Integrating Strategies Aimed at Biodiversity and Water Resource Sustainability in the Amazonian Region

Abstract

The Amazonian region comprises a set of ecosystems that play an essential role in stabilizing global climate and regulating carbon and water cycles. However, several environmental issues of anthropogenic origin threaten climate stability in this region: agribusiness, illegal mining, illegal timber exports, pesticide use, and biopiracy, among others. These actions lead to deforestation, soil erosion, fauna biodiversity loss, water resource contamination, land conflicts, violence against indigenous peoples, and epidemics. The present study aims to feature the current degradation process faced by the Amazonian biome and identify strategic alternatives based on science to inhibit and minimize the degradation of its biodiversity and water resources. This applied research, based on a systematic review, highlighted the complexity, fragility, and importance of the functioning of the Amazonian ecosystem. Although activities such as mining and agriculture notoriously cause soil degradation, this research focused on the scenarios of biodiversity and water resource degradation. The dynamics of the current Amazon degradation process associated with human activity and climate change advancement were also described. Ultimately, the study emphasizes that, given the invaluable importance of the Amazon’s biodiversity and natural resources for global climate balance and food and water security, anthropogenic threats endanger its sustainability. Beyond the well-known human-induced impacts on the forest and life, the findings highlight the need for strategies that integrate forest conservation, sustainable land management, and public policies focused on the region’s sustainable development. These strategies, supported by partnerships, include reducing deforestation and burning, promoting environmental education, engaging local communities, enforcing public policies, and conducting continuous monitoring using satellite remote sensing technology.

1. Introduction

The Amazon is the most biodiverse territory in the world; therefore, it plays a key role in both preserving biodiversity and regulating the global climate [1]. The Amazon forest comprises approximately 390 billion trees belonging to approximately 16,000 species [2]. This arboreal diversity plays an essential role in ecosystem balance processes, since it provides a habitat for a wide variety of life forms, from insects to large mammals like jaguars. Furthermore, the aforementioned forest plays a fundamental role in regulating the global climate. Amazonian trees absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and help mitigate climate change [3].

The diversity and ecological complexity of Amazonian species derive from a long history of biogeographic changes and interactions. In addition to being the region accounting for the greatest biodiversity and the largest river basin on the planet, the Amazon influences rainfall patterns in Latin America, as well as the global climate. Biodiversity in the Amazon is an invaluable asset that demands effective strategies and policies to ensure its conservation [1].

This region accounts for approximately 16% of the entire terrestrial photosynthetic yield and significantly regulates global carbon and water cycles [3,4]. Although the Amazon rainforest acts as a major carbon sink, it is clear that degradation and deforestation processes have been turning it into a net source of carbon to the atmosphere [5,6].

It is important to mention that agricultural frontiers and industrialization advancements in the Amazon have influenced natural resources’ condition, besides having great effect on the physical state of aquatic habitats and biodiversity [7]. A study has focused on analyzing biotic indices’ sensitiveness in order to assess anthropogenic changes in Amazonian streams. It showed the relevance of conserving riparian forests to protect the ecological and biotic state of small Amazonian streams [8].

It is necessary to establish good water quantity and quality management processes in river basins that account for supplying Amazonian cities to ensure its sustainable supply. Two aspects must be taken into account, namely (i) the quantitative aspect, which refers to the volume of water available; and (ii) the qualitative aspect, which regards the quality of this water [9]. It is essential to give due attention to quality water bodies to ensure that these quantitative and qualitative aspects will be met [10].

The Amazonian region is an important transboundary water frontier, which is an essential feature for political, economic, and social development purposes. However, the Amazon basin presents some transboundary obstacles, since, oftentimes, local governments and communities do not have the legal authority to sign agreements with communities in neighbour countries, besides facing both technical and financial difficulties to deal with issues associated with water resource sharing [11]. Studies have evidenced organizational vulnerability in public sectors accounting for water governance in the Amazon river basin [12]. Despite the National Water Resources Policy, the Amazonian region has not fully implemented the legal frameworks of the Water Law [13].

