Adaptive Reuse of Idle Building Stock for Low-Carbon Regeneration: A Multi-Scalar Sustainable Built Environment Framework of Green Rural Centers (GRCs)

Abstract

The sustainable transformation of idle built environments represents a critical pathway for advancing low-carbon development and achieving carbon neutrality targets. This study examines how idle rural building stocks may contribute to sustainable built environment systems through rural building repurposing and regeneration strategies. It introduces the concept of Green Rural Centers (GRCs), multifunctional facilities formed through the adaptive reuse of idle buildings that integrate low-carbon design, community services, and local economic functions. Within the proposed framework, GRCs are conceptually characterized as facilities that may: (1) achieve 50–70% reductions in operational energy demand through passive and renewable measures, (2) incorporate two or more community-oriented functions (e.g., education, governance, cultural services), and (3) demonstrate embodied carbon savings of ≥40% compared to demolition-and-rebuild scenarios. Grounded in fieldwork from Fujian Province, China, and aligned with national policies, the study evaluates spatial transformation, carbon mitigation, and institutional integration. Using a mixed-methods approach that combines scenario-based carbon-reduction estimation and appraisal, spatial analysis, comparative case studies, and policy evaluation, the findings indicate that retrofitting 30% of approximately 68,000 idle rural schools could achieve approximately 734,400 metric tons of cumulative CO₂ reduction by 2060 under the baseline scenario. Under conservative and ambitious implementation conditions, the estimated cumulative reductions are approximately 408,000 and 1,224,000 metric tons of CO₂, respectively. Sensitivity analysis shows that moderate improvements in retrofit quality or implementation rates significantly amplify emissions reduction outcomes. Beyond environmental performance, the proposed framework may also support community resilience, decentralized service provision, and socio-economic revitalization. This research reframes idle building stock as a strategic asset within sustainable built environment systems, policy-relevant exploratory framework potentially adaptable to comparable rural contexts. This study contributes to the sustainable built environment discourse by demonstrating how underutilized rural building stocks can function as broader low-carbon rural regeneration systems.

1. Introduction

Climate change increasingly threatens ecological, social, and economic systems worldwide, intensifying the need for effective mitigation strategies. Buildings alone account for approximately 39% of global carbon emissions, underscoring the building sector’s critical role in climate change mitigation [1]. Rural areas represent significant yet underutilized potential for supporting carbon reduction targets and sustainable development goals (SDGs). Their ecological assets, spatial resources, and ecosystem functions make them important components of broader sustainability transitions [2,3]. Recognizing this potential, China has committed to ambitious climate targets, aiming to reach peak carbon emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 [4,5]. The country’s dual carbon goals reflect an unprecedented policy shift towards comprehensive ecological governance, integrating both urban and rural resilient strategies. However, rural areas, despite their potential, face numerous challenges, including depopulation, ageing populations, economic stagnation, and infrastructural decay. In particular, China’s rural regions have accumulated a substantial stock of idle or underutilized buildings, resulting largely from urban migration, demographic shifts, and policy-driven educational reforms [6,7]. Increasing attention has therefore been directed toward the adaptive reuse of idle rural buildings as a cost-effective approach to rural regeneration. In this study, adaptive reuse refers to the strategic transformation of existing buildings for new social, economic, or environmental functions [8,9]. Previous studies suggest that reuse strategies may significantly reduce lifecycle carbon emissions and operational energy demand, particularly when combined with renewable energy systems and passive design interventions [10,11]. However, despite strong potential, rural reuse strategies in China remain fragmented and under-theorized. Existing studies have primarily focused on architectural preservation, building-scale retrofit performance, or isolated environmental outcomes. Limited research has proposed integrated frameworks capable of simultaneously addressing spatial regeneration, multifunctional rural services, carbon-transition strategies, and institutional implementation within declining rural contexts. Present initiatives demonstrate social and cultural benefits yet often lack measurable integration with national carbon goals and sustainable development agendas. Furthermore, research rarely addresses “vacancy” as a strategic resource for environmental justice or spatial equity [12,13]. This conceptual gap limits the translation of adaptive reuse theory into scalable practice in rural contexts, particularly in repurposing educational facilities. In this context, the present study introduces the concept of Green Rural Centers (GRCs) reuse strategies-based, multifunctional rural facilities integrating low-carbon design, community services, and governance innovation. The framework is proposed as potential nodes supporting rural decarbonization and regeneration that align with China’s dual-carbon policy and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 11, 12, and 13). Accordingly, this study aims to develop an integrated multi-scalar framework to explore the potential role of repurposing idle rural buildings, particularly schools, as multifunctional Green Rural Centers (GRCs) supporting rural regeneration and broader carbon-transition objectives. Specifically, the research addresses three central questions: (1) What socio-economic, environmental, and institutional factors significantly influence the successful adaptive reuse of idle rural assets? (2) How effectively can multifunctional reuse strategies contribute to regional carbon reduction, rural sustainability education, and inclusive economic development? (3) What integrated planning and policy frameworks are necessary to ensure the scalability, replicability, and long-term sustainability of these adaptive reuse strategies?

This study employs a transdisciplinary approach, integrating environmental science, rural development planning, governance, and community-based resilience. The proposed framework integrates case study interpretation, exploratory carbon scenario estimation, participatory planning, and policy assessment to establish an exploratory and potentially adaptable framework demonstrating the potential of adaptive reuse to support the transformation of idle rural buildings into multifunctional assets aligned with broader sustainability objectives. Successful implementation of adaptive reuse initiatives depends on several critical factors identified in recent literature, including robust community engagement, flexible and innovative financing mechanisms (e.g., green bonds, sustainability funds), technical capacity-building, and comprehensive policy frameworks integrating regulatory, financial, and technical support [14]. The study highlights the potential role of rural regions as active participants in broader ecological transition and rural regeneration processes. It positions rural areas not merely as passive recipients of environmentally responsive measures but as proactive contributors to national and regional ecological transitions, enhancing urban–rural synergies and promoting equitable, sustainable regional development.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

2.1. Overview of Global Research on Adaptive Reuse and Sustainability

The transformation of existing buildings for new functions has become a cornerstone of sustainable design thinking. It reduces demolition waste, preserves embodied carbon, and supports local identity [15,16,17]. Previous studies suggest that reuse strategies may reduce lifecycle emissions by approximately 40–60% compared to new construction [10], while retrofitting energy systems yields 30–50% operational savings. Beyond environmental benefits, adaptive reuse supports social resilience and cultural continuity [18]. In rural contexts, building repurposing expands beyond heritage preservation and may also support socio-economic revitalization, community engagement, and local economic recovery [19,20]. International examples illustrate this multidimensionality: in the UK, repurposed schools have improved learning and community participation [21]; in Kenya, rural reuse projects fostered gender equity and empowerment [22]; in Ghana and Europe, adaptive reuse boosted tourism and local enterprise [23,24]. Furthermore, reuse strategies can promote socio-cultural continuity and spatial equity in under-resourced areas [16,17,25,26]. A growing global literature explores adaptive reuse frameworks, including their environmental life-cycle benefits [16,27], social life-cycle implications [17], and spatial policy interactions [28]. Adaptive reuse, defined here as the strategic transformation of underutilized buildings for new functions, has increasingly emerged as a promising sustainability-oriented strategy [20]. Moreover, integrating renewable energy technologies such as photovoltaic systems has shown practical viability, with case-based simulations indicating payback periods within the upper range of 6–10 years, around 9.4 years under baseline conditions and approximately 7.5 years under reduced investment-cost scenarios [29]. Reinterpreting idle building stock as an active spatial resource may help rural regions address demographic decline and broader decarbonization objectives [11,15,28], redefining idle building stock from a passive condition to an active spatial resource enables planners and designers to transform rural decline into opportunities for low-carbon futures. In China, the pursuit of its dual carbon goals, peaking carbon emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, has been accompanied by major rural reforms and revitalization agendas, such as the Beautiful Countryside Initiative and Smart Villages Program. Building repurposing initiatives have similarly demonstrated multifaceted benefits. Studies in Zhejiang Province have shown that repurposing idle school buildings into green community hubs can achieve carbon neutrality within five years and generate significant financial returns [30]. The national Rural Revitalization Strategy (2018–2035) and land-use policy reforms have further created supportive institutional environments, facilitating adaptive reuse initiatives through greater policy flexibility and targeted incentives [31].

Despite this promising context, rural reuse strategies initiatives continue to face numerous implementation barriers, including traditional social norms, limited technical expertise, inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient financing mechanisms [32]. Although numerous studies demonstrate the individual benefits of rural transformation, the current academic and policy literature remains fragmented, lacking integrated frameworks that comprehensively evaluate adaptive reuse strategies across multiple dimensions: technical feasibility, economic viability, environmental impact, and social value creation. Existing studies frequently focus on isolated technical interventions, architectural preservation, or individual case studies, with limited integration between adaptive reuse strategies, carbon-transition objectives, rural governance, and multifunctional community development [33,34,35]. Moreover, few studies have explored the carbon-mitigation implications of adaptive reuse strategies through integrated scenario-based analytical approaches or long-term performance monitoring, limiting both policy applicability and replicability [36,37,38,39], which integrates spatial planning, climate goals, and community-driven rural development. In contrast to the Chinese case reports that have previously been studied, this research proposes an exploratory multidimensional framework informed by international theory but adapted to China’s rural contexts. Thus, the literature review established the conceptual basis for identifying the principal environmental, functional, governance, and rural-transition dimensions subsequently synthesized within the proposed GRC framework. This framework is consistent with recent appeals to bridge the theoretical and practical discrepancies in sustainable architecture [40,41], providing an integrated perspective on how rural reuse initiatives may align with broader decarbonization and rural revitalization agendas. While previous studies have demonstrated the environmental and social benefits of adaptive reuse, limited research has proposed integrated analytical frameworks capable of simultaneously addressing spatial regeneration, multifunctional community services, carbon-transition objectives, and institutional implementation within declining rural regions. The research is underpinned by three intersecting theoretical pillars: (1) Adaptive Reuse Theory, (2) Sustainable Rural Development, and (3) Low-Carbon Transition Frameworks. Together, these provide a coherent lens for evaluating how dormant building stock can be reactivated to address climate, social, and economic challenges.

