
Afissat II (Laayoune)	200	2022	GE wind turbines	Operational	January 2026
Taza Wind Farm-Phase I	150	2025	National wind expansion program	Under construction	January 2026
Jbel Lahdid (Essaouira)	270	2023	Major wind expansion project	Under construction	January 2026
Xlinks Renewable Energy Hub (Guelmim-Oued Noun)	3500	Expected 2028	Hybrid wind-solar export project	Planned	January 2026

Source: Adapted from MASEN [22].

summarizes Morocco’s wind-energy portfolio, which includes existing, under-construction, and planned projects in key regions such as Tangier-Tétouan-Al Hoceima, Essaouira, Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra, Dakhla-Oued Eddahab, and Guelmim-Oued Noun, demonstrating a geographic diversification and resource optimization strategy.

Table 2 summarizes the major wind energy developments that have contributed to Morocco’s position as a regional leader in renewable energy deployment. Tarfaya, Akhfenir, Jbel Khelladi and Afissat operational projects are a testimony to the successful exploitation by the country of high-quality wind resources, in particular along the Atlantic corridor. Meanwhile, projects under construction and planned developments indicate continued sector expansion and support Morocco’s long-term renewable energy goals. To ensure analytical consistency, the sustainability assessment and comparative scoring framework only considered confirmed capacities of operational and under-construction projects.

3.6. Hydropower in Morocco

3.6.1. Historical Evolution of Hydropower Development

Hydropower has long been a key component of Morocco’s energy system, serving as the country’s primary renewable electricity source prior to the development of solar and wind technologies. Throughout the twentieth century, Morocco gradually extended its hydraulic infrastructure to fulfill electricity demand, enhance water management, assist agriculture, and encourage regional growth. A significant milestone occurred during the reign of King Hassan II, whose dam-building policies pushed the development of hydropower facilities and key reservoirs that are still essential today. Empirical studies also reveal that Morocco’s renewable energy generation has evolved with broader macroeconomic dynamics, emphasizing hydropower’s structural relevance in the national energy system [31]. Despite the increased importance of solar and wind power, hydropower continues to diversify generation while accounting for climatic and hydrological unpredictability.

3.6.2. Installed Capacity and Role in the National Energy Mix

Morocco’s renewable energy portfolio still heavily relies on hydropower. As of 2023, the country’s total installed hydropower capacity was approximately 1770 MW, including both conventional hydropower stations and pumped-storage facilities [17]. It is crucial to distinguish between effective generation capacity across 26 operational conventional hydropower plants, which changes based on hydrological conditions, reservoir levels, seasonal rainfall patterns, and operational limits, and installed capacity, which is the maximum nameplate capacity of commissioned facilities.

The 460 MW Afourer pumped-storage (STEP) plant in Béni Mellal is part of Morocco’s hydroelectric system and is essential for balancing intermittent renewable energy sources and preserving grid stability during times of peak demand [32]. Pumped-storage facilities, unlike traditional hydropower plants, perform both electricity storage and generation, and should thus be evaluated independently when assessing current electricity production. Future storage projects, such as the 350 MW Abdelmoumen STEP facility, are considered planned capacity increases and are omitted from the evaluation of Morocco’s existing energy mix and comparative sustainability scores.

3.6.3. Hydropower Expansion and Private Sector Participation

Morocco’s 2008 national energy policy declared a new era in hydropower development by combining large-scale public EPC projects with reforms intended to attract private investment. Major infrastructure projects such as the Abdelmoumen pumped-storage facility and the Mdez-El Menzel dam contributed to capacity expansion, while regulatory revisions in 2015 raised the threshold for privately developed hydroelectric projects. These measures encouraged independent power producers and foreign investors, as well as ONEE-led modernization programs to upgrade existing hydropower plants, ultimately improving capacity, system flexibility, and long-term performance in Morocco’s electricity sector [33,34].

Table 3. Morocco’s Major Hydropower Developments.

Project	Capacity (MW)	Type	Status	Year
Al Wahda	240	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	1998
Allal El Fassi	240	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	1994
Bin El Ouidane	135	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	1953
Al Massira	128	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	1980
Ahmed El Hansali	92	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	2003
El Menzel	95	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	NA
Hassan I	67	Conventional Hydropower	Operational	1991
STEP Afourer	464	Pumped Storage	Operational	2005
Imezdi/Tasdert:Tajemout	128	Conventional Hydropower	Under construction	2025
STEP Abdelmoumen	350	Pumped Storage	Planned	NA
El MenzeI—Sefrou II	300	Pumped Storage	Planned	2026

Source: Data verified as of January 2026 using [32,35] and Ministry of Energy Transition publications.

below summarizes Morocco’s principal hydropower installations.

For the comparative sustainability assessment, only operational hydropower facilities and confirmed under-construction projects were considered in the current capacity evaluation, whereas planned projects are presented separately to illustrate future expansion and are excluded from the current installed capacity assessment.

3.7. Current Renewable Energy Laws and Institutional Framework

Morocco’s transition to renewable energy has been propelled by legislative reforms, institutional reinforcement, and market liberalization initiatives aimed at expediting renewable energy implementation and attracting private investment [34,35]. Following the implementation of the National Energy Strategy in 2009, the nation has developed a regulatory framework that facilitates renewable energy generation, grid accessibility, energy efficiency, and self-production, while maintaining environmental sustainability [3].