In addition to being an important biome to regulate the planet’s rainfall, the Brazilian Amazon should be acknowledged as a system to guarantee the lives of Indigenous peoples. It is so, because it has the potential to produce pharmaceuticals due to its diverse and unique biodiversity. In addition to making rainfall available for agribusiness in producing regions in South America, it preserves climate patterns on the planet [14].

Although the Amazon is one of the regions accounting for the greatest biodiversity on the planet, Stegmann et al. have stated that investment in research on this topic is low in comparison to other Brazilian regions. They also pointed out the need for strong inter-sectoral cooperation and strategic political decisions in order to promote science in a complex territory such as the Amazon [15].

Artaxo et al. have emphasized the important role played by the Amazonian region in balancing the planet’s climate. It is so, because the Amazon rainforest stores and removes carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, as well as transpires water vapor, thus influencing rainfall patterns. According to the aforementioned authors, the “forest’s regeneration capacity may not be enough to withstand the pressure deriving from deforestation and climate change” [16] (p. 36).

The Amazonian region has faced several threats due to illegal timber export, pesticide use, river pollution, illegal mining, biopiracy, violence against Indigenous peoples, land conflicts, low Human Development Index, lack of sanitation, attacks on biodiversity, and several epidemics [17]. The anthropogenic causes associated with agribusiness and mining in the Amazonian region not only affect Indigenous and riverside communities, but also plants, animals, and rivers. Environmental issues resulting from anthropogenic actions have threatened climatic stability in this region [4].

This study is moored on the environmental governance approach, which is a multi-stakeholder approach that seeks to identify common criteria aimed at improving the effectiveness of conservation strategies [18]. Environmental governance refers to procedures and institutions used by State and non-State social actors who are supported by, and make choices related to, environmental issues. The multi-scalar complexity of socio-environmental issues poses challenges that require joint actions by the State and society to achieve sustainable and socially equitable development. New environmental governance models were tested and improved through the participation of several social actors in the process of creating institutional frameworks, and addressing the uncertainties and complexities of socio-environmental issues [19].

The environmental governance theory stands out as a mediating approach encompassing a wide range of stakeholders, institutions, and interpersonal interactions and interconnected relationships aimed at addressing the pressing challenge [20]. Environmental governance regards a whole set of actions and policies focused on protecting the environment and on natural resources’ sustainable management. This concept focuses on changing governmental structures and on regulation beyond the traditional hierarchies of both the State and market systems. From this perspective, the prevailing interpretation lies on governance as a process deriving from the combination of traditional authority forms observed in the public sector and the ones found in the private sector [21].

The environmental governance theory acknowledged the relevance of diverse stakeholders’ participation and the incorporation of diverse perspectives to decisions related to natural resources. This process has emerged from several elements such as understanding the complexity of environmental issues, requiring integrated strategies, and greater transparency and accountability [22]. Environmental governance is made of several elements that, altogether, help involved stakeholders in achieving their sustainability goals [23]. The main elements of this theory are shown in

Table 1. Main elements of environmental governance theory.

Elements of Environmental Governance	Description
Environmental policies	Environmental policies define the guidelines and stakeholders’ commitment to environmental management. They establish sustainability goals, guidelines for natural resources’ use and strategies to mitigate environmental impacts. Environmental policies are the very basis of environmental governance because they drive stakeholders’ activities and make sure that all involved levels are in line with sustainability goals.
Natural resource management	Efficient management of natural resources is essential to reduce the environmental impact. This process includes practices such as water resources’ conservation and rational use, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable management of forests and other renewable resources. Adopting green technologies and innovation also plays a key role in both improving efficiency and minimizing environmental impacts.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions	One of the main goals of environmental governance is to reduce pollutant emissions and waste production. Actors involved in the environmental governance process must implement strategies to minimize greenhouse gas emissions, control air and water pollution, and reduce the amount of produced solid waste. This target can be reached by adopting cleaner production processes and addressing the causes of GHG emissions.
Monitoring and reporting	Continuously monitoring environmental impacts is essential to ensure the effectiveness of environmental governance practices. Actors should monitor key environmental performance indicators. Furthermore, transparency is essential. Actors should disclose their environmental results in studies and reports to allow stakeholders and society to assess the performance of monitoring objects.