2.2. Sustainable Rural Development Paradigm

Rural sustainability theories have evolved to stress multidimensionality: environmental resilience, economic diversification, cultural heritage, and social equity. Following [42,43,44,45], this study adopts a “neo-endogenous” rural development model, where development is locally driven yet enabled by external institutions and technologies. The transformation of idle buildings into green rural centers aligns with this paradigm. These centers may function as multi-functional rural nodes supporting training activities, community services, local entrepreneurship, and cultural continuity. The concept reinforces the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goals 7 (Affordable Clean Energy), 11 (Sustainable Communities), and 13 (Climate Action).

2.3. Low-Carbon Transitions and Nature-Based Solutions (NBS)

The dual carbon goals set by China for 2030 and 2060 frame a broader transition narrative that this study contributes to. Transition theory suggests that decentralized interventions, when supported institutionally and socially, may contribute to broader sustainability transitions [46,47]. Repurposing rural buildings as low-carbon centers fits within this landscape as a modular, cost-effective approach. Additionally, the study considers selected complementary sustainability-oriented approaches associated with Nature-Based Solutions (NBS), particularly in relation to passive environmental adaptation, green infrastructure, and landscape integration. Measures such as green roofs, passive cooling strategies, solar-energy integration, and ecologically responsive landscaping are treated in this study as supportive environmental strategies that may enhance the broader sustainability performance of adaptive rural regeneration initiatives [48,49].

2.4. Conceptual Framework

Based on the recurring gaps and limitations identified in the literature and comparative rural adaptive reuse practices, the study proposes an integrated multi-scalar GRC framework intended to support sustainability-oriented rural transition. Through the synthesis of these theoretical foundations, the study develops a multi-dimensional conceptual framework to guide the transformation of idle rural buildings into green rural centers. The framework encompasses:

• Spatial Layer: Building typology, accessibility, integration with natural resources
• Functional Layer: Community services, educational uses, economic productivity
• Carbon Layer: Emission baselines, renewable integration, reduction potential
• Institutional Layer: Governance structures, policy levers, financing models

The framework is intended as an exploratory analytical structure that may assist future rural regeneration planning and adaptive reuse assessment in comparable contexts.

2.5. Theoretical Contribution of This Study

In the context of China’s dual-carbon goals and the broader global pursuit of sustainability, there is growing recognition that idle and underutilized rural buildings represent untapped spatial, environmental, and socio-economic capital. The conversion of underutilized rural schools into Green Rural Centers (GRCs) presents a strategy that has the potential to yield mutually beneficial outcomes, including regional revitalization, community empowerment, and carbon reduction. This study contributes to the theoretical discourse by integrating adaptive reuse theory, low-carbon transition frameworks, and sustainable rural development into a unified analytical framework. In contrast to previous works that address these domains in isolation, our four-layered conceptual model (spatial–functional–carbon–institutional) provides an integrated interpretative lens through which to interpret idle rural buildings as catalysts for systemic transformation. Furthermore, the study extends the theoretical boundaries of place-based revitalization by demonstrating how multifunctional reuse strategies can be aligned with national carbon targets through scenario-based quantification. This multidimensional synthesis proposes an exploratory and theoretically informed pathway for rural ecological transition, relevant beyond the Chinese context. To support exploratory assessment of Green Rural Centers (GRCs), this study proposes a set of indicative evaluation criteria encompassing environmental, social, economic, and governance dimensions. Based on the literature synthesis and comparative interpretation conducted in this study,

Table 1. Proposed Indicative Criteria and Evaluation Dimensions for Green Rural Centers (GRCs).

Dimension	Indicative Planning-Oriented Evaluation Dimensions	Analytical Basis	Assessment Focus	Expected Contribution
Energy and Environmental Performance	Reduced operational energy demand through passive and renewable strategies	Building energy-efficiency, passive design, and low-carbon retrofit literature [18,50]; scenario-based carbon-reduction appraisal	Environmental performance integration	Contribution to operational carbon reduction and environmental resilience
Renewable Energy Integration	Partial integration of renewable-energy systems appropriate to rural contexts	Renewable-energy integration and rural low-carbon transition studies [9,51]	On-site renewable-energy adoption	Contribution to decentralized low-carbon rural transition
Material Reuse and Circularity	Preference for material reuse, local sourcing, and reduced construction waste	Adaptive reuse, embodied-carbon reduction, and circular construction literature [52,53]	Resource-efficiency integration and embodied-carbon reduction	Reduced construction-related environmental impacts
Water Conservation	Water-saving and reuse-oriented environmental measures	Sustainable rural infrastructure and environmental resource-management literature [2]	Water-resource efficiency and environmental adaptation	Improved ecological resilience and resource sustainability
Multifunctional Community Use	Integration of multiple community-oriented functions within a shared rural facility	Rural regeneration, multifunctional community facilities, and adaptive reuse literature [54]	Functional adaptability and service integration	Strengthened multifunctional rural service provision
Community Accessibility	Community-oriented accessibility and inclusive spatial organization	Rural service accessibility, public facility distribution, and social sustainability studies [17,19]	Social inclusion and accessibility integration	Improved local accessibility and inclusive community participation
Cultural and Architectural Continuity	Retention and adaptive interpretation of locally significant architectural characteristics	Heritage conservation, rural architectural continuity, and adaptive reuse literature [15,55]	Contextual continuity and rural identity preservation	Preservation of local identity and rural character
Economic Feasibility	Basic long-term operational and implementation feasibility considerations	Life-cycle cost, reuse feasibility, and rural regeneration implementation studies [36,52]	Operational viability and adaptive implementation capacity	Improved long-term implementation feasibility
Governance and Institutional Support	Alignment with local governance structures and rural policy priorities	Rural revitalization policy, governance coordination, and implementation-capacity literature [13,39,48]	Governance coordination and implementation support	Strengthened policy integration and implementation potential
Community Participation	Community engagement, participatory activities, and local involvement	Participatory planning, community engagement, and social acceptance literature [17,19,56]	Community participation and local acceptance	Strengthened community ownership and social inclusion

Note: The criteria are proposed as literature and study-derived indicative evaluation dimensions for the newly developed GRC framework. Future empirical applications may further calibrate these dimensions according to local building conditions, policy requirements, and available performance data.

proposes a set of indicative evaluation dimensions intended to support exploratory assessment of Green Rural Centres (GRCs). The indicative dimensions presented in Table 1 were initially synthesized from the literature on adaptive reuse, low-carbon retrofitting, rural regeneration, community facility planning, governance, and participatory development and were organized in relation to the study’s research aims and proposed GRC concept. These dimensions are subsequently revisited and refined through the contextual investigation, comparative case-study interpretation, and scenario-based appraisal presented in the following sections.

3. Methodology

This study adopts an exploratory mixed-methods research framework integrating literature review, field-informed contextual investigation, comparative adaptive reuse case-study analysis, and scenario-based sustainability estimation to examine the potential role of adaptive reuse in supporting low-carbon rural regeneration through the proposed Green Rural Centers (GRCs) framework. The chosen methodology systematically evaluates how idle rural buildings, particularly disused schools, cooperative halls, and agricultural facilities, can be strategically repurposed as multifunctional green centers supporting sustainable, low-carbon rural development.

Literature Review and Conceptual Grounding: The foundational stage involved a structured review of international and Chinese academic literature, government policy documents, and carbon-neutrality strategies related to adaptive reuse, sustainable rural development, low-carbon transition, and rural revitalization. The review provided the conceptual and analytical foundation for identifying adaptive reuse strategies, sustainability considerations, and policy-oriented rural regeneration approaches relevant to the proposed GRC framework. Particular attention was given to identifying existing limitations in current rural adaptive reuse practices and the need for integrated sustainability-oriented transformation models.

Field-Informed Contextual Investigation: A targeted field-informed contextual investigation was conducted over one academic year across selected rural villages in Fujian Province, Eastern China, by a multidisciplinary university research team. The investigation aimed to identify spatial, infrastructural, and socio-environmental challenges associated with idle rural buildings, particularly disused schools, cooperative halls, and underutilized community facilities. The field investigation included structured site observations and spatial assessments focusing on building conditions, accessibility, infrastructural readiness, and adaptive reuse potential. In addition, semi-structured discussions with local administrative representatives and village community leaders were conducted to better understand local governance conditions, historical causes of building abandonment, demographic changes, and rural development priorities. Contextual demographic and socio-economic observations were further supported through publicly available rural statistical reports and local administrative information. Statistical and rural development data used in the contextual analysis were primarily compiled from reports and yearbooks issued by the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics. Government-issued rural development reports and planning documents were also reviewed and cross-checked with field observations to improve contextual consistency and analytical interpretation. Rather than generating statistically representative social datasets, the field investigation was intended to provide context-specific field-informed insights supporting the identification of adaptive reuse opportunities, sustainability challenges, and rural regeneration priorities within the Fujian case context.