Significant reforms encompass Law 12-03 on Environmental Impact Assessment, which instituted environmental approval protocols for substantial energy projects; Law 16-08 on self-production, which broadened avenues for decentralized electricity generation; Law 13-09 on renewable energy, which facilitated private renewable electricity generation and export endeavors; Law 47-09 on energy efficiency; Law 48-15, which constituted the National Electricity Regulatory Authority (ANRE); Law 54-14, which augmented self-production provisions; and Law 82-21, which further liberalized participation in the renewable energy market [3,33,36]. The measurable effects of these reforms are reflected in Morocco’s renewable energy deployment, private sector participation, and investment growth. Before the enactment of Law 13-09, Morocco’s renewable energy potential was predominantly restricted to hydroelectric resources, with minimal involvement from the private sector. As a result of the gradual adoption of these reforms, renewable energy capacity surpassed 4200 MW by 2023, reinforced by extensive solar and wind projects managed by MASEN and ONEE [22,25]. Regulatory modernization, specifically via Laws 48-15 and 82-21, elevated investor confidence and market accessibility, resulting in heightened renewable energy investments and increased involvement of independent power producers [2,36]. Institutionally, MASEN, ONEE, and the Agency for the Development of Renewable Energies and Energy Efficiency (ADEREE) have been pivotal in executing national renewable energy strategies, coordinating project development, facilitating grid integration, and advancing energy-efficiency initiatives [17,22]. The combination of legislative and institutional initiatives has markedly enhanced the deployment of renewable energy and bolstered Morocco’s advancement towards its national energy transition goals [37].

3.8. Socioeconomic Impacts of Renewable Energies Implementation in Morocco

Morocco’s transition to renewable energy is one of the most ambitious in the global south. While the major goal is to reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels, the introduction of large-scale renewable energy has had far-reaching social consequences that go far beyond the energy sector. These impacts are represented in economic development, employment, regional transformation, technical innovation, and the country’s strategic standing on the world stage [22].

Where nationally comparable indicators were unavailable, the assessment relies on the most recent institutional reports and peer-reviewed studies to provide evidence of socioeconomic trends and impacts. By 2023, renewable energy sources represented more than 40% of Morocco’s installed electricity generation capacity, indicating substantial progress toward national energy transition targets [17,25]. Extensive renewable energy initiatives, including the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex and substantial wind projects in Tarfaya, Laayoune, and Boujdour, have garnered considerable investment, created job opportunities during both construction and operational phases, and invigorated local economic activity and infrastructure advancement [22,38]. The rise in renewable energy has facilitated nearly universal electricity access via grid extension and localized energy solutions, hence promoting socioeconomic development in distant and underserved areas [17]. Moreover, investments in renewable energy have fostered skills development, technology transfer, and capacity-building activities through partnerships among governmental organizations, research centers, and universities [39]. Notwithstanding these accomplishments, regional inequalities persist, as investments in renewable energy and their economic advantages are concentrated in particular areas that possess significant solar and wind facilities [40]. The measurable findings indicate that the use of renewable energy has enhanced energy security and decarbonization, while simultaneously fostering job creation, regional growth, and extensive socioeconomic transformation in Morocco.

3.8.1. Economic Diversification and Industrial Transformation

Renewable energy production has aided Morocco’s economic diversification by fostering a domestic clean-energy manufacturing ecosystem. Major projects like Noor Ouarzazate, Noor Midelt, massive wind farms, and pumped-storage facilities have boosted industrial activity, technological learning, and skill development. Beyond energy production, large-scale projects generate regional economic spillovers, with studies of the NOOR I complex highlighting positive impacts on local employment, infrastructure, and economic activity [38]. At the macroeconomic level, increased electrical reliability and diversification boost the competitiveness of businesses such as automotive, aerospace, and metallurgy, attracting international investment and improving regional supply chains [33]. Future green hydrogen initiatives are anticipated to further promote industrial transformation through growing value chains in electrolyzers, e-fuels, and green ammonia.

3.8.2. Employment Generation and Human Capital Development

Morocco’s renewable energy development has brought economic advantages, primarily through job creation and investment-driven growth. Large-scale solar and wind projects generate significant labor demand during construction, while simultaneously increasing local economic activity and promoting larger goals like energy security and reduced reliance on fossil fuels [41]. During the operational phase, renewable energy installations create stable, high-skilled employment for engineers, technicians, and maintenance professionals. To meet this demand, institutions such as IRESEN, MASEN, and national universities have created specialized training programs in renewable energy and related technologies, reflecting broader evidence that technological innovation and sustainable energy adoption contribute positively to employment and economic growth in Morocco [39]. According to research, these socioeconomic benefits influence social acceptance by shaping public views toward renewable energy projects through community perceptions, institutional trust, and the distribution of local benefits [42].

3.8.3. Reduction in Energy Import Dependency and Improved Macroeconomic Stability

Morocco’s reliance on imported fossil fuels has historically left the country vulnerable to price volatility, geopolitical threats, and supply interruptions. Renewable energy adoption in energy-importing countries is frequently driven by concerns about energy security and the need to reduce import dependence [43]. Morocco’s expanding use of solar, wind, and hydropower has increased domestic electricity output while gradually reducing susceptibility to global energy markets. This transformation reduces pressure on foreign exchange reserves, improves the balance of payments, and increases fiscal predictability, all of which contribute to enhanced macroeconomic stability and long-term economic resilience [17,43].

