Ecodesign in the Spanish Toy Industry: Case Studies, Ecodesign Strategies and Evolution

Abstract

Play is considered the primary activity of children, and toys are their essential tools. However, the toy industry extends beyond children, constituting a significant economic sector with annual revenues exceeding one hundred billion dollars and generating substantial environmental consequences. These include resource consumption, pollution during manufacturing, energy use, consumables during operation, and waste generation at the end of the product’s life cycle. This research presents a study of the state of the art of ecodesign in the toy sector and its potential within this field. Through the analysis of the available scientific literature and the expertise of the Toy Technology Institute (AIJU), experiences from companies in the sector have been identified and classified according to the ecodesign strategy wheel. Simultaneously, a survey of industry stakeholders compared the current situation with that of 30 years ago. The results reveal perceptual progress that is uneven across dimensions, with the strongest advances in materials and production, moderate gains in distribution and end-of-life strategies, and limited improvement in product durability, while innovation in new product concepts shows the highest growth. Correlation analyses indicate that experience and professional background influence how sustainability progress is perceived. Although most improvements have been motivated by cost reduction and regulatory compliance rather than environmental awareness, recent trends reflect a growing corporate commitment to ecological innovation. For consumers, it remains essential to overcome misconceptions about eco-friendly toys, while companies must continue to invest in new materials, technologies, and design strategies that support the transition toward circular and long-lasting toy products.

1. Introduction

This study focuses on the toy industry, with particular attention to its significance in Spain and, specifically, in the Valencian community.

Globally, the toy industry generated USD 111.8 billion in sales in 2024 [1]. The latest publicly available regional breakdown corresponds to 2023, when North America remained the largest market with USD 46.0 billion, followed by Asia with USD 28.9 billion and Europe with USD 26.4 billion [2].

Within the European Union, the toy industry employs approximately 51,000 workers and generates around EUR 5.8 billion in production value. In addition, 99% of EU toy manufacturing companies are SMEs [3].

In Spain, the latest detailed sectoral data indicate that the toy industry comprised 257 manufacturing companies in 2023, of which 97% were SMEs. The sector generated approximately EUR 1.70 billion in turnover and provided 4,897 direct jobs and more than 20,000 indirect jobs. The Valencian community remains the country’s main manufacturing hub, concentrating 99 companies, 36.45% of sector employment, and 40% of total turnover [4].

Located within this region is the Technological Institute for Children’s Products and Leisure (AIJU) [5], which supports toy manufacturers in meeting regulatory requirements and promotes innovation through research, development, and the identification of emerging trends. Among the challenges the industry will face in the coming years, one of the most critical is respect for the environment and the responsible management of natural resources [6], particularly the transformation of raw materials into products that can re-enter the production cycle at end of life.

Despite advances in other industrial sectors, achieving sustainability remains a medium- and long-term challenge. Historically, the toy industry’s primary objective has been to guarantee the highest possible safety standards for products intended for children [7,8]. This strong safety focus partly explains why environmental concerns have not been a principal priority for toy producers during design and manufacturing.

Currently, expressions such as eco-friendly toys and sustainable toys have become popular buzzwords, but they often cause confusion among both manufacturers and consumers. Online searches for these terms mainly yield results for Nordic-style toys made from wood, textiles, or cardboard, as well as educational materials inspired by the Montessori [8,9] and Waldorf [10] methodologies. Studies on such products typically made of wood [11] indicate that parents tend to perceive them as more environmentally friendly than plastic toys, which frequently carry a negative digital and social image as being toxic or polluting. Nevertheless, comparing products solely by material type is neither precise nor sufficient to determine environmental superiority [12,13].

Toy safety in Europe is regulated by EN 71, whereas assessing environmental impact requires ISO 14040:2006 life cycle assessment (LCA) compliance [14]. In addition, greenwashing [15], the practice of claiming ecological benefits without supporting evidence, remains a concern. Increasing interest in the circular economy [16] will likely intensify after the publication of Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 of 13 June 2024, which establishes a framework for setting ecodesign requirements for sustainable products. Companies in the toy industry are becoming increasingly aware of the need to integrate environmental improvements in their designs and processes [17,18].

To narrow the scope of this research, it is essential to clarify the concept of ecodesign. Multiple definitions exist, such as:

• “The integration of environmental aspects into product design and development, with the goal of reducing adverse environmental impacts throughout the entire life cycle of the product,” as defined by ISO 14006 (Environmental Management Systems—Guidelines for Incorporating Ecodesign) [19].
• Alternatively, ecodesign, also known as design for the environment, is the inclusion of environmental considerations during product development to minimize impacts across life cycle stages.

This approach must, however, coexist with other essential design elements [20] such as cost-effectiveness, functionality, safety, durability, ergonomics, and aesthetics, as represented in Figure 1.

The growing interest in environmentally responsible products has prompted the development of both qualitative and quantitative tools for ecodesign assessment. Among the qualitative tools are the Ecodesign Checklist [21], which helps identify environmental strengths and weaknesses throughout a product’s life cycle; the MET or MECO Matrix [22], used to visualize inputs and outputs at each stage; and the ecodesign strategy wheel [23], a diagram for evaluating compliance with eight ecodesign strategies.

Quantitative approaches include MIPS (Material Intensity per Service Unit) [24], which calculates resource use from extraction onward; CED (Cumulative Energy Demand) [25], which estimates all energy consumed directly and indirectly during production; and Eco-Indicator values [26], which express environmental impact numerically in millipoints (mPts) regarding the annual impact of a typical European citizen. Visual representations such as the spider-web diagram also aid in illustrating key environmental aspects along different life cycle axes.

The present study aims to explore the impact of ecodesign on the toy sector and its evolution over time, providing insight into current practices and future sustainability potential. Specifically, the strategies described in the ecodesign strategy wheel developed by Brezet and Van Hemel (1997) [27] were analyzed to evaluate their degree of adoption by toy companies, the progression achieved, and possible adaptations to today’s regulatory and technological context.

In parallel, a sectorial questionnaire was developed to assess professionals’ perceptions of the toy sector’s evolution over the past 30 years. The survey targeted toy companies and professionals across the Spanish territory, including manufacturers, quality and environmental managers, designers, and researchers.

Ultimately, this research delivers an environmental analysis of a traditional yet adaptive sector, illustrating how the toy industry continues to evolve and respond to emerging challenges. While external pressures from legislation to market demand have influenced these changes, a genuine and growing commitment to environmental improvement is now evident throughout the sector, as demonstrated in the analyses presented in this study.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This research follows an exploratory mixed-methods design combining qualitative and quantitative components. Two complementary approaches were developed in parallel:

(1)

A documentary review of projects and initiatives that apply or promote ecodesign strategies in the toy sector;

(2)

A stakeholder survey capturing professional perceptions of the adoption and evolution of these strategies over the past three decades.

To ensure both conceptual coherence and comparability across data sources, a unified analytical framework was adopted. In this context, the ecodesign strategy wheel served as the methodological anchor linking the survey, project documentation, and literature review within a coherent research design.

The ecodesign strategy wheel was applied not only as a conceptual framework for developing the survey questionnaire and classifying the project database but also as a common analytical structure for triangulating results. Using the same eight strategic axes across all data sources enabled systematic comparison and integration of quantitative perceptions from the survey, qualitative evidence from project documentation, and insights from the literature review. This alignment added coherence to the analytical process and strengthened the interpretative connection between perception-based and empirical findings. Overall, the survey results provide a perception-based overview that complements the project evidence, revealing both areas of convergence and points of divergence across ecodesign dimensions. It is critical to emphasize that all temporal comparisons—such as those between current conditions and those of 30 years ago—are solely based on the subjective perceptions and retrospective judgments of the respondents. Consequently, these data do not constitute verified historical records and must be interpreted as indicative of perceived shifts rather than objective, quantitative measures of sectoral evolution. Combined, these insights form the basis for the subsequent triangulation, which integrates stakeholder perceptions, project documentation, and literature analysis to identify consistent patterns and potential gaps in the adoption of ecodesign within the toy industry.

Overall, the survey results provide a perception-based overview that complements the project evidence, revealing both areas of convergence and points of divergence across ecodesign dimensions.

2.2. Documentary Review and Project Selection

To document practical cases of ecodesign implementation, a structured review of industrial and research projects was conducted using AIJU’s internal database and complementary public sources (CORDIS, LIFE, and Horizon Europe repositories). Projects were included if they met at least one of the following criteria:

• Development or testing of sustainable materials, processes, or components applicable to toys;
• Introduction of energy-efficient or circular manufacturing practices;
• Participation of the Spanish toy industry;
• Explicit alignment with one or more ecodesign strategies (Axes 1–8).