Source: adapted from Strong [23].

.

Therefore, the application of isolated strategies is not enough to reverse the biodiversity and the water resources degradation process, and to achieve their conservation, which is a research gap. Thus, a set of actions is necessary to reach this goal. Accordingly, integrative scientific literature reviews help synthesizing existing studies on the Amazon biome’s degradation and identifying strategies to be applied in order to inhibit degradation and promote the conservation of its biodiversity and water resources.

Given the large number of articles that explore these challenges in the Amazon, this systematic review sought to answer the question: What scientific and policy responses can be applied to mitigate the environmental and social impacts caused by biodiversity and water resource degradation in the Amazon? The aim of the present study was to feature the current degradation process faced by the Amazon biome, as well as to, based on science, identify strategic alternatives that allow inhibiting and minimizing the degradation of its biodiversity and water resources, in an integrated way.

2. Methodology

2.1. Type of Research

This applied research has adopted qualitative approach and descriptive design [24]. Applied research aims at generating knowledge for practical applications focused on solving medium or short-term issues. Results in this research type are often tangible and perceived by local populations [25].

Qualitative research aims at systematically explaining facts taking place in a given social context, which are often associated with multiple variables. This approach is suitable for studies focused on investigating beliefs, values, attitudes, social relationships and practices, strategies, management models, and changes in organisational, social, political and economic contexts [25]. According to Chizzotti, qualitative research’s main purpose is to “intervene in a given unsatisfactory situation to change conditions perceived as changeable” (p. 89) [24]; this line of thought is in compliance with the aims of the current study.

Descriptive processes aim at identifying, recording and analyzing features, factors or variables associated with the investigated phenomenon or process. They enable establishing associations between variables and, subsequently, determining their resulting effects on society [26].

2.2. Featuring the Study Site

This study was carried out in the geographic area of the Amazon biome. The Amazonian biome is formed by a set of ecosystems encompassing the Amazon rainforest and the Amazon basin. The Amazon is a humid tropical region that covers 6.7 million km² and crosses nine countries, including Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, French Guiana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. Brazil holds the largest portion of the Amazon rainforest, the so-called Legal Amazon. The Brazilian portion of this forest corresponds to 61.8% of its total area. The Amazon rainforest exports vapor “aerial rivers” and transports abundant rainfall to distant regions in the continent in summer. The Amazonas river accounts for the largest water and wind volume on the globe [27]. Figure 1 shows the geography, hydrographic basin, and general biogeographic conditions of the Amazonian biome.

2.3. Data Collection

Bibliographic research was herein used as data collection technique to help building an integrative review. This research type plays essential role in qualitative studies because it uses finalised materials, i.e., data and information that have been scientifically or analytically proven [25]. Integrative review, in its turn, is defined as method enabling knowledge synthesis, as well as the applicability of findings from significant studies into practice [28]. Integrative review is a research methodology designed to answer a given question through the identification, selection, assessment and synthesis of relevant studies available in databases selected based on researchers’ criteria and goals. The aim of this methodology is to produce impartial and comprehensive assessments of scientific evidence to minimise the risk of bias [28]. Knowledge should not be used to shape results and analyses based on personal interests; it should help improving research by providing an environment conducive to information and knowledge sharing with responsibility and scientific rigor [29].

Integrative literature review is a research method capable of synthesizing knowledge on a given topic and applying the results. The integrative review carried out in the current study was split into six stages: (1) guiding question elaboration; (2) literature search or sampling; (3) data collection; (4) critical analysis of included studies; (5) results and discussion; and (6) integrative review presentation [28]. The reason for conducting this review lies on the need for identifying and synthesising the available information about the investigated phenomenon to help better understanding it [30].