Comparative Adaptive Reuse Case-Study Analysis: To contextualize and comparatively interpret adaptive reuse strategies, four representative case studies—three from China and one international example were examined using a comparative analytical matrix. The selected cases involved the transformation of idle rural buildings into multifunctional community-oriented facilities incorporating varying levels of sustainability and decarbonization-oriented design considerations. The comparative analysis focused on four analytical dimensions aligned with the proposed GRC framework: (1) spatial transformation; (2) functional adaptation; (3) low-carbon and environmental performance considerations; and (4) institutional and community integration mechanisms. Comparative dimensions included adaptive reuse strategies, energy-efficiency considerations, environmental resilient features, community participation, socio-economic implications, and governance-related aspects. The analysis informed the development of the proposed GRC framework by identifying recurring sustainability-oriented adaptive reuse strategies, implementation challenges, and low-carbon rural transformation potentials across the selected cases.

Scenario-Based Carbon-Reduction Estimation and Sustainability Appraisal: To examine the potential low-carbon implications of adaptive reuse in rural development contexts, the study developed a scenario-based carbon-reduction estimation and sustainability-appraisal component. Three adaptive reuse scenarios were comparatively examined:

• Baseline Scenario: Idle buildings remain abandoned and underutilized.
• Conventional Reuse Scenario: Buildings are converted into standard community facilities without integrated sustainability measures.
• GRC-Oriented Transformation Scenario: Buildings are adaptively reused as multifunctional Green Rural Centres (GRCs) incorporating energy-efficiency strategies, renewable energy integration, and sustainability-oriented community functions.

The scenarios were comparatively evaluated using structured sustainability-estimation indicators informed by contextual field observations, official rural statistical data, adaptive reuse literature, and rural energy-efficiency considerations relevant to the Fujian context. The analytical appraisal included indicative annual energy-saving potential, carbon-reduction estimation, and broader socio-environmental co-benefits such as improved community accessibility, local activity revitalization, and enhanced multifunctional rural services. Carbon-reduction estimations were informed by national emission-reference values, adaptive reuse sustainability literature, and context-informed estimation conditions relevant to rural building energy-efficiency considerations in the Fujian context. The analytical equations used in the scenario-analysis stage were employed as structured estimation and appraisal procedures intended to support comparative sustainability evaluation and carbon-reduction estimation within the proposed planning-oriented framework. The adopted estimation values and scenario conditions were intended to support structured comparative appraisal and sustainability-oriented rural-transition evaluation within the proposed analytical framework rather than deterministic engineering prediction.

Framework Synthesis and Analytical Scope: Finally, the findings from the literature review, contextual field investigation, comparative case-study analysis, and exploratory scenario estimation were synthesized into the proposed Green Rural Centres (GRCs) framework, structured around four analytical layers: spatial, functional, carbon, and institutional dimensions. The methodological approach adopted in this study prioritizes exploratory sustainability assessment and framework development under limited but policy-relevant rural data conditions. Accordingly, the analytical estimations presented are intended to provide indicative insights into the potential role of adaptive reuse in supporting low-carbon rural regeneration rather than fully calibrated predictive or statistically generalized conclusions.

Finally, findings were synthesized into a multi-scalar strategic framework aligned with the study’s four analytical layers (spatial, functional, carbon, and institutional), linking empirical results with theoretical foundations. This integrative approach ensures that adaptive reuse strategies are not only environmentally sound but also socially inclusive and economically feasible. The methodological sequence was structured so that each stage produces an analytical output informing the next stage. The literature review identifies conceptual gaps and relevant evaluation dimensions; the Fujian contextual investigation defines the rural problem setting and empirical relevance; the comparative case-study interpretation identifies practical patterns and limitations of existing adaptive reuse approaches; the scenario-based appraisal translates these insights into implementation and carbon-reduction conditions; and the final GRC framework synthesizes these outputs into a planning-oriented structure for low-carbon rural regeneration (Figure 1).

4. Results

4.1. Contextual Analysis: Rural Transformation Challenges and Opportunities in China-Fujian Province

Fujian Province, located along the southeastern coast of China, provides a relevant contextual case for understanding the broader dynamics of rural transformation in the context of broader rural sustainability transition. This section synthesizes demographic, environmental, and infrastructural challenges currently affecting rural areas in the province, highlighting the structural drivers that help explain the growing interest in adaptive reuse-oriented rural regeneration strategies, particularly the transformation of underutilized or dormant rural buildings into green rural centers. Fujian Province is characterized by a humid subtropical climate with hot summers, high humidity, abundant rainfall, and relatively mild winters. These conditions influence cooling demand, natural ventilation potential, moisture control, and the operational performance of rural buildings. Therefore, climate conditions are relevant to the interpretation of adaptive reuse and low-carbon transformation strategies discussed in this study. The contextual analysis is intended to provide background conditions informing the subsequent comparative and scenario-based interpretations presented in this study.

4.1.1. Contextual Analysis Procedures

Field Investigation

Rural Development Context and China’s 2060 Plan: China’s dual carbon goals aim to peak carbon emissions by 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. According to Fujian Province’s “14th Five-Year Plan,” the future development of rural areas in Fujian must enhance the level of agricultural modernization and promote green development. To align with these dual carbon goals, rural areas need to strengthen agricultural technological development and harness the role of rural elites [50,57]. Existing policy discussions emphasize the importance of improving agricultural education, technical capacity, and local innovation systems in supporting rural modernization and green development transitions [51,52].

Contextual Rural Development Conditions in Fujian Province (Rural demographic and development data were compiled from statistical reports issued by the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics.): Fujian Province’s rural areas represent a type of developed rural region, located in the economically developed eastern coastal area. The social and economic development level of rural areas is relatively high, and the degree of economic non-agriculturalization is significant [53]. This section encompasses a detailed examination of the current challenges and future prospects of rural development in Fujian Province, focusing on enhancing agricultural modernization, addressing rural demographic changes, and promoting environmental sustainability to meet the dual carbon goals.

These trends indicate gradual improvement in rural living standards, although demographic decline and labor migration continue to influence long-term rural development capacity.

Despite the overall improvement in the living standards of rural residents in Fujian Province, with per capita disposable income rising from 3230 yuan to 20,880 yuan and per capita living consumption expenditure increasing from 2410 yuan to 16,339 yuan (Figure 2), several issues still persist in rural development.

The data suggest that agricultural modernization alone has not fully compensated for the declining rural workforce and demographic transition pressures.

Economically, the declining rural population has significantly constrained rural economic growth. The rural population decreased from 19.78 million to 12.98 million, and despite increased investment in agricultural technology, the reduction in the rural workforce has led to a gradual loss of labor [54]. Between 2016 and 2020, although the sown area of crops slowly increased, there was no significant rise in total grain output or per-unit yield (Figure 3) [55] highlighted that the migration of rural labor severely impacts the economic development of rural areas.

These demographic shifts have important implications for rural service provision, healthcare demand, and the future reuse potential of underutilized public buildings.

Furthermore, the aging population in rural areas is a critical issue. In 2020, individuals aged 65 and above accounted for 11.1% of the total population. The elderly population (aged 60 and above) constituted 23.8% of the rural population, 7.99% higher than the urban elderly population proportion. The elderly dependency ratio in Fujian Province increased by 5.6% from 2010 to 2020 [56,58], indicating that the aging rural population affects the well-being of the elderly and the broader social development of rural areas.

Educationally, the rural workforce is less educated. Among those engaged in agricultural production, 43.7% have primary education, 41% have junior high school education, and only 8.3% have high school education or above [59] pointed out that the scientific and cultural quality of farmers is directly related to their training methods, skill acquisition, and economic income (Figure 4). To further investigate rural issues, we selected three villages in Xiuyu County, Putian City, Fujian Province: Shicang Village, Xiyuan Village, and Caixi Village (Figure 5). These villages differ in planning, population issues, and economic opportunities, making them suitable for comparative analysis.

Table 2. The basic situation of Shicang village, Xiyuan village, and Caixi village. Source: Classified and compiled by the authors based on statistical data from the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics.

Village	Total Area/Square Kilometers	Arable Land/Hectare	Area of Woodland/Hectare	Proportion of Cultivated Area/%	Whether There Are Tourism Resources
Shicang	141.87	518.6	11,700	36.6	None
Xiyuan	334.3	851.27	27,900	25.5	Yes
Caixi	76.21	413.87	6593.33	54.31	Yes

,

Table 3. The development of Shicang, Xiyuan, and Caixi Villages in recent years. Source: Classified and compiled by the authors based on statistical data from the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics.

Village	Year	Developments
Xiyuan	2016	Introduced understory economic crops such as golden-threaded herbs and dendrobium, developed the Xianshuiyang Scenic Area, promoted the rural tourism industry, explored the “cooperative + household” model, and attracted household investments.
	2017	Established poverty alleviation industrial base, enhanced school infrastructure, established environmental education base, improved grassroots medical conditions, strengthened afforestation and ecological construction, developed modern characteristic agriculture through “company + household” and “cooperative + household” forms.
	2019	Advanced high-standard farmland construction, established village-level science and technology envoy workstations, and achieved full coverage of village-level science and technology envoys, promoted health and wellness tourism projects, and focused on environmental protection.
	2020	Focus on education-driven poverty alleviation, improved healthcare system, enhanced ecological protection, high-standard farmland construction, and wellness tourism.
Shicang	2017	Increased surplus labour force post introduction of agricultural production responsibility system, with young people engaging in migrant labour, entrepreneurship, and factory establishment as the main source of economic income. Elderly residents engaged in mountain development and diversified business ventures. Mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, wood ear mushrooms, and processed crafts such as bamboo, wood, rattan, and grass became pivotal industries for rural economic income.
	2019	Developed agricultural technology, understory economy, high-standard farmland construction, agricultural industrialisation, engineering afforestation, and explored rocky soil resources.
	2020	Continued focus on agricultural technology development, collaboration with universities, utilisation of forest resources to transform mountain forest advantages into economic strengths, strengthened elderly care and medical services, promoted cooperative societies, and explored tourism resources.
Caixi	2016	Introduced camellia industry, improved agricultural service facilities, enhanced education and teaching environment, integrated internet with tourism.
	2017	Strengthened scenic area facilities and services, enhanced camellia industry, improved education, and upgraded tourism service facilities.
	2019	Enhanced camellia industry, developed modern sightseeing agriculture.
	2020	Provided guidance for camellia industry planting, added health and educational tourism functions to scenic tourism.