The database used in this research is primarily based on information from the Technological Institute for Children’s Products and Leisure (AIJU), complemented by public data. AIJU is the only technological institute in Europe focused exclusively on the toy industry, and it is officially recognized within the Spanish Network of Technological Institutes (REDIT) [28]. It brings together most leading companies in the Spanish toy cluster, mainly located in the Valencian community, which accounts for over 40% of Spain’s toy production and exports. This selection provides reliable, first-hand information and ensures sectoral representativeness. However, the authors acknowledge the geographic limitation of this scope and note it in the Limitations section, where future research will expand the database to include international.

The data used in this study were provided by AIJU, the main Technological Institute for Children’s Products and Leisure in Spain and Europe, which has collaborated with the toy industry for more than forty years. Environmental initiatives at AIJU began as early as 1995, and the formal establishment of its Environmental Department in 1999 consolidated the institute’s long-term commitment to sustainability.

The projects analyzed in this research focus specifically on environmental aspects such as ecodesign, material optimization, and waste management within the toy industry. Although AIJU has carried out numerous projects primarily related to toy safety, some of these initiatives are subject to confidentiality agreements with companies. Therefore, only those environmental projects that were both relevant and publicly available were included in this study.

These projects illustrate the practical implementation of ecodesign strategies and environmental innovation in the toy sector, as summarized in

Table 1. Major R&D and innovation projects developed or coordinated by AIJU between 2012 and 2025 that incorporate sustainability or ecodesign components in the toy sector.

Acronym/Reference	Date	Title
MASTALMOND LIFE11 [29] ENV/ES/000513	2012–2015	New biodegradable and eco-friendly almond-shell-based masterbatches for traditional sectors.
ECOSHELL [30] ECO/13/630469 Eco-SHELL	2014–2016	High value-added raw materials from eggshells.
BIOFCASE [31] GVRTE/2022/312994	2022–2023	Functional biomaterials as a sustainable alternative in consumer products in the Valencian community: toy, packaging and household goods sectors.
RECIMPET [32] INNEST/2021/6	2021–2023	Development of new recycled materials from multilayer PET packaging waste in footwear, toy and construction applications.
RIDE-ON-LI	2016–2017	Development of new ride-on toy electric vehicles with new lithium-based energy systems.
BIOMAT4FUTURE [33] IMDEEA/2020/39	1 January 2020, 18 months	Development and innovation of natural functional additives for the use of biomaterials in sustainable toys.
TRACER [34] CONV23/DGINN/25	1 January 2023, 12 months	Applicability of the use of chemical markers for the discrimination of black colored plastics during recycling.
CAP Y ALM [35] IMDECA/2013/6	2013–2015	Development of polymeric materials that capture and store solar energy to obtain injection-molded coatings.
ECOINDUSTRY [36] IMDEEA/2023/85	1 July 2023 18 months	Alignment of representative sectors of the Valencian community with the circular economy and industrial symbiosis.
SOFTMANBOT [37] 2020 Horizon Nº 869855	1 October 2019 42 months	Advanced robotic technologies for the handling of deformable objects in manufacturing industries.
BIOVALORA [38] INNEST/2021/363	1 October 2021 2 years	Development of probiotics and value-added products from brewery residues.
FLEXIROT [39] IMDEEA/2018/39	1 January 2018 12 months	New flexible formulations with organic plasticizers for rotational molding.
CHILDTZENS II [40] IMDEEA/2022/77	1 February 2022 31 December 2022	Development of tools to evaluate the potential of toys as an element for raising awareness of civic values among children. Pilot study.
ECOMARSI [41] IMDEEA/2021/14	1 January 2021 21 months	Development of sustainable consumer products, circular economy, environmental marking and industrial symbiosis in tractor sectors of the Valencian community.
PAHSS [42] IMDEEA/2021/18	1 January 2021 12 months	Evaluation of the impact of new regulations on attenuating surfaces in playgrounds made of recycled materials and improvement of their toxicological properties.
BECOMING GREEN [43] IMDEEA/2019/68	2019 18 months	Development and improvement of biomaterials for single-use consumer products.
SISENERGY [44] IMAMCE/2015/1	2015	Research and development of advanced energy systems suitable for consumer products in the toy and leisure sectors.
ECOTOY [45] IMAMCE/2015/1	2015	R&D of new sustainable components applicable to the electric and electronic toy sectors.
AMFAB II [46] IMDECA/2016/3	2015–2016	Advanced manufacturing of traditional manufacturing products using Additive Manufacturing technologies.
Oli MTD [47]	1 January 2006	Diagnosis for technology transfer and work methods for extending the useful life of hydraulic oils to companies of the sector of plastic injection.
IBUS [48] H2020-NMP35-2014	1 September 2015 31 August 2019	An integrated business model for customer-driven custom product supply chains
ECOZAMAK [49] IMDEEA/2013/7	1 January 2013 1 January 2014	Develop environmental technology solutions that are of interest to and applicable for improving zamak injection, used as a productive process in companies of various sectors of the Region of Valencia such as the toy sector, children’s products and leisure products.

.

Key metadata recorded for each case included acronym, funding program, implementation dates, project title, and main environmental contribution. The final set comprised 21 projects (2006–2024), addressing topics such as bio-based polymers, multilayer PET recycling, renewable-energy systems for ride-on toys, and end-of-life management initiatives (Table 1).

Each project was classified according to the corresponding axis of the ecodesign wheel to identify the most- and least-represented strategies across the sector.

2.3. Survey Design and Data Collection

Building on the literature and the documentary review, a questionnaire was designed to measure stakeholders’ perceptions of the implementation and evolution of the eight ecodesign strategies over the last thirty years.

The survey included two sections:

• Profile information: Gender, age group, professional role (designer, manufacturer, environmental or quality manager, researcher, educator), and years of experience.
• Ecodesign assessment: A series of Likert scale items (ranging from 0, “not at all eco-friendly,” to 5, “fully eco-friendly”) was employed for each dimension of the ecodesign strategy wheel. These items were used to evaluate and compare environmental performance between the baseline of 30 years ago and the current state.

The questionnaire was pretested with six AIJU professionals for clarity and reliability. After minor adjustments, it was distributed online using Google Forms (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA, USA) via AIJU’s industry network between March and June 2024. This process yielded 73 valid responses, which represents a 22% response rate. All participants were adults (>20 years) with proven experience in the toy value chain. Given the exploratory scope, convenience sampling was considered appropriate. The complete questionnaire is available in Appendix A.

2.4. Data Analysis

Qualitative evidence from the documentary review was triangulated with survey findings to contextualize and interpret observed trends. Statistical results are provided in Appendix A.

Survey responses were exported to IBM SPSS Statistics v.29 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) for cleaning and analysis. Detailed descriptive statistics, including mean, variances, and 95% credible intervals for each ecodesign strategy, are provided in Appendix A—

Table A1. Main statistics of the survey. The coding for the ecodesign strategies is presented in Figure 14. The labels _30 and _0 for each axis of the ecodesign wheel denote perceptions from thirty years ago and current perceptions, respectively.

	N	Posterior		95% Credible Interval
		Mean	Variance	Lower Bound	Upper Bound
E11	73	2.36	0.017	2.10	2.61
E12	73	3.03	0.019	2.75	3.30
E13	73	3.30	0.022	3.01	3.59
E14	73	3.96	0.020	3.68	4.24
E1_30	72	1.60	0.021	1.31	1.88
E1_0	73	2.78	0.013	2.55	3.01
E2_30	72	1.67	0.021	1.38	1.95
E2_0	73	2.78	0.013	2.55	3.01
E31	72	3.63	0.011	3.42	3.83
E32	73	3.52	0.016	3.27	3.77
E33	73	3.62	0.014	3.39	3.85
E34	73	3.67	0.007	3.50	3.84
E35	73	3.60	0.011	3.39	3.81
E36	73	3.77	0.012	3.55	3.98
E3_30	72	1.63	0.019	1.36	1.89
E3_0	73	2.92	0.010	2.73	3.11
E41	73	3.59	0.012	3.37	3.81
E42	73	3.62	0.012	3.40	3.83
E43	72	3.43	0.017	3.17	3.69
E44	73	2.42	0.021	2.14	2.71
E45	72	2.79	0.017	2.54	3.05
E4_30	72	1.63	0.019	1.36	1.89
E4_0	73	2.68	0.015	2.44	2.93
E51	72	3.10	0.017	2.84	3.36
E52	71	3.31	0.016	3.06	3.56
E53	72	3.32	0.015	3.08	3.56
E54	72	3.11	0.018	2.84	3.38
E5_30	72	2.10	0.016	1.85	2.35
E5_0	73	2.82	0.013	2.60	3.05
E61	73	3.26	0.023	2.96	3.56
E62	73	3.52	0.013	3.30	3.74
E63	72	3.25	0.017	2.99	3.51
E64	73	2.33	0.019	2.06	2.60
E65	73	3.19	0.015	2.95	3.43
E6_30	73	2.59	0.026	2.27	2.90
E6_0	73	2.62	0.017	2.36	2.87
E71	72	3.53	0.016	3.28	3.78
E72	72	2.68	0.021	2.39	2.97
E73	72	3.56	0.015	3.31	3.80
E74	71	3.44	0.017	3.18	3.70
E7_30	72	1.82	0.019	1.55	2.09
E7_0	73	2.95	0.016	2.70	3.19
E81	73	3.58	0.015	3.33	3.82
E82	73	3.01	0.018	2.75	3.27
E83	73	3.93	0.009	3.75	4.11
E8_30	73	1.70	0.018	1.43	1.96
E8_0	73	3.18	0.011	2.97	3.39

.