3.8.4. Regional Development and Territorial Equity

Renewable energy deployment in Morocco has aided regional development by directing investment to rural and neglected areas. Large-scale solar, wind, and hydropower projects are frequently built in remote and semi-arid areas, enhancing infrastructure, increasing electrical networks, and supporting local economic activity. However, empirical studies show that benefit distribution can be uneven, since local perceptions vary depending on expectations, benefit-sharing systems, and community engagement [40]. Simultaneously, ONEE-coordinated rural electrification projects such as the Programme d’Électrification Rurale Globale (PERG) have increased energy availability in remote places, improving living conditions, boosting social services, and enabling local economic activity [17]. These achievements demonstrate both the regional development potential and the complex territorial dynamics that accompany renewable energy expansion.

3.8.5. Environmental and Public Health Improvements

Morocco’s move to renewable energy improves the environment and public health while also promoting long-term growth. Renewable energy is a crucial pillar for energy security and sustainability in the country, thanks to its abundant solar and wind resources [15]. Increased use of solar, wind, and hydropower reduces dependency on fossil fuel-based electricity, lowering air pollution and improving health outcomes. Empirical research demonstrates that using renewable energy helps to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in North African countries [44]. Governance quality and information and communication technology (ICT) contribute to better environmental outcomes by boosting policy effectiveness and emissions reduction [45].

3.8.6. Attraction of Foreign Investment and Strengthened International Partnerships

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is critical to Morocco’s renewable energy transition because it promotes capital mobilization, infrastructure development, and market competitiveness [46]. International financing from organizations such as the World Bank, AfDB, EIB, AFD, KfW, and the Clean Technology Fund has lowered investment risks and enabled large-scale initiatives via public–private partnerships [33]. These investments strengthened technology transfer, investor trust, and Morocco’s appeal as a renewable energy powerhouse in Africa and the MENA region. Aside from economic benefits, renewable energy development strengthens Morocco’s position in international energy cooperation, such as electricity interconnections and growing renewable power and green hydrogen projects.

3.8.7. Contribution to Morocco’s Long-Term Climate and Development Goals

Renewable energy is crucial to Morocco’s long-term strategy for climate mitigation, energy security, and economic change. National frameworks like the Energy Strategy 2030, as well as emergent initiatives like the Green Hydrogen Roadmap, seek to capitalize on Morocco’s solar and wind resources to create export-oriented low-carbon value chains. To achieve successful implementation, these goals require not only ambitious policies but also improved institutional coordination, regulatory stability, and cross-sectoral integration [22,47].

3.9. Integrated Assessment of Morocco’s Renewable Energy Transition

Over the last decade, the country has gradually diversified its electricity mix through large-scale deployment of solar, wind, and hydroelectric infrastructures, aided by institutional changes, strategic investments, and international collaboration mechanisms. This shift occurred mostly in reaction to Morocco’s excessive reliance on imported fossil fuels, rising electricity demand, and long-term climate commitments.

The integrated assessment provided for this study examines Morocco’s renewable energy transition using a multidimensional sustainability framework that includes technical, economic, environmental, and socioeconomic elements. Unlike merely descriptive techniques that focus solely on installed capacity expansion, this study seeks to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the strengths, limitations, and systemic consequences of renewable energy deployment in Morocco.

The analytical approach employs a comparison scoring framework centered on six sustainability characteristics and a collection of quantitative indicators sourced from institutional databases and peer-reviewed literature. The contribution to energy security was assessed by installed operational capacity (MW), dispatchable capacity (MW), and its percentage contribution to national power generation. The evaluation of economic competitiveness was conducted using the levelized cost of energy (LCOE, USD/MWh), capital investment prerequisites (USD/kW), and the possibility for attracting investments. Environmental sustainability was assessed by lifecycle greenhouse gas emission reductions (tCO₂-eq/GWh), land-use intensity, and water-use demands. The assessment of grid integration and system stability was conducted using capacity factor (%), dispatchability attributes, storage potential, and operational adaptability. The scalability potential was evaluated based on the remaining technological resource capacity, land availability, and expansion options outlined in national energy plans. Socioeconomic performance was assessed by examining the direct employment generation (jobs/MW), regional development impacts, electrification contribution, training and skill-development opportunities, and associated investment volumes. Indicator values were aggregated from reports from MASEN, ONEE, IRENA, IEA, the World Bank, and peer-reviewed literature and are summarized in the tables below in the assessment framework part.

3.9.1. Sustainability Assessment Framework

To better measure the diversified performance of Morocco’s renewable energy sectors, a sustainability evaluation methodology was developed employing technical, economic, environmental, and social variables. The methodology allows for a comparative analysis of renewable energy sources while also identifying systemic opportunities and structural constraints that influence long-term sustainability performance.

Table 4. Sustainability indicators in the assessment framework.