,

Table 4. Tourism development in Xiyuan Village. Source: Compiled by the authors based on statistical and rural development data from the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics.

Year	Total Number of Tourists/Ten Thousand	Ticket Revenue/Ten Thousand
2017	6	98
2019	12.39	276.05

,

Table 5. Tourism development in Caixi Village. Source: Compiled by the authors based on statistical and rural development data from the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics.

Year	Total Number of Tourists/Ten Thousand	Ticket Revenue/Ten Thousand
2015	16.87	297
2016	19.3	481
2017	21	503
2019	22.37	571.6

and

Table 6. Population statistics of Xiyuan, Shicang, and Caixi Villages in recent years. Source: Classified and compiled by the authors based on statistical data from the Fujian Provincial Bureau of Statistics.

Year	Village	Population	Number of People Engaged in Agriculture	Number of People over 60 Years Old
2015	Xiyuan	23,340	3567	3028
	Shicang	17,763	925	2432
	Caixi	11,100	4420	1432
2016	Xiyuan	23,685	3611	3165
	Shicang	18,080	1851	2556
	Caixi	11,377	4342	1496
2018	Xiyuan	24,129	3623	3518
	Shicang	18,012	162	2775
	Caixi	11,671	1840	1659
2019	Xiyuan	24,135	3617	3616
	Shicang	17,940	153	2809
	Caixi	11,726	1803	1721
2020	Xiyuan	24,113	3137	3653
	Shicang	17,854	148	2880
	Caixi	11,710	1130	1794

summarize comparative contextual indicators used to interpret demographic, economic, tourism, and agricultural conditions relevant to adaptive reuse potential across the selected villages.

Table 3 summarizes selected village-level development initiatives relevant to agricultural modernization, environmental improvement, and rural revitalization trends.

Shicang Village: Located in the northern mountainous area of Xiuyu County, it is a provincially designated impoverished village with a forest coverage rate of 86.5%. Shicang Village represents a predominantly agriculture-dependent rural context characterized by labor outmigration and demographic ageing. There is an excess of surplus labor, with most young people working outside the village. The labor force mainly consists of elderly individuals, and recent developments have focused on agricultural technology, with no tourism resources developed (Table 2, Table 3 and Table 6).

Xiyuan Village: Situated in the northwestern mountainous area of Xiuyu County, it has a balanced development of industry and agriculture, offering better economic opportunities. It is a typical village with a well-structured industrial base and good economic development. The outflow of young labor is less noticeable, and the village has developed tourism resources, such as the Xianshuiyang Scenic Area (Table 2, Table 3 and Table 6).

Caixi Village: Located in the mid-northern part of Xiuyu County, it has abundant arable land and is primarily agricultural. Despite a continuous decline in the workforce in recent years, it is a typical agricultural village with resource advantages. Economic development is average, but agricultural service facilities have been improved, and tourism has been vigorously promoted in recent years (Table 2, Table 3 and Table 6).

Although economic indicators increased across the three villages, demographic ageing and agricultural labor decline remained significant structural constraints.

Tourism indicators were included to illustrate the differing economic diversification conditions influencing adaptive reuse opportunities across the selected villages.

Table 6 was included to illustrate demographic ageing and agricultural labor decline, both of which directly influence rural service demand and the emergence of underutilized public facilities such as idle schools.

Economically, all three villages show a rising trend in economic data, but the growth rate has slowed (Figure 6). Analyzing the development of tourism in Xiyuan and Caixi Villages reveals that tourism contributes to local economic development (Table 4 and Table 5). In terms of population, all three villages show an increasing total population, with a yearly decline in the number of individuals engaged in agriculture. The decrease is most pronounced in Shicang and Caixi Villages. The number of individuals aged 60 and above is growing rapidly, exacerbating the aging population issue. Combined with the trend in regional GDP data, it is evident that population aging significantly hinders economic development (Table 6).

Analysis of Problems and Needs in Rural Development in Fujian Province: Wang Wangsheng highlights that agricultural workers generally have low educational attainment, and there is a shortage of technical personnel. The exodus of young rural laborers, especially those with at least a junior high school education, is accelerating. Additionally, adult education in rural areas is in a weak position [60]. Huang Chunlan points out that a lack of funds, technology, and information remains a major obstacle to the modernization of agriculture in Fujian Province. There is also a shortage of rural labor and professional technical personnel [61]. Xu Li and others analyze that the aging rural population affects the supply of rural labor, the composition of rural family members, rural medical security systems, and the elderly dependency ratio. They also suggest that the aging population demands higher standards for rural medical security systems [54].

Analysis of Idle Rural Schools: Due to the accelerated urbanization process, the outflow of primary and secondary school students from rural areas, and the implementation of policies to consolidate and merge schools, the number of primary schools in Fujian Province has been decreasing, while the number of idle rural schools has been increasing (Figure 7).

Recent educational reforms and demographic shifts have accelerated the consolidation of rural schools, contributing to increasing numbers of underutilized educational facilities in rural areas. China’s educational philosophy is also evolving. There is now a greater emphasis on integrating green concepts into school environments to promote sustainable development [62]. Rural primary schools serve as the cultural foundations of rural communities and are central to rural life [63]. Compared to urban areas, the entire rural region’s educational resources still fall short of meeting the people’s needs, exacerbating rural hollowing-out. Rural educational infrastructure remains closely connected to broader rural revitalization and community sustainability objectives [60,62].

Adaptive Reuse and Sustainability-Oriented Rural Development Perspectives

Prospects for Rural Development and Social Welfare Under the Dual Carbon Goals: Li Haojie asserts that the introduction of the dual carbon goals has clearly defined the direction for green rural development [14]. Ding Caixia emphasizes that agricultural and rural areas are crucial for achieving carbon peak and carbon neutrality [58]. In alignment with the dual carbon goals, green rural development can be enhanced by establishing centers that provide services related to agricultural technology development. Additionally, leveraging local resources to create eco-tourism activities can promote rural economic development while fostering awareness of green living and environmental protection. Transforming idle rural schools into comprehensive green rural development centers can create spaces and functions for various activities [64,65]. This approach aims to provide agricultural education to farmers and explore the potential for rural self-development.

Anticipated Roles of Green Rural Centers in Achieving Sustainable Development: Green rural centers aim to shift traditional child education towards lifelong education and training involving all social strata. These centers convert schools into comprehensive green rural development hubs, creating spaces and functions for a variety of activities, whether permanent, temporary, seasonal, indoor, or outdoor. This transformation is expected to enhance the welfare of rural communities and maximize rural potential. These centers will provide high-quality education and training for rural residents, improving their skills and facilitating urban integration. Training and development programmers will be established, combining entertainment and education for specific groups such as children, teenagers, and women, thus fostering specialized industries. Organic agriculture can establish a participatory economic system, where rural residents receive education and training through hands-on experiences, attracting talent to rural areas and driving local development. Utilizing local resources for eco-tourism activities can increase environmental awareness and promote attention to natural habitats, water, and other environmental aspects. Additionally, green rural centers can celebrate local culture and heritage through cultural experiences.

The Potential of Idle Schools as Key Development Solutions: As shown in Figure 8, academic research on the reuse of idle schools has been on the rise in recent years. Studies have explored transforming these schools into multifunctional facilities such as elderly care and childcare complexes, rural learning centers, residential housing, and kindergartens. Based on previous research, converting and revitalizing idle rural schools into green rural centers is feasible.

4.1.2. Contextual Analysis Results and Indicators

Demographic Transitions and Social Vulnerability: Fujian’s rural areas are experiencing pronounced demographic shifts, including population decline, youth migration to urban centers, and rapid aging. According to recent government statistics, rural youth aged 18–35 have declined by over 45% in the past decade, contributing to an imbalanced demographic structure dominated by elderly residents. This aging population faces increasing healthcare needs and limited mobility, while the decline in working-age residents weakens the local economy and reduces community vitality. The abandonment of rural schools and other public facilities is a direct consequence of this outmigration. Currently, Fujian has over 2500 idle school buildings, many of which are located in villages experiencing declining services and diminishing educational access. These buildings represent underutilized spatial resources that, if strategically repurposed, can support new socio-economic functions aligned with the needs of an aging and dispersed population.

Agricultural Decline and Land Fragmentation: Agricultural productivity in rural Fujian has stagnated due to aging labor, declining interest among younger generations, and increased land fragmentation. Many households have shifted from farming to non-agricultural income sources, further weakening the ecological and economic functions of rural spaces [66]. Idle rural buildings such as cooperative halls, storage facilities, and schools are often situated near agricultural land, positioning them as potential hubs for revitalizing agri-based economies through innovation, agro-education, and renewable resource management.

Environmental Pressures and Low-Carbon Policy Gaps: Fujian’s rural carbon emissions are increasingly driven by dispersed energy consumption, aging infrastructure, and reliance on fossil fuels for heating and transportation. Although the province has adopted climate mitigation targets in line with national dual carbon goals, the implementation in rural areas remains fragmented. Infrastructure for clean energy, waste management, and carbon monitoring is underdeveloped. Adaptive reuse of existing buildings offers an opportunity to embed energy-efficient technologies, such as solar panels and passive cooling systems, while fostering environmental awareness at the local scale [67].

Spatial Imbalance and Service Inequality: Many rural towns and villages in Fujian suffer from spatial marginalization. Educational, healthcare, and recreational services are centralized in urban centers, while peripheral areas are left with deteriorating facilities. This inequality has exacerbated social exclusion and made it more difficult to implement rural revitalization initiatives. Green rural centers, strategically located in idle or abandoned buildings, have the potential to rebalance spatial equity by offering multifunctional services within walking distance of residents.