To assess perceived change, mean ratings for “30 years ago” and “today” were compared and illustrated in a radar (spider) diagram.

Relationships between demographic variables (age, gender, experience, job role) and perceptions of ecodesign adoption were explored using Spearman’s ρ and Kendall’s τ, with significance set at p < 0.05 (two-tailed). Statistical results are provided in Appendix A—

Table A2. Significant correlations with experience and sex determined with Kendall’s τ and Spearman’s ρ correlation coefficients and their corresponding significance in parentheses. (*) Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (bilateral). (**) Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral).

Axis	Correlation Coefficient	Experience	Gender
E1.0	Kendall’s τ
	Spearman’s ρ
E2.0	Kendall’s τ
	Spearman’s ρ
E32	Kendall’s τ		0.222 * (0.040)
	Spearman’s ρ		0.242 * (0.039)
E35	Kendall’s τ		0.247 * (0.025)
	Spearman’s ρ		0.264 * (0.024)
E4.30	Kendall’s τ	−0.226 * 0.036)
	Spearman’s ρ	−0.249 * (0.035)
E5.1	Kendall’s τ	0.224 * (0.038)
	Spearman’s ρ	0.246 * (0.037)
E5.2	Kendall’s τ		0.270 * (0.014)
	Spearman’s ρ		0.293 * (0.013)
E5.4	Kendall’s τ	0.222 * (0.041)
	Spearman’s ρ	0.242 * (0.041)
E7.2	Kendall’s τ	0.316 ** (0.003)
	Spearman’s ρ	0.349 ** (0.003)
E7.3	Kendall’s τ	0.270 * (0.014)
	Spearman’s ρ	0.290 * (0.013)
E7.4	Kendall’s τ	0.225 * (0.040)

.

These methodological constraints, particularly the limited representativeness and potential recall bias, have been explicitly discussed in the Limitations section of the revised manuscript.

2.5. Ethical and Quality Considerations

Participation was voluntary and anonymous. No personal or commercially sensitive data was collected. This study complied with the institutional data-protection policies of AIJU and the Universitat Jaume I.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Descriptive Review of Toy Ecodesign

In this comprehensive review of ecodesign practices within the toy sector, which focuses on aligning company actions with each axis of the ecodesign wheel, the following actions have been identified for each axis:

3.1.1. Axis 1 (A1): Selection of Low-Impact Materials

When a product is designed and then manufactured, it is important to decide which material or materials will be used to manufacture it. Examining the options available on the market, regarding aspects such as acquisition costs and the available volume of certain materials, is fundamental for companies. On the other hand, the possibility of disposing of materials once they become waste is an aspect worth considering. This opens several opportunities, such as the manufacture of mono-material products that facilitate end-of-life disposal, the use of recycled materials to give waste a new purpose like raw materials, and the integration of materials with a reduced fossil carbon footprint, such as bio-based materials, natural fillers and pigments.

However, it is rare to find mono-material products when browsing through toy catalogs or visiting stores. Classic examples of such toys are traditional rubber dolls, such as rubber duckies.

Another essential strategy is improving product finishes by replacing toxic finishes and coatings with low-toxicity alternatives. This transition helps eliminate the use of substances like chromium, solvents, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). While the application of metallic coatings and industrial paints is currently less prevalent in toy manufacturing, it remains standard for specific categories, including musical instruments and jewelry. Such processes are associated with environmental impacts stemming from emissions and potential spills. At the industrial level, stringent legal regulations and maintenance costs related to baths and paint booths have prompted companies to either eliminate or outsource these activities to specialized auxiliary firms equipped with advanced systems for purification and equipment.

The success of this strategy requires process improvements such as those identified in Axis 3, as well as the substitution of conventional materials for cleaner alternatives. The regulation of chemical components in toys is closely monitored and strictly enforced. It is essential to recognize that the UNE-EN 71 standard has undergone a series of changes over time. While legislation for these products in other countries may evolve slowly [50], the chemical aspects remain highly regulated.

The search for alternative materials to reduce fossil carbon emissions has led to interesting developments in the toy sector. Innovations include formulating new materials, additive pigments, fillers, and more. This includes new formulations combining conventional plastics with natural fiber fillers, bioplastics, and natural dyes. One example is the creation of a biopolymer masterbatch composed of 70% polylactic acid and 30% almond shells [29], aimed at reducing the dependence on fossil fuels while converting waste into valuable raw materials. According to the life cycle assessment, the biodegradable masterbatch reduces the carbon footprint by approximately 53% and fossil resource depletion by 49%, resulting in an overall positive environmental balance. However, the production of biodegradable toy and furniture pieces using PLA requires about 32% more energy than conventional polymers—due to lower material fluidity, greater processing and cooling demands—and, therefore, longer production cycles. Figure 2 shows the result of a toy part manufactured by the injection-molding process using both the PE base material and the biopolymer masterbatch.

As shown in Figure 2, the biopolymer injection-molded parts exhibit comparable aesthetics and mechanical quality to those of PE, while offering significant environmental gains according to the LCA results.

When the fillers used in formulating masterbatches and base polymers are examined, some interesting findings emerge, such as the use of eggshell-derived calcium as a filler. An environmental analysis compared calcium carbonates obtained through chemical methods, quarry extraction, and eggshells. The results showed that the greatest environmental impact came from the chemical method of obtaining calcium carbonate. In other cases, the differences between eggshell-derived and quarry-derived calcium carbonates were relatively minor. However, the specific environmental impact of eggshell calcium was negatively affected by transportation [30].

Research has explored the use of bio-based pigments for coloring plastics in the toy industry, as shown in Figure 3a. One study compared masterbatches composed of polypropylene (PP) with wood fiber, polylactic acid (PLA), and bio-based polybutylene succinate (bioPBS) combined with natural pigments such as curcumin and spirulina to those using commonly used inorganic pigments [51]. This research shows that natural pigments, such as yellow curcumin, generate much less CO₂ eq than inorganic pigments (from 18.65 kg to only 0.04 kg). The impacts depend on factors such as drying methods. In addition, organic masterbatches, which include pigments such as blue with PBS and spirulina, consume less electricity. The carbon footprint of these masterbatches is mainly determined by the polymer, which accounts for 80% of their weight, while the contribution of the pigment varies. In summary, natural pigments have a lower carbon footprint and require less energy for processing [31].

These studies have been conducted through extrusion and plastic-injection processes, but there are also initiatives evaluating the use of new, more environmentally friendly materials in processes such as rotomolding [39]. In the toy sector, this plastic transformation process is traditionally used in the manufacture of dolls. A comparative study examined three materials: conventional polyethylene (PE), a biocomposite with 20% cellulosic fibers mixed directly for rotational molding, and the same biocomposite combined with extrusion before rotational molding. The results revealed that the biocomposite with cellulosic fibers had better environmental performance than conventional PE. The inclusion of extrusion before rotomolding was not considered in this scenario. This suggests that the addition of natural fiber presents a promising avenue for environmental improvement, warranting further study.

Another aspect to consider is the use of materials or products at the end of their useful life for recycling [32]. Figure 3b shows a toy created by recycling multilayer post-industrial food packaging, which transforms this waste into raw material and then into a new product. In this case, a toy is made, which reduces the consumption of new raw materials and gives new life to discarded items. This example highlights the possibilities that arise from the collection and reprocessing of waste. The segregation, shredding, and characterization of fractions allow for the creation of new toys from recycled materials.

A comparative life cycle analysis (Figure 3b) confirms the environmental benefits of incorporating recycled and alternative plastics. The results show that polystyrene (PS) exhibits the highest carbon footprint, reaching approximately 0.75 kg CO₂ eq per toy produced. Pre- and post-consumer PET present intermediate impacts below 0.6 kg CO₂ eq, with slightly better performance in the recycled PET. By contrast, polypropylene (PP) records the lowest footprint, around 0.35 kg CO₂ eq, which positions it as the most energy-efficient and environmentally favorable option. In all cases, energy consumption is the most significant contributor to the total impact, followed by the materials used, while transportation represents a minimal share. These results demonstrate that selecting lower-energy-intensity materials, together with integrating recycled content, can substantially reduce the global warming potential associated with toy manufacturing.