Dimension	Indicator	Evaluation Objective	Quantitative Proxy	Data Source
Technical	Installed capacity growth	Measure deployment performance	MW installed (operational only)	[1,22]
Technical	Grid integration flexibility	Evaluate network capability	Dispatchability rating; capacity factor (%)	[1,17]
Economic	Investment intensity	Assess financial sustainability	LCOE(USD/MWh); capital cost (USD/kW)	[2,48]
Economic	Job creation potential	Measure economic contribution	Direct jobs per MW installed	[48]
Environmental	Emission reduction potential	Evaluate climate benefits	tCO2/GWh avoided (lifecycle)	[49]
Environmental	Resource efficiency	Assess ecological sustainability	Land use (km2/GWh); water dependency index	Literature review
Social	Regional development impact	Evaluate territorial inclusivity	Geographic distribution of employment and investment	[22]
Social	Energy security contribution	Assess import dependency reduction	Firm dispatchable capacity (MW); pumped-storage (MW)	[17]

presents the sustainability indicators, evaluation objectives, quantum proxies, and data sources used in the assessment framework.

Beyond traditional installed-capacity assessments, the chosen sustainability metrics provide a multifaceted framework for assessing Morocco’s renewable energy transition. Technical metrics show significant progress in renewable infrastructure deployment and the diversification of the national energy mix. Economic data show that investments in renewable energy are increasingly contributing to industrial development, attracting foreign investment, and creating jobs.

3.9.2. Comparative Sustainability Assessment of Renewable Energy Sources

The qualitative evaluations in

Table 5. Comparative sustainability assessment of renewable sources in Morocco.

Dimensions	Solar	Wind	Hydropower	System-Level Assessment
Contribution to installed capacity	Very high (dominant source: 2.8–3 GW [17,22])	High and expanding (2.4–2.6 GW [17,22])	Moderate and stable (1.7–1.8 GW [17,22])	Solar-dominant electricity system
Energy security role	Medium (intermittent generation)	Medium-high (capacity factor 35–45% [12,17])	High (dispatchable capacity including STEP Afourer 464 MW [17])	Partial diversification achieved
Cost competitiveness	Improving but variable (PV 25–45 USD/MWh; high CSP costs: 80–120 USD/MWh [2,25])	Highly competitive (20–35 USD/MWh [2,25]	Mature but geographically limited (40–70 USD/MWh [2,24])	Wind remains the most cost-efficient option
Grid integration flexibility	Low-medium (require storage)	Medium (partially predictable)	High (Hydropower + pumping services provide balancing services [12,17])	Storage remains a critical challenge
Environmental impacts	Low lifecycle emissions; moderate land use impact [49]	Low lifecycle emissions, localized visual/ecosystem impact [49]	Ecosystem alteration associated with reservoirs (dams) [49]	Overall environmental benefits outweigh localized impacts
Scalability potential	Very high Solar technical potential > 20 GW [22,24]	High wind > 25 GW in high-resource region [24]	Low (Limited expansion potential)	Future expansion expected mainly through solar and wind
Socioeconomic impact	Largest employment contribution (~9500 jobs [48]) and highest investment concentration	Strong employment and investment concentration (~7200 jobs [48])	Localized benefits through rural electrification and water-resource management (~2800 jobs [48])	Uneven spatial distribution of socioeconomic benefits

Source: Qualitative assessments in Table 5 were developed based on the quantitative indicators presented in Table 4 and supporting evidence from MASEN [22], ONEE [17], IRENA [24], and World Bank [2].

are based on the quantitative metrics outlined in the analytical methodology and supported by data from MASEN, ONEE, IRENA, IEA, and the examined literature. In terms of installed capacity contribution, ‘very high’ indicates the primary contributor to Morocco’s renewable installed capacity, ‘high’ signifies a significant yet secondary contribution, and ‘moderate’ reflects a consistent but relatively minor contribution. In the context of energy security, high denotes dispatchable technologies that can deliver firm capacity and balancing services; medium-high indicates technologies with somewhat predictable generation profiles; and medium signifies intermittent technologies that necessitate supplementary balancing resources. In terms of cost competitiveness, “highly competitive” denotes technologies with relatively low LCOE values, “improving but variable” describes technologies with decreasing yet inconsistent costs, and “mature but geographically limited” pertains to established technologies whose growth potential is restricted by site availability. In terms of grid integration flexibility, high denotes dispatchable or storage-supported technologies, medium signifies partial flexibility necessitating balancing measures, while low-medium represents primarily intermittent resources. For scalability potential, very high, high, and low indicate the relative scale of remaining technical resource potential and future deployment prospects for Morocco. For socioeconomic impact, qualitative evaluations assess employment generation, investment attraction, regional development advantages, and participation in local economic activity.

To improve the transparency and reproducibility of the comparative sustainability assessment, the qualitative descriptors in Table 5 were substantiated by a collection of quantitative indicators obtained from institutional records, international databases, and peer-reviewed literature. These indicators offer objective evidence concerning installed capacity, electricity generation, capacity factors, economic competitiveness, grid integration attributes, environmental performance, scalability potential, and socioeconomic impacts of solar, wind, and hydropower technologies in Morocco. The quantitative indicator matrix in

Table 6. Quantitative indicator matrix underpinning comparative scoring.