Strategic Relevance to Adaptive Reuse and Carbon Goals: The socio-environmental landscape of rural Fujian creates a compelling rationale for adaptive reuse as both a sustainability strategy and a carbon mitigation tool. Dormant buildings are not only spatial assets but also cultural anchors that can be reactivated to address climate change, support local economies, and promote social resilience [68,69]. This contextual analysis informs the subsequent scenario modelling and design framework, where rural transformation is explored as a pathway toward achieving China’s dual carbon targets while enhancing the quality of life for rural communities [70,71].

4.2. Case Study Analysis of Revitalizing and Adaptive Reuse of Idle Schools

The case-study analysis examines selected adaptive reuse precedents to identify transformation strategies, functional outcomes, community roles, and environmental integration patterns relevant to the development of the proposed GRC framework. The comparative case analysis revisits the preliminary GRC evaluation dimensions introduced in Table 1 by examining how selected adaptive reuse precedents address, partially address, or overlook spatial, functional, environmental, and institutional aspects of rural regeneration. To illustrate the potential opportunities and implementation challenges of transforming idle rural schools into Green Rural Centers (GRCs), this section examines four diverse case studies: three from rural China and one international reference from Mozambique. These cases reveal architectural strategies, functional adaptation, and degrees of success in supporting community revitalization, environmental responsiveness, and broader carbon-conscious rural development. The case studies are comparatively interpreted through the four-layer GRC framework, including spatial, functional, environmental, and institutional dimensions.

4.2.1. Case Study One: Kaizhang Primary School—Nihegou Village, Shaanxi

Context and Objectives: Nihegou Village, located in Shaanxi Province, has faced long-standing economic hardship, population outflow, and ageing demographics. The village’s Kaizhang Primary School, decommissioned in 2012, was repurposed into a multifunctional community-oriented rural facility serving local residents, tourists, and industry stakeholders (Figure 9).

Transformation Strategy: The building retained its basic structure while undergoing internal spatial reconfiguration. Functions were layered vertically: ground-level community space and dining, second-floor administration, and third-floor guest rooms and tea rooms. Local materials and cultural references (e.g., jujube baskets) were integrated into the interior design (Figure 9).

Evaluation in Relation to Sustainability and Carbon Goals: While the renovation revitalized village activity and supported the local economy, it lacked integration of energy-efficient systems or renewable energy. The project’s environmental performance opportunities remained only partially explored, and broader environmental and landscape integration strategies were limited (Figure 9). This case demonstrates how adaptive reuse can support community revitalization while also revealing the limited integration of broader low-carbon transition strategies within current rural regeneration practices.

4.2.2. Case Study Two: 1971 Youth Education Camp—Chentuan Town, Shandong

Context and Objectives: An idle middle school in Chentuan Town was converted into a youth education camp in response to national policies promoting study-tourism. The goal was to retain educational functions while enabling experiential learning and cultural immersion (Figure 10).

Transformation Strategy: The site was reorganized into thematic courtyards using original structures and new landscape elements. Classroom blocks were converted into accommodation. Traditional red brick masonry and structural retrofitting preserved the building’s character while adapting it for contemporary use (Figure 10).

Evaluation in Relation to Sustainability and Carbon Goals: The adaptive reuse strategy prioritized experiential learning and cultural continuity. However, similar to the Nihegou case, no clearly articulated environmental or energy-oriented retrofit strategies were identified. Energy consumption implications for accommodation and tourism services were not addressed, representing a partially underutilized opportunity for environmental integration (Figure 10).

4.2.3. Case Study Three: Qili Village Party and Community Centre—Zhejiang

Context and Objectives: An idle school-turned-factory was transformed into a civic center to restore cultural identity and enhance community participation. Located at the village entrance, the building’s visibility lent it symbolic and practical significance (Figure 11).

Transformation Strategy: A “U-shaped” layout was re-established, with public activity spaces on the ground floor, study rooms above, and an office core for the village committee. Locally sourced materials such as reclaimed bricks and hollow concrete blocks, were used in renovation (Figure 11).

Evaluation in Relation to Sustainability and Carbon Goals: Although the transformation enhanced community life and cultural display, the intervention demonstrated limited integration of environmental design considerations. Energy efficiency, accessibility, and integration with surrounding agricultural land were received comparatively limited attention (Figure 11). The case highlights the importance of multifunctional rural programming but also indicates the need for stronger environmental-performance integration within adaptive reuse initiatives.

4.2.4. Case Study Four: Kuramdza Educational Centre—Chivonguene, Mozambique

Context and Objectives: This international reference provides a model of climate-adaptive reuse in a sub-Saharan context (Figure 12). The Kuramdza Educational Centre was built around existing abandoned structures, aiming to provide safe, inclusive, and environmentally responsible education infrastructure.

Transformation Strategy: The project emphasized bioclimatic design, natural ventilation, and passive cooling using a central courtyard. Solar panels and rainwater harvesting systems were integrated. Lightweight timber framing reduced embodied carbon, while preserving fruit-bearing trees strengthened local identity (Figure 13).

Evaluation in Relation to Sustainability and Carbon Goals: This project illustrates how reuse-oriented strategies may be aligned with both environmental and social goals (Figure 13). Its success highlights the feasibility of integrating renewable energy, nature-based systems, and educational functions within a coherent carbon-reduction, potentially relevant lessons for comparable rural contexts in China.

4.2.5. Comparative Insights and Lessons Learned

The selected cases were comparatively examined to identify practical strengths, environmental limitations, governance conditions, and broader lessons relevant to the proposed GRC framework.

As shown in

Table 7. Comparative Analysis of Case Studies: Functions, Low-Carbon Features, and Community Engagement in Relation to GRC Framework Dimensions.

Case	Location	Functions	Low-Carbon Features	Energy Source	Community Role	Weaknesses	Relevance to GRC Framework
Nihegou	Shaanxi	Lodging, cultural, admin	None	Grid-based	Moderate	No energy efficiency, cultural loss	Limited environmental integration
Chentuan	Shandong	Education-tourism	None	Grid-based	High	High energy demand not addressed	No explicit energy-retrofit strategy identified
Qili Village	Zhejiang	Governance, culture	Limited reuse of materials	Grid-based	Moderate	No energy strategy, low accessibility	No explicit energy-retrofit strategy identified
Kuramdza	Mozambique	Education, eco-design	Solar, rainwater, passive cooling	Renewable	High	None significant	Passive design and renewable-energy integration

, all cases contributed to varying degrees of spatial revitalization and community activation. However, the level of environmental integration differed substantially across cases. The Kuramdza project demonstrated comparatively stronger incorporation of passive environmental strategies and renewable-energy-oriented design measures, while the Chinese cases showed more limited integration of environmental performance considerations. These comparative observations refine the interpretation of the proposed GRC framework by clarifying where existing adaptive reuse practices provide transferable lessons and where stronger integration of environmental performance, multifunctional programming, and institutional support is needed.

4.3. Scenario Analysis-Based Appraisal of Green Rural Centre (GRC) Development

4.3.1. Purpose and Relevance

As rural development strategies increasingly intersect with national carbon neutrality agendas, decision-makers increasingly need to consider how various institutional, social, and economic factors influence the feasibility of climate-aligned infrastructure transformation. Building on the contextual findings and the comparative interpretation of existing reuse practices, the scenario-analysis stage was developed to analytically estimate the potential implications of integrating GRC-oriented transformation strategies within broader rural low-carbon transition pathways. Scenario analysis provides an exploratory framework to explore these multidimensional uncertainties and examine the potential responsiveness of strategic interventions under diverse future conditions (Figure 14). In this study, scenario analysis is employed to assess the feasibility and potential implications of converting idle rural schools into Green Rural Centers (GRCs) in Fujian Province. By comparing alternative development paths, this method enables the identification of favorable enabling conditions and critical barriers, while exploring indicative impacts on carbon emissions, rural sustainability, and quality of life.

4.3.2. Key Influencing Factors and Weighting Scheme

Four primary factors were identified as particularly influential within the exploratory scenario framework developed in this study (Figure 15), based on literature interpretation, comparative case-study observations, and contextual analytical judgement:

• Government Support (GS)—30%
• Reflects the importance of central and local government policies, financial subsidies, land-use permissions, and political will.
• Community Acceptance (CA)—25%
• Represents the level of local engagement, resident buy-in, and cultural appropriateness of the reuse strategy.
• Economic Feasibility (EF)—25%
• Captures the cost–benefit profile, operational viability, and long-term financial sustainability of the GRC conversion.
• Green Development Incentives (GI)—20%
• Includes environmental certifications, carbon credit eligibility, and access to green finance mechanisms.
• Relative weighting values were used as structured analytical inputs to support comparative interpretation across scenarios rather than statistically calibrated coefficients. An exploratory comparative evaluation approach was used, combining literature-informed weighting logic with Likert-scale assessments across five scenarios (Figure 16).

4.3.3. Scenario Construction and Scoring

Five exploratory implementation scenarios were developed to reflect varying levels of policy support, economic performance, and societal dynamics:

• Balanced Scenario—steady-state conditions and gradual support growth
• Optimistic Scenario—full government alignment and strong public buy-in
• Pessimistic Scenario—policy rollback, limited funding, low engagement
• Tech-Driven Scenario—driven by innovation and external funding
• Community-Led Scenario—bottom-up mobilization with modest policy alignment

Each factor in each scenario was rated on a 1–5 scale:

1 = Very Weak, 2 = Weak, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Strong, 5 = Excellent.