Different materials are being evaluated based on their suitability according to product lifespan, considering the energy required for their extraction and production. In the toy sector, for example, aluminum, although highly energy intensive to produce, offers advantages such as being lightweight, corrosion resistance, and durability, which make it suitable for high-value or long-life products. By contrast, zamak, which is widely used in the toy industry, provides advantages such as lower costs, ease of molding, and high precision in detailing, which make it an efficient option for mass production.

In this context, the historical use of aluminum in toys, particularly in collector items and sporting goods, highlights the industry’s transition toward more specialized and durable products. It also reflects how technological advancements and increasingly stringent safety standards have contributed to the diversification of materials used in children’s products [52].

3.1.2. Axis 2 (A2): Reduction in Material Usage

The useful life of the packaging containing a product is often very short compared to that of the total product. For this reason, the European Union is working on the definition of targets to reduce and recycle discarded packaging materials. In the case of toys, it is important to note that packaging is a powerful marketing tool [53].

If the weight of a product is reduced, then the number of materials or components used is reduced, which translates into a reduction in the consumption of raw materials, the generation of waste and, consequently, a lower environmental impact. Another approach within this axis is volume reduction, which, in turn, affects product distribution, as discussed in Axis 4.

In the realm of the toy industry, a recent example of this action is evident in costumes and board games. Figure 4 showcases the board game “Equilibry” by Juguetes Cayro, S.L. (Denia, Spain). In this instance, the game’s packaging was downsized. Furthermore, the interior cardboard structure within the box was eliminated, which effectively reduced the inner space. Plastic bags were also eliminated, prompting a redesign of the box to house game pieces without the need for bags. This design change not only prevents the pieces from rubbing against each other during transport, averting potential damage, but also enhances the overall eco-friendliness of the product.

3.1.3. Axis 3 (A3): Techniques to Optimize Production

A retrospective review of manufacturing processes in the toy industry over the past three decades has revealed significant changes [54]. These include the adoption of alternative production techniques, such as the replacement of hydraulic plastic-injection molding equipment with hybrid or electric equipment. This transition eliminates or minimizes the use of hydraulic oils and consequently reduces the associated waste, which includes used oil, filters, and packaging. However, full implementation of this alternative has been hampered by the costs associated with acquiring this equipment. In this case, a more economical alternative is to extend the useful life of hydraulic oils. This is achieved by incorporating filters and oil-cleaning mechanisms, such as centrifuges [47].

In the manufacturing of plastic parts, molds play a key role, as they are filled with molten material that, when cooled and opened, takes on the desired shape. Regarding injection-molding processes, companies have focused on optimizing these molds. The focus has shifted from designing molds with a single shape to molds capable of injecting several parts at the same time. This optimization not only improves production efficiency but also reduces waste generation within the process. In line with this waste reduction objective, the toy industry has also incorporated hot chamber molds into its manufacturing process. These molds (Figure 5) are characterized by the fact that no material waste is produced: everything that enters the mold results in the finished part.

Another recent alternative involves the adoption of IML (In-Mold Label) labels instead of traditional PLM (Post-Mold Label) labels. The latter requires manual attachment by users and often experiences issues such as peeling off or fading. IML labels contribute to environmental improvement by decreasing paper usage (in line with Axis 2), streamlining recycling (corresponding to Axis 7), and enhancing the product’s overall lifespan (connected to Axis 6). These advantages are evident across each axis.

The simplification of the production process extends to various other facets within the toy sector. This includes automation with robots, like automatic welding replacing manual methods, and refining surface treatment design to eliminate unnecessary stages. Such measures reduce chemical and water consumption, waste, and wastage. Some companies have also adopted solvent evaporators for cleaning purposes, facilitating solvent reuse and waste management optimization.

Furthermore, there is a drive to employ fewer and cleaner inputs or consumables, particularly in production processes, with a focus on refining water and energy utilization.

In recent years, the Spanish toy industry, particularly within the Toy Valley industrial cluster [55], has increasingly adopted renewable energy solutions, including the installation of photovoltaic solar panels to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions [56,57].

Around 2008, numerous companies embraced cleaner energy sources, such as photovoltaic solar panels, as depicted in Figure 6a (2003) and Figure 6b (2023) using Google Earth images. As electricity costs escalate, lighting systems in companies have garnered heightened attention. Energy audits have become a common practice to identify points of excessive electricity consumption and subsequently address them, often by scheduling light charging during off-peak hours. Transitioning from halogen bulbs and conventional fluorescent tubes to LED lighting, as observed in the adoption of photovoltaic solar panels, has become a prevalent trend.

Water consumption in the toy sector has witnessed improvements. Transitioning from open cooling circuits, characterized by continuous water consumption and discharge, to closed circuits has been a significant shift. Furthermore, cooling towers have been replaced with coolers, eliminating maintenance tasks associated with towers and averting potential Legionella contamination risks.

Over the years, a common action in the toy sector about raw-material consumption involved material recovery from production leftovers. These remnants are crushed and reintroduced as raw materials within the process. For instance, black dye is mixed in to create black parts or components not exposed to outdoor conditions. When not reusable for either black or internal parts, the shredded material is either sold to other sectors or properly managed as non-hazardous waste. The automatic dosing of dyes has become prevalent in many companies, preventing incorrect dosing and the subsequent excess dye consumption.

In the case of other processes, such as the injection molding of products with zamak, there are studies aimed at optimizing the management of wastewater generated during the vibratory finishing of zamak parts to achieve “zero discharge” through the development of technology that reduces and recycles this wastewater, which is currently discharged into the sewer system or public waterways [49].

3.1.4. Axis 4 (A4): Optimization of Distribution Systems

Optimizing an efficient distribution system can be achieved through strategies such as using reduced packaging or choosing cleaner, reusable packaging. This approach reduces waste generation, raw-material consumption for manufacturing, and the energy consumption associated with transportation.

Current legislation on packaging and packaging waste has encouraged initiatives aligned with the optimization of distribution systems. For example, in Spain, the annual declaration of packaging placed on the market and the corresponding actions derived from packaging-waste-minimization plans have encouraged companies to strive to optimize packaging without compromising the product, with the objective of saving costs through considerations such as size, type of material, inks, etc.

Reflecting the trend observed in Axis 1 about materials, there has been a shift toward “bio” materials in both products and packaging. Industry players are actively addressing packaging issues, with the aim of eliminating the use of various materials that were conventionally combined. For example, doll boxes used to be made by combining cardboard with plastic foil windows. Today, industry tries to use only recycled cardboard, and, in cases where the packaging does not serve to present the product, the use of inks and photographs is minimized. In the board game segment, improvements include prioritizing Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) paperboard, reducing the size of packaging and standardizing game component materials. However, packaging printing remains a selling point for many board games [58].

Costumes are another example of change, as the traditional bulky packaging with clear plastic windows has been replaced by blister bags, which makes the products slightly cheaper and simplifies packaging significantly. Similarly, for larger items, such as ride-ons, packaging has been eliminated altogether.

Companies are increasingly embracing the concept of packaging reuse, either to extend the life of the toy by providing the user with storage space or to use it for other functions, giving the packaging a second life. This approach is aligned with sustainability efforts and reducing waste generation.

Figure 7a presents a container designed to house a game, which allows it to be stored after use for subsequent reuse; (b) shows a box that functions not only as packaging but also as a board game, with the game printed on its base, providing dual functionality; (c) shows a container that initially holds a doll and can subsequently be repurposed as a pen holder; and (d) illustrates packaging that serves as gift wrap. At the point of sale, the box is assembled at the time of purchase and can subsequently be reused by the consumer for different purposes. This system is based on the bulk distribution of dolls to retail stores, while the boxes are transported folded and stacked for on-demand assembly, thereby optimizing both transportation and space efficiency.

In the toy industry, there is a strategy for minimizing transport volume, especially in the case of bulky toys. These products are often distributed unassembled, and assembly is left to the user.

The concept of “0 km toys” is ideal, as it advocates local manufacturing and the use of locally sourced raw materials. While this approach supports energy-efficient transportation, its implementation faces logistical challenges within a globalized economy characterized by geographically concentrated manufacturing centers. This concept is more viable in the case of larger products, where import costs make long-distance transportation less economical.

Other actions, such as efficient logistics and the presence of intermediate distribution warehouses for large distributors, play a key role in the environmental impact caused by transport on this axis.

In addition to focusing on local production, the choice of modes of transport is critical; vans, trucks, ships, planes, and trains generate different impacts on the environment [59]. Intercontinental trade has exacerbated the environmental impact related to transportation, in terms of both the modes used and the distances traveled. High-speed transport methods, such as air travel, have a more substantial impact than longer sea journeys (Figure 8).