Indicator	Solar	Wind	Hydropower
Installed operational capacity (MW, 2023)	≅3900 [17,22]	≅1900 [17,22]	≅1770 [17,22]
Annual Electricity generation (GWh, 2022)	≅2100 [17]	≅4400 [17]	≅1800 [17]
Capacity factor (%)	22–28 (PV); 40–50 (CSP) [12,22]	35–45 [12]	25–35 [12]
LCOE (USD/MWh)	25–45 (PV); 80–120 (CSP) [2,24]	20–35 [2,25]	40–70 [2,25]
Dispatchability	Low-Medium (CSP with storage) [12,17]	Low [12]	High [12,17]
Pumped storage capacity (MW)	0	0	460 (STEP Afourer) [17]
Direct jobs per MW installed	3–5 [48]	2–4 [48]	1–2 [48]
Renewable energy employment (jobs)	≅9500 [48]	≅7200 [48]	≅2800 [48]
Water dependency	Moderate-High (CSP), Low (PV) [2,17]	Very Low [2]	High [2,17]
Geographic distribution of benefits	National [3,22]	Coastal Concentration [3,22]	Localized rural regions [3,22]

Source: The indicators presented in this table are intended to support comparative assessment rather than provide an exhaustive techno-economic evaluation. Values represent the most recent publicly available estimates for Morocco and were compiled from MASEN, ONEE, IRENA, IEA, World Bank, and IPCC sources. Where precise national data were unavailable, ranges reported in the literature were adopted to ensure consistency across technologies.

below provides the empirical foundation for the comparison scoring approach established in Section 3.9.3 and the ensuing cross-sector sustainability assessment.

3.9.3. Comparative Sustainability Scoring Analysis

In order to examine the relative sustainability performance of solar, wind, and hydropower technologies across six assessment criteria, the quantitative variables shown in Table 6 were combined into a comparison scoring structure. To enable cross-technology comparison, scores were translated into a standardized five-point scale based on the data summarized in the quantitative indicator matrix.

Table 7. Basis for comparative sustainability scores.

Criterion	Scoring Basis	Solar Rationale	Wind Rational	Hydro Rationale
Energy security contribution	Installed capacity (MW); dispatchability; contribution to electricity generation	4/5: Growing = Installed capacity reached ≅3900 MW [17,22]. However, solar PV remains intermittent, and firm capacity contribution is limited to CSP facilities with storage.	4/5: Growing ≅ Installed capacity reached ≅ 1900 MW in 2023 with capacity factors of 35–45% [12,17]; Despite strong generation performance, wind remains non-dispatchable	5/5: Hydropower provides dispatchable renewable generation and includes 460 MW of pumped-storage capacity at STEP Afourer [17] supporting grid balancing and peak demand management.
Economic competitiveness	LCOE (USD/MWh); capital cost (USD/kW)	3/5: Utility-scale PV exhibits competitive LCOE values of approximately 25–45 USD/MWh, whereas CSP remains more costly at 80–120 USD/MWh, increasing the overall cost profile of solar technologies [2,24].	5/5: Wind demonstrates the lowest LCOE among the assessed technologies, ranging from 20 to 35 USD/MWh, making it the most cost-competitive renewable option. [2,24]	3/5: Hydropower benefits from low operating costs but has limited opportunities for additional low-cost expansion because most economically viable sites have already been developed [2,17]
Environmental sustainability	Life cycle emissions (tCO2/GWh avoided); land use; water dependency	4/5: Solar technologies provide substantial emission reductions with very low lifecycle greenhouse-gas emissions [49]. Nevertheless, CSP facilities may require greater land occupation and water consumption than PV systems.	4/5: Wind power exhibits very low lifecycle emissions and negligible water requirements [49], although visual and ecosystem impacts may occur in specific locations.	3/5: Hydropower provides low lifecycle emissions but may generate ecosystem alterations associated with reservoirs and exhibits greater sensitivity to water availability during drought periods [49].
Grid stability	Dispatchability; pumped-storage (MW); capacity factor (%)	2/5: Solar PV is fully intermittent and depends on storage or complementary generation for balancing. Storage-supported CSP deployment remains limited to selected projects such as Noor III [22]	3/5: Wind generation is non-dispatchable but provides partial temporal complementarity with solar production and benefits from relatively high capacity factors [12].	5/5: Hydropower is fully dispatchable and supported by 460 MW of pumped-storage capacity at STEP Afourer [17], providing rapid-response balancing services.
Scalability	Remaining potential (MW); share of viable sites developed (%)	5/5: Morocco possesses excellent solar resources with DNI values of approximately 5–7 kWh/m2/day across large areas of the country and an estimated technical potential exceeding 20 GW [22,24]	4/5: Wind potential exceeds 25 GW in high-resource regions, although future deployment may face grid integration and transmission constraints [24].	2/5: Expansion opportunities are limited because a large proportion of economically viable hydropower sites have already been exploited, while future development is constrained by hydrological conditions [17].
Socioeconomic impact	Jobs per MW; geographic distribution; Investment (USD)	4/5: Solar projects support approximately 3–5 jobs/MW and around 9500 sector-related jobs, while also attracting significant investment and industrial development in regions such as Ouarzazate [48].	4/5: Wind projects support approximately 2–4 jobs/MW and around 7200 jobs, particularly in major development regions including Tarfaya, Laayoune, and Dakhla [48].	3/5: Hydropower contributes approximately 1–2 jobs/MW and around 2800 jobs, generating localized socioeconomic benefits through rural electrification and water-resource management [48].