The total scenario score was calculated as:

$$Scenario Score=\sum \left(Factor Score\times Factor Weight\right)$$

(1)

Interpretation of results:

• ≥4.5: Strong implementation potential
• 3.5–4.4: Feasible with moderate adjustments
• <3.5: Indicates implementation constraints

The scoring structure was intended as a comparative interpretative tool rather than a predictive statistical model.

4.3.4. Scenario Outcome Appraisal

Following the construction of the five implementation scenarios, the scenario outcomes were appraised in relation to three core objectives of the proposed GRC framework: Carbon Goals (CG), Sustainable Rural Development (SRD), and Quality of Life (QOL). These three outcome dimensions were selected because they reflect the central purpose of the study: linking adaptive rural reuse with carbon-transition objectives, multifunctional rural service provision, and community-oriented regeneration. The appraisal was conducted by interpreting how variations in the four implementation factors—Government Support (GS), Community Acceptance (CA), Economic Feasibility (EF), and Green Development Incentives (GI)—may strengthen or constrain each outcome dimension. In this sense, the scenario scores were not treated as predictive outputs but as comparative planning indicators that reveal the relative implementation potential of different GRC development pathways.

For example, scenarios with stronger government support and green development incentives are expected to perform better in relation to Carbon Goals, because these factors influence policy alignment, green finance, renewable-energy integration, and access to technical support. Scenarios with stronger community acceptance are more directly associated with Sustainable Rural Development and Quality of Life outcomes, because local participation, social acceptance, and community programming influence long-term use, inclusiveness, and service continuity. Economic feasibility affects all three outcomes by shaping operational viability, maintenance capacity, and the long-term sustainability of GRC implementation. This outcome-based appraisal provides an interpretive bridge between the weighted scenario scoring and the subsequent carbon-reduction estimation. It clarifies which implementation conditions are most relevant to each outcome dimension and helps identify where policy support, community engagement, financial feasibility, or green incentives are most critical for successful GRC development.

4.3.5. Interpretation of Implementation Pathways

The four influencing factors were further interpreted as interconnected implementation pathways rather than as isolated variables. Government Support (GS) represents the institutional pathway, including policy coordination, public investment, land-use approval, and administrative facilitation. Community Acceptance (CA) represents the social pathway, including local participation, cultural appropriateness, community dialogue, and willingness to use the transformed facilities. Economic Feasibility (EF) represents the operational pathway, including cost–benefit considerations, local employment opportunities, use of local resources, and long-term financial viability. Green Development Incentives (GI) represent the environmental-policy pathway, including access to green finance, carbon-related incentives, certification mechanisms, and renewable-energy support. Interpreting the scenarios through these four pathways helps explain why different implementation conditions produce different levels of feasibility and expected sustainability contribution. For instance, an optimistic scenario combines strong institutional support, community acceptance, economic viability, and environmental incentives, resulting in high implementation potential. By contrast, a pessimistic scenario reflects weak alignment across these pathways, indicating implementation constraints even when adaptive reuse remains technically possible.

This pathway-based interpretation avoids treating GRC implementation as a single technical intervention. Instead, it frames the transformation of idle rural schools as a multi-dimensional rural-regeneration process shaped by institutional, social, economic, and environmental conditions. The interpretation also supports the development of the proposed GRC framework by showing how policy instruments, community mechanisms, operational feasibility, and low-carbon incentives must be coordinated to move from building reuse to broader rural low-carbon transition.

4.3.6. Linkage to Forward Carbon-Reduction Estimation Toward 2060

The scenario-analysis stage provides the implementation logic for the forward carbon-reduction estimation presented in Section 4.4. Rather than applying a separate predictive forecasting model, the study links the scenario appraisal to the 2060 carbon-reduction estimation through three practical parameters: the potential number of converted rural schools, the annual CO₂ reduction value per converted center, and the implementation period. This linkage allows the study to translate qualitative and semi-quantitative scenario conditions into carbon-reduction estimation parameters. The weighted scenario scores identify relative implementation feasibility, while the carbon-estimation framework in Section 4.4 quantifies the potential cumulative CO₂ reduction under conservative, baseline, and ambitious implementation conditions. In this way, the scenario-analysis stage does not operate as a standalone model, but as a planning-oriented step that informs the scale, feasibility, and interpretation of the subsequent carbon-reduction estimation. Accordingly, the long-term assessment toward 2060 is based on the direct carbon-reduction calculation presented in Section 4.4, while the scenario-analysis results provide the contextual and strategic basis for interpreting different implementation pathways. This structure strengthens the connection between policy feasibility, community participation, green development conditions, and carbon-reduction potential within the proposed GRC framework.

Example:

If optimal conditions allow tripling the number of carbon-absorbing trees at each site and shifting from coal-based to solar-based energy (reducing emissions by −1000 gCO₂/kWh), then long-term carbon savings may substantially increase the estimated carbon-reduction potential compared to baseline estimation parameters, as shown in

Table 8. Scenario Evaluation Results: Weighted Scoring of Policy Impacts on Green Centre Development.

Optimistic				Pessimistic				Balanced
Pointer	weights	Evaluation (1–5)	Total	Pointer	weights	Evaluation (1–5)	Total	Pointer	weights	Evaluation (1–5)	Total
GS Impact on Centres	0.3	5	1.5	GS Impact on Centres	0.3	2	0.6	GS Impact on Centres	0.3	4	1.2
CA Impact on Centres	0.25	4	1	CA Impact on Centres	0.25	1	0.25	CA Impact on Centres	0.25	4	1
EF Impact on Centres	0.25	5	1.25	EF Impact on Centres	0.25	2	0.5	EF Impact on Centres	0.25	3	0.75
GI Impact on Centres	0.2	5	1	GI Impact on Centres	0.2	2	0.4	GI Impact on Centres	0.2	5	1
Final result	4.75	Final result as a percentage	95	Final result	1.75	Final result as a percentage	35	Final result	3.95	Final result as a percentage	79
Tech-Driven				Community-Led				Arithmetic average
Pointer	weights	Evaluation (1–5)	Total	Pointer	weights	Evaluation (1–5)	Total	Pointer	weights	Evaluation (1–5)	Total
GS Impact on Centres	0.3	5	1.5	GS Impact on Centres	0.3	4	1.2	GS Impact on Centres	0.3	4	1.2
CA Impact on Centres	0.25	4	1	CA Impact on Centres	0.25	5	1.25	CA Impact on Centres	0.2	3.6	0.72
EF Impact on Centres	0.25	4	1	EF Impact on Centres	0.25	3	0.75	EF Impact on Centres	0.25	3.4	0.85
GI Impact on Centres	0.2	5	1	GI Impact on Centres	0.2	4	0.8	GI Impact on Centres	0.2	2.6	0.52
Final result	4.5	Final result as a percentage	90	Final result	4	Final result as a percentage	80	Final result	3.29	Final result as a percentage	65.8

.

This scenario model not only provides an exploratory comparative interpretation of potential implementation conditions and estimated environmental implications of the GRC transformation strategy, but also links spatial planning and infrastructure renewal directly to climate objectives. Its policy relevance and exploratory planning relevance make it a valuable tool for planning-oriented comparative assessment in China and in comparable rural contexts (Figure 17).

The scenario analysis presented in this section is intended as an exploratory comparative planning framework informed by contextual evidence and structured scenario conditions rather than a calibrated predictive model.

4.4. Estimating the Carbon Reduction Potential of Green Rural Centers

The transformation of idle rural schools into Green Rural Centers (GRCs) presents a potential pathway for linking rural revitalization strategies with broader carbon-transition objectives. This section provides an exploratory estimate of the possible carbon-reduction implications associated with the adaptive reuse of idle rural school buildings under different implementation scenarios extending to 2060.

4.4.1. Estimation Parameters and Scenario Conditions

To explore the potential carbon implications of adaptive rural reuse strategies, we adopt a multi-step methodology based on spatial scale, energy performance improvements, and behavioral change impacts. The estimation in this section employs an indicative scenario-based estimation approach informed by literature interpretation, contextual field observations, and comparative analytical inputs:

• Number of idle rural schools across China: ~68,000 (based on Ministry of Education data)
• Potential conversion rate: 30% by 2060 = 20,400 centers
• Average building area per site: 200 m²
• Baseline energy profile of idle sites: zero active usage, but opportunity cost in terms of underutilized land and deteriorating infrastructure
• Post-conversion conditions include improved insulation: passive environmental design strategies, and partial integration of renewable energy systems.
• Indicative annual carbon reduction estimate per site: approximately 1.2 metric tons CO₂-equivalent under the baseline scenario conditions (from improved energy systems, reduced transportation, and local service provision)
• Timeframe: 2025–2060

The above values are intended as data-informed estimation parameters rather than calibrated national prediction metrics.

4.4.2. Carbon Impact Estimation

Using the above estimation parameters, the total estimated direct carbon savings from the converted centers can be illustratively estimated as:

$$Total {CO}_2 Reduction=N\times A\times R\times Y$$

(2)

where:

• N = Number of converted centers = 20,400
• A = Annual CO₂ reduction per center = 1.2 tons
• R = Realization rate (progressive implementation)
• Y = Years of operation = average 30 years

$$Total {CO}_2 Reduction=\mathrm{20,400}\times 1.2\times 30=\mathrm{734,400} tons {CO}_2$$

(3)

Results of applying to estimate the cumulative emissions reduction over 30 years

• Conservative Scenario: 408,000 tons CO₂
• Baseline Scenario: 734,400 tons CO₂
• Ambitious Scenario: 1,224,000 tons CO₂

These values are intended as indicative estimations derived from scenario conditions and estimation parameters and should not be interpreted as calibrated national carbon forecasts [72,73].