As illustrated in Figure 8, domestic transport (distances below 300 km) contributes marginally to total emissions. Specifically, logistical additions amount to 0.064 kg CO₂ eq via heavy-duty vehicle and 0.012 kg CO₂ eq via rail, representing a minor increase over the 1.989 kg CO₂ eq baseline associated with material production. Conversely, international procurement from East Asia substantially elevates the carbon footprint. While maritime shipping remains the most carbon-efficient modality at approximately 0.10 kg CO₂ eq per kg of product, transcontinental rail and road transport result in significantly higher emissions of 0.62 and 1.70 kg CO₂ eq, respectively. Air freight constitutes the most carbon-intensive logistics pathway, adding 4.51 kg CO₂ eq and effectively doubling the overall cradle-to-gate impact of the product.

In the specific case of Spain, according to data from the Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge in 2020, the transportation sector generated the highest greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, reaching 27% of total emissions at the national level [60].

At the global level, the situation is similar, with 27% of GHG emissions coming from the transport sector. If we compare the different modes of freight transport, we can see that, although the overall emissions of maritime and air transport are similar, the CO₂ emissions per ton vary considerably. The environmental impact increases exponentially when goods are transported by air rather than by sea. According to the International Maritime Organization (IMO) [61], the carbon footprint of merchant ships ranges from 3 to 8 g of CO₂ per ton transported, depending on factors such as sailing time, route, and speed, among others [62].

Directly related to transportation impact is the surge in online sales, a trend that has escalated over the years and was further propelled by the COVID-19 situation. This mode of purchasing has both positive and negative aspects [63].

Positively, online sales simplify packaging, reduce ink usage, and lower product inventory in physical stores. Interestingly, packaging’s value appears to diminish in online sales compared to in-store purchases, despite the product being the same. This trend toward streamlined packaging is likely to intensify in Spain due to the implementation of the plastic tax.

Negatively, this type of sales requires an increased number of deliveries to maintain the immediacy consumers expect. In efforts to mitigate this impact, major online retailers are establishing more local collection points, reducing the necessity for home delivery and preventing repeated deliveries if recipients are not present at the delivery address.

3.1.5. Axis 5 (A5): Reduction of Impact During the Use Phase

During the use phase, the environmental impact of a toy is primarily associated with the energy and consumables required for its operation throughout its lifetime. Minimizing energy consumption and favoring renewable energy sources are, therefore, essential strategies to reduce waste generation and the overall footprint.

A representative case involves the replacement of conventional lead–acid batteries with lithium-ion batteries [64]. A comprehensive LCA comparing a lead–acid battery with an AGM separator and a lithium-ion battery based on lithium iron phosphate, both used in an electric ride-on toy produced by INJUSA (Ibi, Spain), revealed significant differences in environmental performance. As illustrated in Figure 9a, the lead–acid battery exhibited approximately twice the global warming potential (GWP100a) of the lithium-ion configuration across most impact categories. These results demonstrate a substantial reduction in CO₂-equivalent emissions and the overall environmental burden achieved by adopting lithium-ion technology.

A quantitative interpretation of the life cycle results presented in Figure 9a shows that the lithium-ion battery achieves a 47–55% reduction in global warming potential compared to the lead–acid system. For every functional unit (equivalent energy delivered over the product lifetime), total emissions decrease from approximately 6.2 kg CO₂ eq for the lead–acid configuration to about 3.1 kg CO₂ eq for the lithium-ion alternative. The difference is primarily attributed to three factors: (i) higher energy efficiency during charge–discharge cycles; (ii) lower material intensity and the absence of lead as a heavy metal; and (iii) superior recycling and end-of-life recovery potential for lithium-ion cells.

When extrapolated to the manufacturing scale of an average production batch of 10,000 units, this improvement represents an emission reduction of roughly 31 metric tons of CO₂ eq, illustrating the potential magnitude of impact when cleaner energy technologies are adopted across the toy industry.

Figure 9b, which depicts the Solar Friends toy from IMC Toys (Terrasa, Spain), further exemplifies the application of renewable energy in toy operation. Although the absolute environmental benefit per unit is modest, scalability and educational visibility make such designs strategically significant. Together, these examples confirm that transitioning to low-carbon power systems aligns directly with Axis 5 of the ecodesign wheel, emphasizing the reduction of environmental impact during the use phase through energy efficiency, renewable sourcing, and consumer awareness.

Despite some limitations such as longer recharging times relative to play duration, the growing incorporation of electronic and autonomous energy components in modern toys is evident across nearly all categories, including early-childhood products, board games, and action figures alike. Promoting responsible use behaviors, such as switching toys off when not in use, employing rechargeable batteries, and avoiding the long-term storage of batteries inside devices, can further reduce resource consumption and waste generation.

The toy market also includes a wide range of products that require non-electronic consumables, such as clay, beads, costumes, or EVA cartridges. These consumables have a dual environmental effect: although their recurring replacement increases material consumption, they can also extend the functional lifespan of the toy by maintaining user engagement, thus connecting Axis 5 with Axis 6 (Enhancing Product Lifespan).

3.1.6. Axis 6 (A6): Enhancing Product Lifespan

Simplifying product maintenance and repair is a crucial aspect of this strategy. However, within the toy sector, this action can be intricate due to factors such as, for example, the fact that many products in this sector have a relatively short shelf life that is often tied to licensing agreements, which makes maintenance and repair tasks a financial challenge, as they could affect profitability. For larger toys with medium-to-long term durability, the feasibility of maintenance and repair is more practical.

An additional complexity in the toy sector pertains to the repair and maintenance of products while adhering to safety regulations. Products designed for various age groups need to meet the safety standards outlined in the UNE-EN 71 standard, which can limit the ease of disassembly and repair due to potential choking hazards and other safety concerns. However, most companies maintain a customer service department to address these issues. The effectiveness of customer service and the ease of access to it hinge on factors such as prompt feedback and short response times. These elements can play a pivotal role in extending the useful life of certain products. Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge that this approach might not be universally applicable, as certain toys are deliberately designed for short-term use due to factors like cost, durability, etc. Examples include piñata toys and items that lose their play value after initial use.

In essence, while facilitating maintenance and repair holds promise for extending the lifespan of toys, its feasibility and impact depend on various factors, including the product’s nature, its intended age group, safety considerations, and market demands.

In line with this concept, an interesting initiative called “Toy Rescue” has emerged. French 3D-printing company Dagoma (Roubaix, France) has compiled a catalog of commonly broken parts in numerous toys. They offer to 3D-print the broken part for you or provide you with the blueprint to print it yourself if you have access to a 3D printer.

Some toy industry products adopt a modular structure that makes them more adaptable, expandable, and equipped with readily available spare parts. These products allow them to be completed gradually, such as Pin and Pon, LEGO sets, or block sets manufactured by other companies such as Playmobil (Zirndorf, Germany). The strategy of maintaining a classic design, however, can be intricate. This is due to the prevalence of licensed products linked to movies and animated series, which tend to have a shelf life tied to fads. However, there are collectibles (such as miniature cars and traditional dolls) and enduring toys that have managed to establish their presence in the market for many years. A good example is Mattel’s Barbie doll. The Barbie doll has continuously evolved to try to reflect the social evolution of women in each era through various dresses, accessories and other complements. This adaptability ensures its permanence in the market (see Figure 10: Barbie private collection).

In essence, the balance between classic design, adaptability and trendsetting licensed products presents a complex landscape for toy companies. Strategies must be devised to meet diverse consumer preferences, considering factors such as modularity, reparability and the enduring appeal of certain iconic toys.

Establishing a strong emotional connection between users and products is a very interesting aspect, especially in the context of the toy industry [65]. In the past, this bond was often formed naturally, as children had fewer toys and each toy had an endearing meaning. Today, it is unclear whether this relationship persists in the same way, given the evolution of consumption patterns over the years. However, it is plausible that this connection has diminished somewhat due to changing habits.

Fostering a close user–product relationship would bring positive environmental benefits by prolonging the useful life of toys and, consequently, reducing the waste generated by the sector. Many adults maintain a strong emotional attachment to specific childhood playthings or games, objects that often proved difficult to relinquish during developmental transitions.

A notable inclusion within this strategy involves collectible products. The toy sector witnessed the emergence of Funko figures in 1998—a line of collectible figures representing characters from series, musicians, comics, and more—characterized by their distinct aesthetics. This unique appeal transcends age boundaries, making them attractive to various demographics. Collectible toys like Funkos have a significant second-hand market, which effectively extends their useful life, sometimes beyond a single generation [66].

In essence, cultivating a strong user–product relationship and exploring collectible products contribute to prolonging the lifespan of toys, aligning with sustainability goals by reducing waste and promoting lasting value [67].