Note: The scores were derived from quantitative indicators presented in Table 6 and translated into a standardized five-point scale through structured expert judgment and comparative interpretation. In order to enable cross-technology comparison, the assessment integrates quantitative evidence from institutional databases and peer-reviewed literature with expert evaluation.

presents the scoring basis used in the comparative sustainability assessment. Table 8 and Table 9 present the resulting comparative scores which are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Comparative Score Justification

The scores allocated in Table 7 are directly supported by the quantitative metrics presented in Table 6.

-

Energy security: Solar is awarded a score of 4 due to its intermittent generation and substantial installed capacity. Wind also receives a score of 4 due to its increasing contribution to electricity generation and high capacity factor. The maximum score (5) is awarded to hydropower due to its dispatchability and its contribution to grid balancing through pumped-storage facilities.

-

Economic competitiveness: Wind is awarded the highest score due to its relatively low LCOE. Solar receives a moderate score because CSP remains relatively expensive despite declining PV costs. Although hydropower is a well-established technology, its growth opportunities are restricted.

-

Environmental Sustainability: Solar and wind obtain high scores given their low lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. Hydropower scores slightly lower because of the ecological impacts associated with reservoir development and water resource alteration.

-

Grid Stability: Hydropower is awarded the highest score due to its dispatchability and storage capacity. Solar is restricted by its intermittency, while wind offers moderate grid support.

-

Scalability: The highest score is assigned to solar, as it exhibits the most significant remaining technical potential in Morocco. Wind also offers significant expansion opportunities, while hydropower expansion is restricted by the scarcity of remaining suitable sites.

-

Socioeconomic Impacts: Solar and wind create significant employment opportunities, attract substantial investment, and promote regional development. Hydropower continues to offer localized socioeconomic benefits through rural electrification and water resource management; however, its prospective employment potential is comparatively lower.

Sensitivity Analysis

To assess the robustness of the comparative scoring framework, five alternative weighting scenarios were evaluated, representing distinct policy priorities: (i) equal baseline weighting, (ii) technical emphasis, (iii) economic emphasis, (iv) social emphasis, and (v) grid stability emphasis. Although the baseline scenario prioritizes all evaluation criteria, the remaining scenarios prioritize technical reliability, economic competitiveness, socioeconomic benefits, or grid stability. The objective is to assess whether the relative ranking of renewable energy technologies remains consistent under different weighting scenarios representing alternative policy priorities. The sensitivity analysis, therefore, evaluates the comparative ranking’s robustness with respect to weighting assumptions only; it does not evaluate the uncertainty related to the underlying quantitative indicators, the initial technology scores, or the score-conversion procedure. Table 8 summarizes the weighting coefficients assigned to the baseline and alternative policy scenarios used in the sensitivity analysis.

Table 8. Weighting scenarios used in the sensitivity analysis.

Criterion	Baseline	Technical Emphasis	Economic Emphasis	Social Emphasis	Grid Stability Emphasis
Energy security	17%	20%	10%	15%	15%
Economic competitiveness	17%	10%	30%	10%	10%
Environmental sustainability	17%	15%	10%	15%	15%
Grid Stability	17%	25%	10%	10%	30%
Scalability potential	16%	20%	15%	15%	20%
Socioeconomic impact	16%	10%	25%	35%	10%
Total	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%

Table 8. Weighting scenarios used in the sensitivity analysis.

Criterion	Baseline	Technical Emphasis	Economic Emphasis	Social Emphasis	Grid Stability Emphasis
Energy security	17%	20%	10%	15%	15%
Economic competitiveness	17%	10%	30%	10%	10%
Environmental sustainability	17%	15%	10%	15%	15%
Grid Stability	17%	25%	10%	10%	30%
Scalability potential	16%	20%	15%	15%	20%
Socioeconomic impact	16%	10%	25%	35%	10%
Total	100%	100%	100%	100%	100%

The principal evaluation framework adopted in this study is represented by the baseline scenario, which allocates nearly equal importance to all six sustainability criteria. Alternative national priorities are simulated in the remaining scenarios. In the technical scenario, dispatchability and system reliability are prioritized, while the economic scenario emphasizes investment efficiency and electricity generation costs. The social scenario places a greater emphasis on regional development and employment creation, while the grid-stability scenario emphasizes power-system flexibility and dispatchability. These scenarios facilitate the evaluation of the technology rankings’ robustness in the context of alternative weighting assumptions that are associated with varying strategic policy priorities. They are not intended to quantify the uncertainty in the fundamental input data or scoring methodology.

The scores in Table 9 are consistent with the comparative assessment presented in Table 7 and are supported by the quantitative metric and justification provided in Table 5 and Table 6. Each score represents the relative sustainability performance of the technology for a particular criterion using institutional statistics, peer-reviewed literature, and national renewable energy data.

Table 9. Original Technology Scores used.

Criterion	Solar	Wind	Hydropower
Energy security	4	4	5
Economic competitiveness	3	5	3
Environmental sustainability	4	4	3
Grid Stability	2	3	5
Scalability potential	5	4	2
Socioeconomic impact	4	4	3

Table 9. Original Technology Scores used.

Criterion	Solar	Wind	Hydropower
Energy security	4	4	5
Economic competitiveness	3	5	3
Environmental sustainability	4	4	3
Grid Stability	2	3	5
Scalability potential	5	4	2
Socioeconomic impact	4	4	3

The composite sustainability scores obtained under the baseline and alternative weighting scenarios are summarized in

Table 10. Composite scores under alternative weighting scenarios.