A comparative bar chart (Figure 18) illustrates the escalation in total carbon savings by scenario. These outputs offer a clear, indicative carbon-reduction potential for prioritizing GRC implementation in national policy frameworks. This estimate covers only direct operational savings. Indirect and secondary impacts, such as reduction in transport emissions, increased tree planting, low-carbon farming, and behavior change, are not yet included but may further influence the broader environmental impact.

Sensitivity Analysis of CO₂ Reduction Estimates

Given the variability in local building conditions, renewable energy system performance, and retrofit quality, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to examine the sensitivity of the estimated CO₂ reduction scenarios. We evaluated the impact of two key variables: (1) the annual emission reduction per building (ranging from 0.8 to 1.6 metric tons CO₂), and (2) the percentage of idle school buildings repurposed (from 10% to 50%).

The values in Figure 19 were calculated using the carbon-reduction estimation formula presented in Equation (2). For each cell, the estimated cumulative CO₂ reduction was obtained by multiplying the estimated number of idle rural schools by the uptake rate, the annual CO₂ reduction value per converted building, and the assessment period to 2060. For example, under the conservative condition of 10% uptake and 0.8 tCO₂/year per building, the estimated reduction is 68,000 × 0.10 × 0.8 × 35 = 190,400 tCO₂. Under the highest tested condition of 50% uptake and 1.6 tCO₂/year, the estimate reaches 68,000 × 0.50 × 1.6 × 35 = 1,904,000 tCO₂. The sensitivity-analysis results demonstrate the operational application of the scenario-based estimation framework under varying implementation conditions and retrofit-performance ranges. The resulting matrix (Figure 19) illustrates how variations in retrofit conditions and implementation rates may influence the estimated cumulative carbon-reduction outcomes. As shown, even under conservative scenario conditions, i.e., low retrofit performance and limited uptake, the initiative can yield significant carbon mitigation. Conversely, higher adoption rates and enhanced system efficiency substantially amplify the impact, supporting the broader implementation potential of the Green Rural Centers (GRCs) strategy. Because the estimation structure is multiplicative and linear, increases in uptake rate or annual per-building CO₂ reduction produce approximately proportional increases in cumulative reduction outcomes. This analysis highlights the importance of tailored retrofit strategies and policy incentives to support improved implementation quality and participation.

4.4.3. Secondary and Systemic Benefits

Apart from direct energy-related reductions, the establishment of GRCs may support broader sustainability-oriented rural activities and environmental co-benefits:

• Renewable energy adoption: Rooftop PV systems reduce reliance on fossil-fuel grid electricity.
• Urban–rural transport mitigation: Localizing services (e.g., health, education) reduces travel-related emissions.
• Green economy stimulation: Community-oriented training and local agricultural initiatives may contribute to reduced transport and material-related emissions.
• Carbon sequestration potential: Initiatives such as community gardens and tree planting enhance biogenic carbon sinks.
• Educational impact: Schools repurposed as GRCs embed sustainability awareness among future rural generations, creating long-term behavioral change.
• The comparative scenario interpretation suggests that improvements in rural quality of life and local development conditions may extend beyond the direct technical impacts of building retrofitting alone.

4.4.4. Policy Implications and Scaling Potential

If progressively integrated into broader rural revitalization initiatives, the proposed framework may contribute to into existing rural revitalization plans under the Rural Revitalization Strategy and China’s 14th Five-Year Plan, especially by aligning with the development of “beautiful villages” and “low-carbon counties.” Furthermore, by integrating these transformations into green finance mechanisms such as carbon credit markets or ESG frameworks, the initiative can support access to broader green-finance mechanisms while supporting localized climate-oriented rural initiatives at the grassroots level.

4.5. Proposed Strategic Framework for the Transformation of Idle Buildings into Green Rural Centers

To translate the findings of this research into a practical planning-oriented structure, this section proposes a strategic framework for the adaptive transformation of idle rural school buildings into Green Rural Centers (GRCs). The framework is informed by the literature review, comparative case analysis, and exploratory scenario assessment conducted in this study. And is intended to support sustainability-oriented rural regeneration strategies within the broader context of China’s dual-carbon and rural revitalization agendas.

4.5.1. Objectives of the Framework

The framework is designed to:

• Provide a structured planning-oriented approach for converting idle school buildings into multifunctional, low-carbon community hubs.
• Integrate energy-efficient retrofitting, environmental education, and community development into a single spatial platform.
• Support alignment with China’s 2030 carbon peak and 2060 carbon neutrality strategies.
• Offer an indicative planning reference for local governments, planners, and development agencies.

4.5.2. Five-Phase Strategic Framework

The following framework (

Table 9. Indicative Five-Phase Strategic Framework for Adaptive Reuse of Idle Schools as Green Rural Centres (GRCs).

Phase	Action Component	Description	Carbon/Development Impact
1. Identification & Prioritization	Asset Mapping	Identify and document idle school buildings and surrounding community conditions.	Target high-potential areas for energy savings and service gaps.
2. Feasibility & Scenario Assessment	Multi-criteria Evaluation	Apply comparative evaluation criteria (e.g., government support, economic feasibility, community need) to assess transformation potential.	Enables selection of cost-effective and high-impact sites.
3. Green Retrofit & Adaptive Design	Energy-Climate Design	Apply passive cooling, rooftop solar, natural ventilation, and insulation based on site-specific needs and regional climate.	Reduces operational carbon emissions and heat stress.
4. Programmatic Integration	Community Activation	Introduce community programmes such as environmental education, digital literacy, agri-training, elderly care, and green entrepreneurship.	Enhances quality of life and generates co-benefits.
5. Monitoring & Scale-Up	Impact Evaluation	Monitor indicative environmental and socio-economic outcomes (CO2 savings, service use, livelihoods created) and feed results into policy optimization.	Supports broader adaptation and policy learning.

) is intended as an exploratory planning-oriented structure synthesized from the literature review, field investigation, comparative analysis, and scenario interpretation conducted in this study.

4.5.3. Enabling Conditions and Policy Supports

Several enabling conditions may support the broader implementation of adaptive rural reuse strategies. For effective implementation, the framework may benefit from enabling mechanisms at multiple levels:

• Policy Instruments: Integration into rural construction codes and national low-carbon planning schemes.
• Green Finance Tools: Access to climate funds, green bonds, and carbon credit schemes for retrofitting and operational support.
• Cross-sectoral Partnerships: Collaboration between education bureaus, planning departments, environmental agencies, and civil society.
• Capacity Building: Training rural construction teams, local officials, and community volunteers on sustainable retrofitting and management.
• Digital Platforms: Use of GIS-based mapping, energy performance dashboards, and data sharing systems to monitor progress and ensure transparency.

4.5.4. Adaptability and Replicability

While tailored to Fujian Province, this framework is intended to be adaptable to different rural contexts within China, subject to local calibration and institutional conditions. Its modular structure allows for phased implementation, resource-sensitive planning, and compatibility with various rural development goals such as Rural revitalization, green county construction, and Smart Villages. By formalizing the transformation of idle school infrastructure into strategic, community-driven green centers, this framework bridges the gap between spatial reuse, carbon governance, and inclusive development. It proposes an exploratory planning-oriented framework that not only addresses carbon reduction and rural stagnation but also reimagines public infrastructure as engines of low-carbon futures.

4.6. Policy Implications and Roadmap for National Implementation

The empirical findings and strategic framework presented in this study highlight a significant opportunity for China to leverage the adaptive reuse of idle rural schools. This suggests a potential opportunity for integrating adaptive rural reuse strategies into broader rural revitalization and carbon-transition agendas. However, the scalability and impact of this transformation are likely to depend on supportive institutional, regulatory, and financial environments. This section outlines the broader policy implications and proposes a three-phase roadmap for mainstreaming Green Rural Centers (GRCs) within national and provincial development strategies.

4.6.1. Policy Implications

The following policy implications are intended as exploratory planning considerations derived from the analytical findings of this study.

• Integration with Dual Carbon Governance
  • GRCs -oriented reuse strategies may be incorporated into national and provincial carbon neutrality plans as certified low-carbon infrastructure projects.
  • Their contributions to emission reductions, energy efficiency, and ecological services can potentially recognized within carbon accounting systems.
• Synergy with Rural Revitalization and Land Reform
  • The transformation of idle school assets can be aligned with the goals of the Rural Revitalization Strategy, particularly in promoting local services, employment, and spatial equality.
  • Land-use flexibility and institutional coordination may support to legally enable the multifunctional reuse of public-school properties.
• Embedding in Green Finance Ecosystems
  • Converted GRCs could serve as eligible recipients of green bonds, rural carbon credits, and environmental public–private partnerships (PPPs).
  • Clearer assessment guidelines may help to measure and verify their carbon benefits and social value.
• Institutional and Human Capacity Development
  • Policymakers may ensure that rural governments and community actors are trained in planning, retrofitting, and managing GRCs in a participatory and accountable manner.
  • National academic institutions could play a role in developing technical toolkits and training curricula.

4.6.2. Three-Phase Roadmap for Policy and Implementation

The proposed three-phase roadmap translates the GRC framework into a staged policy and implementation pathway, moving from initial policy recognition and demonstration to scaling, institutionalization, and national integration. As summarized in

Table 10. Indicative Three-Phase Policy Roadmap for GRC-Oriented Rural Regeneration.