3.1.7. Axis 7 (A7): Enhancing End-of-Life Management

The objective of this strategy is to optimize the end-of-life phase of a product. This involves exploring options for reusing the product or its components [68]. If reuse is not feasible, the objective is to ensure proper disposal or management to maximize the efficiency of the product’s end-of-life cycle.

In the context of the toy sector, the concept of product reuse translates into the possibility of multiple users using the same item. For example, public parks or private facilities can incorporate play equipment that serves numerous children. In addition, the rise of toy rental companies introduces a novel approach. These companies operate in a similar way to libraries or car rental services: by registering on their websites, individuals can select a toy rental package, often with an option to purchase. This approach extends the useful life of products and gives children the opportunity to explore various types of toys without accumulating unused items at home. It is a practical way for families to identify the toys their children like best before deciding to part with those that do not appeal to them.

Reconditioning efforts within the toy sector often involve solidarity campaigns. These initiatives gather used toys, recondition them, and redistribute them to other children. For toys that cannot be reused, a waste disposal protocol is followed. An illustrative instance of this approach is exemplified by ECOTIC’s selective collection of electric and/or electronic toys [69]. Another initiative in this realm is “Share and Recycle” [70].

In essence, Axis 7 seeks to optimize the end-of-life phase of products, whether through reuse, reconditioning, or environmentally responsible disposal [71]. These strategies contribute to resource conservation, waste reduction, and the establishment of circular systems within the toy sector.

Once the optimization of a product’s useful life has been achieved, the subsequent challenge lies in recycling the resulting waste materials to create new raw materials. Within the toy sector, a significant challenge arises from the diverse and often unidentifiable materials that compose toys [72]. This complexity hampers effective material separation for recycling. Notably, advancements in this area have been driven by legislation concerning electrical and electronic equipment.

Toys possess a seasonal nature and generate relatively low volumes of waste. This characteristic makes their selective collection challenging. Often, they are collected alongside small household appliances. However, the consumer perception of toys as waste, particularly hazardous waste in the case of electrical and/or electronic toys, remains lacking. Historically, data from 2008 indicated that about 90% of old toys accumulated during Christmas in Spanish households would ultimately end up in city landfills and contribute to pollution [73].

Despite specific legislation addressing electrical and/or electronic equipment, which includes toys containing such components as affected items, the effectiveness of current waste collection channels remains limited. The selective collection of waste electrical and/or electronic toys [74] is complicated due to factors like consumers’ limited awareness, the intricacy of material separation and recycling processes, and other challenges.

Figure 11 depicts the logo required on electrical and electronic toys to facilitate their identification and recycling, as mandated by European waste electrical and electronic equipment legislation. This visual cue aids in the proper disposal and recycling of these items. Nonetheless, achieving efficient recycling in the toy sector necessitates overcoming obstacles related to consumer awareness, waste separation, and recycling infrastructure.

Simplifying the disassembly process of toys would indeed contribute to facilitating recycling. However, achieving this is a challenge due to the stringent requirements of the UNE-EN 71 standard. According to legislation on electrical and electronic equipment, it is necessary to remove batteries before depositing a toy at an ecopark in the electrical and electronic equipment section. The batteries are to be placed in designated battery containers.

For years, a practice prevalent in the toy sector, especially for toys intended for children aged 0–3 years, is the “try me” mode. This feature permits potential buyers to understand how the toy functions before purchasing. However, a common drawback is that the batteries used for this demonstration are often of lower capacity and not the same as the batteries required for optimal performance. Additionally, these demo batteries might necessitate extra plastic support to fit within the battery compartment.

An example of an initiative addressing this issue is discussed in the publication ECOJOGUINA [75]. In this case, the product’s demonstration batteries were smaller than the actual batteries, and they were affixed using polypropylene (PP) pieces to secure them in place. However, the problem arose when other plastic parts of the product were made with ABS, which is incompatible with PP and cannot be recycled together. The initiative presented two potential solutions: either eliminating the plastic battery adapter and using the demonstration batteries for the product or using a material that is compatible with ABS for recycling. In this case, the initiative chose to eliminate the plastic battery adapter by switching from LR14 batteries (type C) to LR6 batteries (type AA) while also reducing the product’s electrical consumption by 20%.

This innovative approach highlights the interconnectedness of different strategies (related to Axes 2 and 5) to improve overall sustainability within the toy sector. It emphasizes the importance of material compatibility for recycling and energy efficiency for prolonged product lifespan [76].

The complexities involved in creating sustainable practices within the toy sector are evident, but initiatives like these underscore the potential for innovative solutions that address multiple aspects of sustainability [77].

3.1.8. Axis 8 (A8): Innovative Concept Creation

Approaches within this axis encompass a wide array of strategies, such as transitioning from physical to virtual products, introducing public or shared gaming systems, and integrating additional educational [78], psychomotor, or other functions into toys.

A striking example, as illustrated in Figure 12 with the Mandala Stone by Miniland, involves a game that fosters the creation of mandalas [79]. This product not only allows individuals to design mandalas freely but also includes a dossier with sample mandala designs for reference. Aligning with this axis, the game’s experience is extended through the option to download an app. This app merges the concept of mandalas with various countries and accompanying music, providing an innovative and interactive expansion of the game.

This exemplifies the trend toward merging traditional physical play with digital platforms, enhancing engagement and enabling new ways of interaction and learning. These initiatives underscore the toy industry’s adaptability to modern technology while remaining aligned with principles of sustainability and extended product use.

An interesting example of a change in the concept of toys that we have already discussed in part in Axis 6 is collecting. Toys, as in the case of other sectors such as books, movies, etc., generate merchandising products, among which we can find decorative toys.

Exploring the internet reveals websites dedicated to technological toys that define “ecological toys” as those transmitting values and environmental education. A notable strategy to counterbalance the growing presence of technology in childhood is to ally technology and traditional toys, introducing technology as an extra layer to the game. From an environmental perspective, this approach can indirectly contribute to reducing the material components of toys in some instances and extending their lifespan. For instance, the shift from remote controls to mobile apps utilizing Bluetooth exemplifies this strategy. By replacing traditional remote controls with app-based controls, the consumption of raw materials for remote control manufacturing and the use of batteries can be reduced.

Another observed trend in the sector is the integration of educational or psychomotor functions into games. This is environmentally significant, as games offer an excellent platform for facilitating learning. Some games emphasize the importance of nature and the need to care for it, promoting awareness about protected species. Others aid in teaching proper waste separation for recycling, and there are even action figures that involve play centered around waste collection efforts.

Another aspect to consider is that the promotion of product reuse in the toy sector is promoted through second-hand sales and charitable initiatives to collect used toys [80].

An interesting European experience aligning with this axis involves the development of an online platform where users were able to customize the products they wished to purchase. This platform incorporated a simple scoring system that calculated positive and negative environmental aspects based on user choices. The platform also included alarms that provided information as users made selections (e.g., alerting when a variety of materials had been chosen). The aim was to indirectly provide users with a basic and simple concept of environmental education while they made choices [48].

More recently, IBUS and CHILDTZENS II illustrate the growing relevance of new product concepts, integrating educational, social, and circular design values. This comparative overview suggests that advances in materials and process efficiency are widely acknowledged across data sources, whereas systemic circularity and long-term product strategies remain emerging fields within the industry.

These strategies illustrate the versatility of the toy industry in leveraging technology, education, and sustainable practices to create engaging and eco-conscious products.

3.2. Survey Results

Building on the correspondence identified between project outcomes and observed practices, the following section explores how these ecodesign strategies are perceived by industry stakeholders, examining their relative development, perceived progress, and variability across the different dimensions of the ecodesign strategy wheel.

The stakeholder survey, which captured professional perspectives on the adoption and evolution of these strategies over the last three decades, yielded 73 responses. The gender distribution was approximately 53% male and 47% female. The predominant age demographics were the 31-to-40 range (35%) and the 41-to-50 range (29%). Participants primarily represented manufacturing (37%), quality and environmental management (22%), design (20%), and research and education (21%). With an average professional tenure exceeding fifteen years, the cohort demonstrated significant expertise regarding industry evolution.

Regarding respondent experience, approximately two-thirds of participants reported more than fifteen years of professional involvement in the toy industry, while others contributed informed perceptions based on knowledge acquired through institutional work or collaboration within the sector. Consequently, the baseline scenario described for “30 years ago” should be understood as a collective professional recollection combining direct and indirect experience.

Key statistics and correlations between respondent profiles and axis scores are summarized in

Table 2. Summary of key statistics and correlations between respondent profiles and axis scores.