The analysis protocol-formulation process considered the relevance of the selected databases, the topic, the researchers and the institutions spreading information and knowledge. The following inclusion criteria were adopted: (i) articles at the Scopus, Web of Science and Scielo databases; (ii) research institutions in the Amazon; (iii) books by Brazilian authors who conduct research on the Amazon; (iv) studies supported by different methods and theoretical-empirical framework addressing the following keywords: Amazonian biodiversity, Amazonian water resources, degradation factors in the Amazon, biodiversity conservation in the Amazon, water resources conservation in the Amazon, effect of climate change on the Amazon and habitat fragmentation in the Amazon. Only texts published between 2017 and 2024 in English, Spanish and Portuguese were taken into consideration. The exclusion criterion considered approaches that did not directly explore the mentioned topics or that did not directly help achieving the study aims, as well as other sources different from the previously mentioned ones.

In that way, this research was conducted to become a systematic review, based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology [31], using keywords related to the article’s topic in the Scopus, Web of Science, and Scielo databases, also covering publications from research institutions in the Amazon and books by Brazilian researchers who recently conducted studies in the Amazon. The number of articles found in preliminary research was 7.147, and the number of books and texts was 75.

Table 2. Number of articles found in preliminary searches and after the filtering process.

Databases	Keywords	Articles Found in Preliminary Search	Articles Considered After Filtering
Scopus	Biodiversity in the Amazon	898	5
	Water resources in the Amazon	169	5
	Degradation factors in the Amazon	114	5
	Biodiversity conservation in the Amazon	831	7
	Water resources conservation in the Amazon	133	12
Web of Science	Biodiversity in the Amazon	1810	2
	Water resources in the Amazon	1107	2
	Degradation factors in the Amazon	159	5
	Biodiversity conservation in the Amazon	1491	3
	Water resources conservation in the Amazon	206	5
Scielo	Biodiversity in the Amazon	156	2
	Water resources in the Amazon	19	0
	Degradation in the Amazon	4	2
	Biodiversity conservation in the Amazon	46	1
	Water resources conservation in the Amazon	4	2
Research platform	keywords	Texts/books found in preliminary search	Texts taken into consideration after filtering
Research institutions on the Amazon	Biodiversity in the Amazon	6	2
	Water resources in the Amazon	6	1
	Degradation factors in the Amazon	6	2
	Biodiversity conservation in the Amazon	6	0
	Water resources conservation in the Amazon	6	0
Books by Brazilian authors who conduct research on the Amazon	Biodiversity in the Amazon	11	0
	Water resources in the Amazon	9	1
	Degradation factors in the Amazon	13	2
	Biodiversity conservation in the Amazon	7	2
	Water resources conservation in the Amazon	5	0

Source: elaborated by the authors (2024).

shows this process in detail.

However, not all of them were relevant to the research, so a filtering process was conducted to finally match the selection criteria after exclusions. The PRISMA [31] guideline was used to screen and identify relevant research articles, resulting in 58 articles and 10 books or texts, finally matching the selection criteria after exclusions. Figure 2 shows the PRISMA methodology flowchart with the elaborate steps taken to consider articles for review.

Finally, summarizing the methodology, Figure 3 presents a flowchart of all the method and research procedures, as previously described.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Biodiversity in the Amazonian Region

The inherent importance of the Amazonian biodiversity is essential for ecosystems’ maintenance and for their environmental functions, and it justifies the existence of protected areas in the region [32]. According to data from Amazon Sustainable Landscapes (ASL), the Amazonian region is home to 40% of the world’s remaining tropical forest, besides accounting for 25% of terrestrial biodiversity and hosting more fish species than any other river system on the planet. The Amazon rainforest and rivers are home to a wide variety of species: some of them are endemic, others are threatened with extinction, and many remain unknown [33].