Technology	Baseline	Technical	Economic	Social	Grid Stability
Solar	3.67	3.75	3.45	3.7	3.55
Wind	4.00	3.90	4.30	3.95	3.85
Hydropower	3.50	3.75	3.25	3.35	3.95

.

The findings indicate that wind energy attains the greatest overall score in four of the five scenarios as a result of its superior economic competitiveness and balanced performance. Hydropower reaches the highest score only under the grid-stability scenario, where dispatchability and storage receive substantially greater importance. The exceptional scalability of solar energy ensures that it consistently performs well. However, its intermittency and limited dispatchability result in lower overall scores.The relative ranking of renewable energy technologies across the baseline and alternative weighting scenarios is presented in

Table 11. Technology ranking under each scenario.

Scenario	1st	2nd	3rd
Baseline	Wind	Hydropower	Solar
Technical emphasis	Wind and Hydropower	-	Solar
Economic emphasis	Wind	Solar	Hydropower
Social emphasis	Wind	Solar	Hydropower
Grid Stability emphasis	Hydropower	Wind	Solar

.

The rankings indicate that the comparative assessment is relatively insensitive to moderate changes in criterion weighting. Wind energy continues to be the preferred technology for the majority of strategic priorities due to its robust overall balance across economic, environmental, and technical dimensions. The hydropower option is the favored choice only when the stability of the power system is particularly important. Solar maintains the greatest scalability score in all scenarios; however, it is prevented from becoming the highest-ranked technology overall due to intermittency. The overall outcomes of the sensitivity analysis are summarized in

Table 12. Overall sensitivity analysis summary.

Observation	Result
Wind ranked first	4 of 5 scenarios
Hydropower ranked first	1 of 5 scenarios
Solar ranked first	0 of 5 scenarios
Solar highest scalability score	Yes
Overall ranking stable	Yes
Main conclusion affected	No

, highlighting the robustness of the comparative sustainability assessment under alternative weighting scenarios.

Overall, the comparative sustainability framework is demonstrated to be resilient to alternative weighting assumptions by the sensitivity analysis. The stability of the rankings across multiple policy scenarios shows that the proposed methodology offers a reliable basis for comparing renewable energy technologies despite the inherent subjectivity associated with multi-criteria assessments. Therefore, this analysis reinforces the study’s assertion that the most sustainable approach to Morocco’s long-term energy transition is a diversified renewable energy portfolio that integrates hydropower, wind, and solar power.

3.9.4. Effectiveness of Morocco’s Renewable Energy Policy Framework

Over the past decade, Morocco’s legislative reforms have substantially expedited the deployment of renewable energy. Hydropower was the primary source of renewable electricity generation prior to the implementation of Law 13-09 (2010). Wind power was in the early stages of development, and utility-scale solar initiatives were virtually nonexistent. The legal framework for private-sector participation in renewable electricity generation was established by Law 13-09, which created favorable conditions for large-scale investments. By 2023, the operational renewable energy capacity had expanded significantly, with an estimated 3.9 GW of solar, 1.9 GW of wind, and 1.77 GW of hydropower [17,22]. This progress was further fortified by subsequent reforms. Law 48-15 (2015) broadened possibilities for self-generation and improved grid access for industrial consumers, encouraging greater deployment of decentralized renewable energy systems. Law 82-21 (2023) has recently modernized the electricity market by reinforcing private-sector participation and facilitating the trading of renewable electricity. This has supported Morocco’s objective of increasing the penetration of renewable electricity while simultaneously improving grid flexibility. The progressive increase in installed renewable capacity, diversification of renewable technologies, and growing private investment demonstrate that these successive legislative reforms have been instrumental in advancing Morocco’s renewable energy transition [17,25].

Environmental legislation also helped to improve sustainable governance by establishing environmental impact assessment systems for large-scale energy projects. These measures increased Morocco’s international appeal for renewable energy investment and strengthened its position as a regional energy transition leader.

Despite these improvements, the analysis shows that Morocco’s policy framework is still limited in its effectiveness due to structural constraints. Grid integration issues, insufficient storage, financial dependency, and administrative complexity all continue to have an impact on renewable deployment’s operational effectiveness. Furthermore, while institutional reforms spurred infrastructure construction, the socioeconomic gains of the shift are still unevenly dispersed among areas.

As a result, Morocco’s framework for renewable energy governance can be seen as both institutionally and operationally successful. Future policy changes should promote storage development, smart-grid modernization, territorial inclusion, and local industry integration to guarantee a more robust and balanced transition.

3.9.5. Structural Challenges Affecting the Renewable Energy Transition in Morocco

Despite Morocco’s significant success in renewable energy deployment, major structural problems remain, threatening the transition process’s long-term viability and operational efficiency. Intermittency in solar and wind power generation remains a major technical barrier, increasing reliance on balancing systems and storage infrastructure.

Economic constraints are still considerable due to the high capital intensity of large-scale renewable projects, particularly concentrated solar power systems. Continued reliance on external finance sources may expose the sector to investment risk and long-term financial dependence. Modernizing infrastructure is yet another important difficulty. Existing transmission networks must be further modified to support increased renewable penetration and decentralized electricity production. Grid integration constraints may impair the efficiency of renewable deployment if modernization efforts are not coordinated with capacity expansion.