Axis	Mean (Interval 95%)	Difference 30 Years Ago Δ	Significant Correlations	Interpretation
A1. Materials	2.8 (2.55, 3.01)	+1.2	Experience (+)	Clear improvement in material selection through the substitution of conventional plastics with bio-based and recycled compounds. Perception of progress increases with professional experience.
A2. Material efficiency	2.8 (2.55, 3.01)	+1.1	Experience (+)	Consistent progress in reducing raw-material consumption and improving process efficiency, particularly recognized by more experienced professionals.
A3. Production optimization	2.9 (2,73, 3.11)	+1.3	Gender (♂ > ♀, p < 0.05)	Strong gains achieved through cleaner technologies, process automation, and energy-efficiency measures. Male respondents, more often engaged in industrial or technical roles, report slightly higher ratings.
A4. Distribution	2.7 (2.44, 2.93)	+1.0	Experience (−)	Moderate advances in recyclable packaging and transport efficiency, though more experienced respondents express caution regarding wider logistical transformation.
A5. Use phase	2.8 (2.60, 3.05)	+0.7	Experience (+); Gender (♀ > ♂, p < 0.05	Modest improvement in energy performance and maintenance simplicity. Female respondents perceive greater advancement in safety and usability, a tendency also stronger among more experienced professionals.
A6. Lifespan	2.6 (2.36, 2.87)	+0.0	--	No measurable progress in durability or adaptability. Short life cycles and trend-driven design continue to dominate the market.
A7. End of life	2.9 (2.70, 3.19)	+1.1	Experience (+)	Noticeable improvement in recyclability and reuse, consistent with other axes. More experienced respondents recognize steady progress in recovery systems despite limited repair and refurbishment practices.
A8. New concepts	3.2 (2.97, 3.39)	+1.5	--	The strongest improvement overall, associated with digitalization, multifunctional design, and shared-use play models that promote dematerialization and enhanced sustainability outcomes.

(Δ refers to the difference in mean score between “today” and “30 years ago.” Significant correlations based on Kendall’s τ and Spearman’s ρ, p < 0.05).

. Furthermore, descriptive statistics for the survey are provided in Table A1, while Table A2 presents the non-parametric correlational analysis using Spearman’s ρ and Kendall’s τ to evaluate associations between job profiles and gender.

Figure 13 (radar chart) compares mean scores for the eight axes for “thirty years ago” and “today.” The dataset shows balanced representation and limited dispersion among responses, with most mean scores for “today” ranging between 2.6 and 3.0, variances typically below 0.03, and 95% confidence intervals within ±0.25 points (see Table 2 and Table A1). This background diversity and statistical consistency are relevant because they influence how stakeholders evaluate progress across the eight ecodesign axes, shaping the perception of which dimensions have advanced the most over time.

The analysis demonstrates that the perceived progress has been uneven across the eight ecodesign dimensions. Mean values, variances, and confidence intervals clarify these variations. For most dimensions, the mean scores increased from approximately 1.6 (thirty years ago) to around 2.8 (in 2024), with variances below 0.03 and 95% confidence intervals of ± 0.25 points.

The largest improvements correspond to material and process-related strategies (A1–A3), with mean increases of +1.1 to +1.3 points supported by significant correlations (p < 0.05) between experience and perception scores (Table 2; Appendix A.2). Moderate advances occur in distribution and end-of-life management (A4 and A7; Δ ≈ +1.0–+1.1). By contrast, product-lifetime strategies (A6) remain nearly unchanged (Δ = 0.0), which reflects structural barriers such as short market cycles and safety regulations. Axis A8 demonstrates the greatest progress (Δ = +1.5), showing the recent expansion of hybrid digital–physical products and educational functions. Overall, the combination of mean comparisons, variance, and confidence intervals supports the conclusion that the perceived change has been uneven but statistically consistent across the ecodesign dimensions.

The synthesized results enabled the creation of an updated ecodesign strategy wheel specific to the toy industry (Figure 14).

The highest-rated ecodesign strategies identified in Figure 14 are E14 (non-toxic coatings), E83 (functional integration), and E36 (reduction of ineffective items or waste), yielding mean scores of 3.96, 3.93, and 3.77, respectively. Notably, nearly all strategies within Axis 3 (Production) and a specific strategy from Axis 4 (Distribution), namely, E42 (reusable packaging), maintained mean values exceeding 3.6.

Conversely, the strategies with the lowest scores were E64 (trend-independent design), E36 (single-material construction), and E44 (local production), which recorded mean values of 2.33, 2.36, and 2.43, respectively.

3.3. Triangulated Insights into Spain Ecodesign Implementation

These insights establish the analytical framework for the discussion presented in the subsequent section. The integrated analysis of stakeholder perceptions and project documentation identifies prevalent trends and significant disparities in the implementation of ecodesign within the toy industry. Overall, the findings suggest a progressive transition toward sustainability, structured around material innovation, design development, and life cycle management.

• Material and Process Innovation (A1–A3)

Both the survey data and project documentation consistently identify the pursuit of sustainable materials and the optimization of production processes as the most established domains. Initiatives such as MASTALMOND and BIOFCASE demonstrate an industrial commitment to recycled, bio-based, and low-impact materials, with a specific emphasis on strategies A12 (recycled materials) and A13 (bio-based materials) within Axis 1. Concurrently, projects including FLEXIROT, ECOZAMAK, and AMFAB II aim to enhance manufacturing efficiency, thereby reducing resource consumption and waste generation. These efforts specifically align with strategies A31 (alternative production techniques), A32 (reduced energy consumption), and A35 (reduction of consumables in production).

• Distribution (A4)

Ecodesign strategy A41 (recycled or bio-packaging materials) is the primary focus of several initiatives, such as the Ecoindustry project. By utilizing recycled plastics, this project aligns with current legislation regarding packaging and packaging waste.

• Use and Product Lifetime Extension (A5–A6)

Durability remains underdeveloped in current practice, which highlights a significant gap between strategic intent and industrial implementation. The RIDE-ON project addresses this discrepancy by proposing methods to extend the functional lifespan of toys (A61—reliability and durability). Furthermore, the implementation of battery replacement protocols serves to reduce energy consumption (A52—reduced energy consumption during use).

• End of Life (A7)

Advancements in the circular economy are positively influencing various dimensions of the ecodesign wheel, for instance, the Ecomarsi project, which is focused on the recovery of heavy metals (A71—reusability/recyclability) for the subsequent manufacture of new toy components (A12—recycled materials).

• New Design Concepts (A8)

Triangulation of the data reveals a burgeoning interest in innovative, technological, and multifunctional product concepts. The IBUS project, for example, developed an integrated business model for personalized and adaptive supply chains. Similarly, CHILDTZENS II explores the role of toys as educational and socially engaging tools, bridging design innovation with social sustainability outcomes. Both projects exemplify ecodesign strategy A81 (integration of other functions).

4. Discussion

4.1. Main Findings and Interpretation

This study provides a comprehensive overview of how the toy industry has perceived and progressively adopted ecodesign principles over the last three decades. Both the documentary review and the stakeholder survey converge on the same insight: environmentally oriented change appears to be taking place, although unevenly across strategies. These patterns should be interpreted with caution, as they represent stakeholders’ perceptions of change rather than verified quantitative measurements. Nevertheless, the convergence between survey outcomes, project documentation, and literature evidence lends robustness to these perception-based trends.

The strongest perceived progress has occurred in materials and manufacturing processes (Axes 1–3), while product life extension remains the weakest dimension, and end-of-life management (Axis 7) shows moderate but still incomplete progress.

The perceived emphasis on material substitution and cleaner production reflects regulatory and economic drivers rather than a deliberate environmental culture. European directives targeting chemical safety (EN 71 3), packaging, and waste management have compelled companies to comply with minimum standards. Consequently, many of the reported improvements, including the reduction of toxic coatings, increased concentrations of recycled content, and the implementation of energy-efficient machinery, are primarily driven by regulatory compliance and cost optimization rather than proactive sustainability frameworks.

The perceived stagnation of durability strategies (Axis 6) can be attributed to the structural dynamics of the toy market. Licensing cycles, holiday seasonality, and rapid trend turnover shorten product lifespans and constrain feasibility for long-life or repairable designs. Safety regulations further complicate modularity or replaceable components, particularly for products aimed at younger age groups. Similar tendencies have been identified in previous studies, such as LCAs of electronic toys, where recyclability and reparability rates remain considerably lower than those in other consumer electronics sectors.

Perceived progress in end-of-life practices (Axis 7) primarily concerns recyclability and reuse, supported by awareness campaigns such as “Share and Recycle” [80] and by the growing attention to circular material flows within the toy sector. However, respondents also recognize that repair and refurbishment practices remain limited and that the complex composition and logistics of toy products continue to hinder large-scale recycling. The emergence of digital material tagging and traceability initiatives (e.g., the TRACER project [34]) illustrates a tangible technological potential, although its effectiveness will depend on parallel advances in consumer participation and collection infrastructure.