Phase	Period	Strategic Goals	Key Actions
Phase I: Policy Recognition & Demonstration	2025–2027	Establish policy framework and pilot sites	• Develop indicative national guidance for GRC-oriented rural reuse. • Identify and convert 5–8 pilot sites in diverse climatic regions. • Develop technical manuals and carbon benchmarking tools. • Build institutional partnerships with universities, planning bodies, and local governments. • Launch awareness and capacity-building programmers for stakeholders.
• Integrate GRC concept in national rural and carbon policies
• Launch pilot conversions in 5–8 provinces
• Develop technical guidelines and carbon benchmarking systems
• Build partnerships with universities and planning institutes
Phase II: Scaling and Institutionalization	2028–2035	Expand conversion and finance ecosystem	• Establish a national rural low-carbon renovation fund. • Integrate GRC projects into green bond issuance and climate finance frameworks. • Enforce rural building retrofit standards across provinces. • Train 10,000+ practitioners in green design, construction, and community programming. • Develop monitoring systems for environmental and socio-economic assessment. • Promote private sector participation through incentives and public–private partnerships.
• Create rural low-carbon renovation fund
• Include GRCs in green bond issuance portfolios
• Implement rural building retrofit standards
• Train 10,000+ local practitioners in green design and community programming
Phase III: National Integration and Evaluation	2036–2060	Institutionalize GRCs and optimize impact	• Embed GRCs in national and regional spatial plans and carbon neutrality roadmaps. • Establish and maintain a national GRC carbon registry and performance dashboard. • Provide ongoing incentives for innovation in multifunctional GRC programmers. • Conduct periodic national reviews of GRC environmental, social, and economic impacts. • Integrate GRC results into national climate reporting to international bodies. • Ensure continuous improvement via policy feedback loops and adaptive governance.
• Embed GRCs in regional spatial planning and carbon roadmaps
• Establish a national GRC carbon registry and impact dashboard
• Incentivize innovation in multifunctional GRC programmers
• Monitor and report cumulative carbon and socio-economic outcomes

Note: Bold text indicates the main phase headings in the roadmap.

, the roadmap links each implementation phase to an indicative period, strategic goals, and key actions, providing a planning-oriented sequence for advancing GRC-oriented rural regeneration from pilot projects to broader carbon-linked policy implementation.

4.6.3. Opportunities for Policy Innovation

• Carbon-linked Incentives: Introduce reward mechanisms for towns or counties achieving GRC-related carbon savings.
• Circular Economy Synergies: Combine GRC development with local resource cycles (e.g., composting, reuse of demolition waste).
• Resilience Planning: Position GRCs as rural resilience hubs capable of disaster response, health education, and social protection.

As shown in Table 10, this roadmap not only facilitates the wide-scale deployment of GRCs, but also illustrates how architectural transformation, climate policy, and rural development can converge to produce exploratory approaches for sustainability-oriented rural transition in the Global South. As China moves toward carbon neutrality, the strategic reuse of rural infrastructure offers a tangible, inclusive, and policy-aligned approach to supporting broader transition processes.

5. Discussion and Limitations

5.1. Discussion

This research addressed the question: how can the strategic repurposing of idle rural buildings contribute to dual carbon goals while advancing sustainable rural development and the UN’s SDGs? Drawing on comparative case studies, scenario-based carbon estimation, and policy analysis, the study frames spatial regeneration as a potential pathway for linking climate action with rural development. Idle rural assets, if strategically repurposed, may generate socio-economic, educational, and environmental co-benefits, transforming liabilities into platforms for rural innovation. Yet, many current reuse projects priorities cultural or structural preservation over integrated low-carbon strategies, revealing an implementation gap. The discussion therefore follows the logic of the proposed four-layer GRC framework, linking spatial reuse, functional adaptation, carbon-related implications, and institutional coordination. The framework presented here redefines adaptive reuse from an architectural practice to a strategic development mechanism, guiding stakeholders in transforming idle rural buildings into multifunctional hubs that address local needs and national carbon targets. When paired with renewable energy, passive design, and sustainability programming, these hubs may support behavioral change, green entrepreneurship, and ecological learning, advancing SDGs 7, 11, and 13.

International examples such as the Kuramdza Educational Center in Mozambique highlight the potential for combining energy self-sufficiency with social utility. In contrast, Chinese cases often achieved strong social outcomes but underutilized opportunities for environmental co-benefits, emphasizing the need for technical standards and policy alignment. Scenario analysis shows that government support, community participation, and financial feasibility critically shape project success. The exploratory sensitivity analysis indicates that, under conservative scenario conditions of 0.8 t CO₂ per site per year and a 10% uptake rate, the cumulative mitigation potential remains meaningful, although context-dependent. Under more ambitious scenarios (1.6 t CO₂, 50% uptake), the estimated reductions increase substantially. This underscores the importance of retrofit quality and national support in scaling impact. By situating idle building reuse within the intersecting agendas of climate mitigation, sustainable rural development, and the SDGs, this study bridges spatial planning, environmental governance, and post-carbon transition. It reframes rural architecture as a platform for climate innovation rather than heritage alone, with potential relevance for comparable rural contexts where underused infrastructure and unmet community needs intersect. While the empirical fieldwork draws on rural contexts in East Asia, the proposed operational GRC model and the multi-scalar evaluation framework may offer transferable insights for comparable rural regions in parts of the Global South, post-agricultural regions, and communities facing demographic decline, subject to local calibration. This suggests broader relevance, while also indicating the need for contextual adaptation before wider application.

5.2. Limitations and Uncertainty and Future Research

The findings should be interpreted within the exploratory scope of this study and the contextual conditions of the Fujian case area. While offering a novel framework and carbon reduction estimates for transforming idle rural schools into Green Rural Centers (GRCs), several limitations contextualize the findings:

• Estimates outcomes are influenced by scenario conditions related to retrofit performance, energy baselines, and uptake rates; actual performance varies with building condition, climate, user behavior, and construction quality.
• Climate conditions may influence operational performance and carbon-reduction potential; future applications of the framework require local climatic calibration.
• The 30% uptake scenario is plausible but optimistic; political, financial, or technical barriers may lower conversion rates.
• Results are sensitive to ±30% variation in emission factors and retrofit effectiveness.
• Secondary impacts reduced transport, local job creation, and carbon sequestration from greening were qualitatively discussed but not fully quantified.
• The contextual field investigation was conducted in Fujian Province; therefore, broader application requires calibration to different rural, climatic, institutional, and socio-economic conditions.
• Long-term projections to 2060 face macro-level uncertainties: energy price shifts, technological change, policy continuity, and funding stability.

These constraints clarify the exploratory scope of the framework and highlight the need for adaptive planning, cross-sectoral coordination, and SDG-aligned monitoring when applying the approach in other contexts.

Future research should further evaluate the operational performance of adaptive reuse interventions through detailed lifecycle assessment, energy simulation, and longitudinal post-occupancy studies across different climatic and governance contexts.

6. Conclusions

Collectively, the contextual investigation, comparative case interpretation, scenario appraisal, and framework synthesis contribute to the development of an integrated planning-oriented approach for adaptive rural regeneration aligned with national carbon goals and sustainability-transition objectives. The literature synthesis, Fujian contextual investigation, comparative case-study interpretation, scenario-based carbon-reduction estimation, and GRC framework development demonstrate how idle rural schools can be repositioned as multifunctional low-carbon rural regeneration assets. In relation to the research questions, the study identifies the key spatial, functional, environmental, and institutional conditions shaping adaptive rural reuse; evaluates the potential carbon-reduction implications of GRC-oriented transformation; and proposes an integrated planning framework for aligning idle rural assets with low-carbon rural regeneration objectives. This research presents an integrated exploratory framework for the strategic repurposing of idle rural buildings and their potential as a spatial contribution to sustainable rural regeneration and broader carbon-transition goals. By moving beyond narrow interpretations of adaptive reuse, the study reframes abandoned or underused rural structures, notably schools, halls, storage facilities, and former public buildings, as multi-functional platforms capable of catalyzing environmental, social, and economic transformation at the village scale, potentially contributing to SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). The findings reveal that when such buildings are regenerated with sustainability principles, clean energy technologies, and inclusive programming, they may function as Green Rural Centers (GRCs) that deliver vital services, strengthen community resilience, and support decentralized climate-responsive rural development strategies. This study offers three key contributions: (1) A multi-scalar methodology for analyzing rural buildings and their transformation potential, integrating carbon estimation, policy linkage, and spatial planning; (2) Context-sensitive insights relevant to rural regions facing population decline, service reduction, and infrastructure underutilization, particularly within parts of the Global South and post-agricultural rural contexts; (3) A theoretical lens that positions spatial reuse as a sustainability-oriented rural development approach, beyond cultural or architectural preservation. The originality of this study lies in integrating adaptive reuse, low-carbon rural regeneration, multifunctional community infrastructure, and sustainability-oriented planning through a sequential analytical process that connects literature-derived dimensions, context-specific rural challenges, comparative adaptive reuse lessons, and scenario-based carbon-reduction estimation within a unified planning-oriented model.

Rural regeneration, even at a modest scale, may generate meaningful environmental and socio-economic co-benefits when supported by context-sensitive planning strategies and local governance coordination. Strategic reuse of idle buildings can produce co-benefits across emissions reduction, rural livelihoods, education, green innovation, and participatory development. The exploratory sensitivity analysis suggests that even moderate implementation scenarios may contribute to meaningful carbon mitigation, while high-efficiency transformations provide broader environmental and socio-economic co-benefits. These observations highlight the importance of context-specific retrofit strategies and stronger policy coordination. Rather than functioning as isolated analytical components, the framework development, comparative interpretation, and scenario-analysis stages collectively support the study’s broader argument that adaptive reuse can operate as an integrated mechanism for low-carbon rural transition and multifunctional sustainability-oriented rural regeneration. Future research should refine quantitative metrics of carbon benefit, particularly through life cycle assessments and energy modelling. Comparative studies in diverse climatic, geographic, and governance contexts would improve generalizability. Partnerships between academia, rural planners, and policymakers are essential to institutionalize these strategies within national rural revitalization agendas and global climate adaptation frameworks. Accordingly, the proposed GRC framework offers a planning-oriented pathway for integrating adaptive reuse, rural service regeneration, and low-carbon transition, while future empirical applications can further test and calibrate its performance under different regional and climatic conditions.