Furthermore, regional differences in project allocation result in uneven socioeconomic outcomes across Moroccan territory. Certain places profit significantly from infrastructure investment and job creation, but others are mostly excluded from transition-related economic prospects. Environmental considerations, particularly water usage in concentrated solar power plants located in arid regions, necessitate improved sustainability management.

Table 13. Challenges affecting the transition toward sustainability.

Challenge	Impact on Transition	Sustainability Implications
Intermittency	Grid instability risks	Need for storage systems
High investment costs	Financial dependency	Slower infrastructure expansion
Grid integration limitation	Reduced renewable efficiency	Infrastructure modernization required
Regional disparities	Unequal socioeconomic benefits	Territorial imbalance
Water consumption in CSP	Environmental pressure	Resource management challenge

summarized the principal challenges affecting the renewable energy transition and their sustainability implications.

Despite Morocco’s tremendous success in renewable energy deployment, the transition process faces a number of structural constraints that have a long-term impact on sustainable performance. Intermittency linked with solar and wind generation remains one of the major technological challenges, putting additional strain on grid flexibility and storage infrastructure requirements.

Economic constraints are also crucial, especially given the high capital intensity of large-scale renewable projects and the ongoing reliance on external finance channels. Furthermore, infrastructure limitations and geographical differences contribute to unequal socioeconomic outcomes across territories, decreasing the inclusiveness of the transformation process.

Concerns about the environment continue to exist, particularly with regard to the water usage of concentrated solar power systems in desert regions. These findings suggest that accomplishing a fully sustainable energy transition will necessitate not only ongoing renewable capacity increase but also integrated infrastructure upgrading, resource management methods, and socially inclusive regulatory frameworks.

3.9.6. Integrated Evaluation of Morocco’s Energy Transition

The integrated analysis undertaken in this paper shows that Morocco has made substantial progress in establishing a diverse renewable energy system capable of supporting long-term decarbonization and energy security goals. Solar and wind energy are the key drivers of future expansion, with hydropower playing a stabilizing role in the national electrical network.

The transformation has resulted in significant economic and environmental benefits, such as reduced reliance on fossil fuels, lower emissions, modernized infrastructure, and increased international investment appeal. However, the transformation process is still marked by structural inequalities between technical deployment and systemic integration capabilities.

Although Morocco’s institutional framework has successfully advanced renewable energy development, long-term viability will be determined by the country’s capacity to overcome storage constraints, system upgrade requirements, financial dependency, and territorial inclusion concerns. The analysis thus reveals that Morocco’s renewable energy transition can be regarded as progressive and strategically ambitious, but is still operationally evolving toward full systemic sustainability.

4. Conclusions

Morocco’s renewable energy transition is one of the most advanced and strategically ambitious energy transformation programs in the MENA area. The country has greatly increased its renewable energy capacity and reduced its reliance on imported fossil fuels by gradually deploying solar, wind, and hydropower infrastructures, which have been supported by institutional changes and long-term policy commitments. The transition has also improved Morocco’s international standing in sustainable energy development and climate governance.

The integrated sustainability assessment conducted in this study demonstrates that Morocco’s renewable energy transition is characterized by a complementary energy structure, with solar and wind technologies serving as the primary expansion pillars and hydropower playing an important stabilization and balancing role within the electricity system. Solar energy has the greatest scalability potential due to Morocco’s outstanding solar resources and considerable infrastructure investment. While hydropower contributes significantly to grid stability despite its limited expansion capability, wind energy has excellent economic competitiveness and potential for diversification. The analysis also shows that Morocco’s renewable energy governance system has been extremely effective in advancing renewable deployment, attracting foreign investment, and fostering private-sector participation. Legislative reforms including Laws 13-09 and 16-08 laid the groundwork for renewable energy liberalization and decentralized electricity generation. Nonetheless, the transition process faces a number of structural challenges, including intermittency, storage constraints, financial dependencies, infrastructure upgrading requirements, and unequal regional distribution of socioeconomic benefits. These challenges align with those documented in the extensive renewable energy literature, which highlights intermittency, transmission infrastructure, storage technologies, and grid integration as primary obstacles to large-scale renewable energy implementation [49].

From a sustainability perspective, the findings show that Morocco’s long-term energy transition success will be determined not only by continued renewable capacity expansion but also by the country’s ability to improve grid flexibility, develop energy storage infrastructure, strengthen territorial inclusivity, and improve local industrial integration. Addressing these systemic issues will be critical to maintaining a robust, socially inclusive, and environmentally sustainable energy system.

This study enhances the literature on renewable energy transition by introducing a transparent and reproducible framework for comparative sustainability assessment, which incorporates technical, economic, environmental, and socioeconomic indicators into a standardized scoring methodology, underpinned by quantitative evidence and sensitivity analysis. The comparative analysis continuously indicated solar energy as the technology with the most scalability potential, wind energy as the most economically viable choice, and hydropower as the primary contributor to grid stability. The consistency of these rankings across five different weighting situations further illustrates the resilience of the suggested system. In addition to Morocco, the technique serves as a pragmatic decision-support instrument that can aid renewable energy planning and policy development in other developing and rising countries aiming to expedite sustainable energy transitions while enhancing energy security and climate resilience.