Finally, innovation in new product concepts (Axis 8) is widely perceived by the respondents and project evidence alike as a demonstration of the industry’s adaptability to technological trends, with the emergence of hybrid physical–digital play and multifunctional toys that integrate education, psychomotor learning, and environmental values. These developments suggest that innovation, if sustained by proven sustainability principles, may help promote consumption patterns oriented toward lower material intensity and longer interaction value.

4.2. Comparative Analysis of Professional Profiles and Gender Dynamics

The correlation analysis using Spearman’s ρ and Kendall’s τ provides additional insight into how perceptions of ecodesign progress vary according to professional background and gender (Appendix A, Table A2). Respondents with more professional experience tend to rate progress higher across most ecodesign dimensions, particularly in material selection (A1), material efficiency (A2), production optimization (A3), and end-of-life management (A7). These positive correlations (ρ = 0.22–0.35, p < 0.05) suggest that experienced professionals, having witnessed industry transitions over time, are more likely to perceive consistent gradual improvements. By contrast, a slight negative correlation for distribution (A4) indicates that more senior participants are somewhat more cautious in assessing changes in packaging and logistics, possibly due to an awareness of persistent structural constraints in these areas.

Gender-related patterns are also evident. Male respondents that are more frequently engaged in technical and production roles within companies report slightly higher improvements in manufacturing process optimization (E3.2 and E3.5), whereas female participants—who are more represented in design, education, and environmental management positions—evaluate the use phase (A5) more positively, particularly regarding maintenance simplicity and product safety. These differences are statistically significant (p < 0.05) but modest in magnitude, indicating complementary rather than divergent perspectives.

Overall, the strength of the observed correlations remains low to moderate (ρ ≤ 0.35), which is typical for perception-based exploratory studies but nonetheless reveals coherent and directional patterns. Experience, thus, brings practical recognition of technological and regulatory evolution, while gender and professional diversity contribute to a broader understanding of sustainability improvements within the toy sector. Promoting interdisciplinary collaboration and balanced representation across roles may, therefore, enhance the sector’s capacity to integrate both technical efficiency and user-oriented values into future ecodesign initiatives.

4.3. Comparison with Previous Research

Few prior studies have systematically investigated ecodesign in the toy industry. Existing research primarily consists of individual life cycle assessments [77] or general analyses of sustainable materials [31]. The current results complement those approaches by providing a sector-level perspective of the perceived progress and actors’ awareness.

Compared to earlier assessments of circular design maturity in European manufacturing sectors [81,82], the toy industry appears to be in an early-to-intermediate adoption stage, where most interventions address incremental eco-efficiency rather than transformative eco-innovation. This contrast reinforces the idea that industrial sectors characterized by high emotional consumption and aesthetic trends face specific barriers to implementing circular design and product service systems [6].

Furthermore, the detected gender and experience correlations indicate an internal differentiation within organizations. Technical and managerial roles, which have traditionally been male-dominated, are closely linked to advancements in production processes, while participants from design or education backgrounds, where women are better represented, perceive progress primarily in the use phase (Axis 5) and educational value (Axis 8). These findings highlight the relevance of diversity in design teams and the potential of inclusive innovation practices for expanding sustainability outcomes.

4.4. Policy and Industry Implications

The findings, while exploratory and based on stakeholder perceptions, offer several critical implications for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers:

• Regulatory alignment and voluntary standards. The forthcoming EU Regulation 2024/1781 may provide an opportunity to further formalize ecodesign criteria for toys, linking safety, material circularity, and traceability requirements. Based on the perceptions analyzed, proactive engagement with this regulation could help the industry move beyond reactive compliance.
• Support for small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Given that more than 95% of toy manufacturers are SMEs, targeted support measures, such as eco-innovation funding, technical training, and access to life cycle assessment tools, would likely be essential to overcome resource limitations and technological barriers identified by sector stakeholders.
• Design education and consumer awareness. Persistent misconceptions that “ecofriendly toys” might be less attractive or safe than conventional ones appear to influence both producers and consumers. Awareness campaigns and clearer environmental labeling may contribute to improving the acceptance of sustainable materials without compromising safety or play value.
• Product longevity and service-based models. Business models perceived as promising, such as toy rental, repair services, or component replacement, could potentially extend product life and reduce waste in line with circular economy principles. Similarly, promoting secondary markets for high-quality, durable toys may reinforce gradual cultural shifts toward reuse and longer product lifespans.

4.5. Limitations and Future Research

Several methodological limitations should be acknowledged. The survey sample was obtained through convenience sampling and included toy companies distributed across Spain, which limits the statistical generalization of the findings to broader international contexts. Although the 22% response rate is acceptable for industrial surveys involving a specialized population, it nonetheless constrains external representativeness. The 30-year retrospective comparison is based on participants’ professional recollections rather than direct historical records, which introduces a potential recall bias. Additionally, not all respondents had direct professional experience thirty years ago; therefore, their retrospective assessments partially depend on collective industry knowledge and professional observation. This limitation has been explicitly acknowledged as a constraint inherent to perception-based research. Furthermore, this study primarily evaluates perceptions of ecodesign adoption rather than measurable environmental outcomes; therefore, future investigations should integrate quantitative tools such as life cycle assessment to validate the perceived impact reductions.

Future research should, therefore:

• Validate the updated ecodesign strategy wheel through international and cross-sectoral samples to enhance external validity;
• Incorporate quantitative sustainability indicators—such as carbon footprint, energy demand, or material circularity index—and link them to specific toy categories and production processes;
• Investigate consumer perspectives on eco-attributes, play value, and willingness to pay to align producer–consumer expectations and support the development of effective circular and low-carbon design strategies within the toy sector.

Despite these limitations, this research provides a valuable exploratory foundation for understanding ecodesign implementation within the toy industry and offers guidance for future sustainability-oriented innovation strategies.

5. Conclusions

This study evaluated the perceived evolution and current state of ecodesign practices within the Spanish toy industry over the past three decades. By combining a documentary analysis of industry projects and initiatives with a comprehensive national stakeholder survey, this research examined how companies have implemented the eight strategies delineated in the ecodesign strategy wheel. Furthermore, it tracked the trajectory of these practices through both empirical evidence and professional insights. The following conclusions summarize the primary quantitative and qualitative findings, alongside their broader industry implications.

The survey assessed stakeholders’ perceived changes in ecodesign adoption using a five-point scale (0 = not ecological, 5 = fully ecological). Within this framework, statistical analysis suggests that the progress over the past three decades has been positive yet uneven across dimensions. The mean current scores for the eight axes range between 2.6 and 3.0, indicating consistent though moderate perceptions of improvement. The strongest perceived advances are associated with material and process-related strategies (A1–A3) and the emergence of innovative product concepts (A8). Packaging and end-of-life management show moderate perceived gains (A4 and A7), whereas product durability (A6) remains essentially unchanged.

This study identifies non-toxic coatings and functional integration as the primary perceived ecodesign drivers, both achieving mean scores near 4.0. While the Production axis and reusable packaging showed robust performance, strategies concerning trend-independent design, mono-material toys and local production scored significantly below 2.5, which indicates distinct priority gaps in the current implementation.

These quantitative perceptions supported by documentary evidence reflect parallel trends toward material substitution, process optimization, and incremental circularity. Overall, environmental improvement within the Spanish toy industry appears to have focused mainly on regulatory-driven eco-efficiency, whereas advances in durability and systemic circular design are still emerging and require further verification in future research.

The analysis of professional profiles shows that perceptions differ according to experience and gender. More experienced respondents tend to recognize gradual improvement across most dimensions, whereas gender-related differences highlight the complementary perspectives of technical and design-oriented roles. Both toy manufacturers and technological institutes reported similar levels of sustainability awareness, with companies being slightly more engaged in production-focused strategies.

From a policy and business standpoint, aligning the forthcoming European Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 with voluntary standards could be an effective way to promote proactive rather than reactive approaches to ecodesign. Specific support for small- and medium-sized enterprises, which constitute the vast majority of Spanish toy producers, together with targeted training and consumer awareness programs, may help accelerate the transition toward sustainable product service models.

Despite methodological limitations related to geographic scope and the perception-based nature of the dataset, this exploratory research provides a coherent framework for assessing the current maturity of ecodesign in the toy sector. Future studies should aim to integrate quantitative environmental indicators, cross-national comparisons, and consumer-focused analyses to strengthen evidence-based strategies for circular and low-carbon innovation in toys.

In summary, ecodesign in the Spanish toy industry appears to be evolving from regulatory compliance toward sustainability-driven innovation. Consolidating this transition will depend on continued collaboration among manufacturers, policymakers, and users to encourage the creation of durable, safe, and environmentally responsible play experiences.