Lopes et al. have highlighted the exuberant biodiversity in the Amazonian region that, besides accounting for a wide variety of faunal and floral specimens, also hosts several fungal and bacterial species, which belong to the invisible biodiversity and play an essential role in environmental conservation. However, these species are ruled out by deforestation and burning processes that not only affect this region’s biodiversity, but also increase the temperature, reduce soil moisture and quality, expose it to leaching and erosion processes caused by rainfall events and, sometimes, pollute water resources [34]. Accordingly, Nannipieri et al. have pointed out the relevant role played by forests in maintaining ecosystem balance, in controlling temperature, in fertilizing the soil, in absorbing carbon dioxide, as well as in maintaining microclimates and hydrological cycles [35].

The ecosystem services provided by the terrestrial biodiversity in the Amazonian region comprise regulating hydrological cycles and controlling soil erosion. Evapotranspiration carried out by trees helps maintain the region’s water balance, besides influencing rainfall patterns, both at local and global levels. In addition, the dense vegetation in the Amazon forest acts as a natural sponge, since it slows down surface runoff and prevents landslides and soil degradation processes [36].

The equally impressive aquatic biodiversity in the Amazonian region is mainly concentrated in its rivers and lakes. The Amazon basin is one of the most complex and diverse river systems in the world—it comprises approximately 2200 identified fish species [37]. These aquatic ecosystems provide livelihood resources for millions of people living in local communities.

The structure of water stream habitats and the composition of fish groups are influenced by both natural and anthropogenic features of river basins. Moreover, they are significantly affected by land-use systems [38].

Amazonian aquatic ecosystems also play a crucial role in regulating biogeochemical cycles. Amazonian rivers, for example, play a key role in the carbon cycle, since their water influences the dynamics of atmospheric gases, such as CO₂ and methane (CH₄). Furthermore, floodplains and flooded areas in this region act as natural filters that capture nutrients and pollutants, and that help maintain water quality and the health of aquatic biota [39].

A study conducted by ASL has evidenced that Amazonian biodiversity plays a vital role at the global level because it provides solutions to biological challenges and benefits to humanity. Snake species, such as Bothrops asper, whose venom has been used to develop Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors to help control hypertension, and leaf-cutter ants, which help find new natural fungicides, are relevant examples of such potential. The knowledge of Indigenous peoples plays a crucial role at the time of exploring these possibilities. Furthermore, the Amazonian biodiversity is locally essential for human activities, such as cooking. On the other hand, it globally influences the carbon cycle and hydrological systems, besides playing a key role in the South American climate and rainfall system [33].

The Amazon generates approximately 50% of its own rainfall events and carries them through “atmospheric rivers” to Southern Argentina, where it contributes to this country’s agricultural production. Unfortunately, the Amazonian region has been facing increasing pressure. Although Pará, Mato Grosso, and Rondônia are the Amazonian states facing the highest pressure level, this issue has also emerged in other regions. Disruption in this hydrological cycle can lead to a tipping point capable of turning parts of the rainforest into dry savannas, or even into Caatingas, and it can have a negative effect on rainfall and agricultural systems across South America [33].

The most comprehensive report on biodiversity in the Amazonian region, which was produced by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (also known as IPBES), warns that high plant and animal species extinction rates are likely to have severe impacts on people, at the global level [40].

Species extinction is the issue that most affects biodiversity, since it destroys genetic heritage and affects the functioning of trophic relationships among several living beings forming the food web a given species is found in. Thus, the overall environment can be harmed and affected if the extinct species is of paramount importance to perform essential functions in a given ecosystem [41].

It is essential to emphasize that climate change is closely associated with biodiversity loss; this issue is currently observed in almost all aquatic and marine ecosystems. The resilience of different ecosystems and their ability to react to changes are significantly associated with their biodiversity. Changes in seasonality, increased rainfall rates, and rising temperatures have been affecting the performance of ecosystems. Ecosystem patterns, such as yield and photosynthesis, are often affected by climate change, and it can change factors like carbon dynamics in marine and terrestrial ecosystems and hydrological cycles [42].

3.2. Water Resources in the Amazonian Region

Brazil has approximately 12% of the world’s freshwater reserves spread across its river basins. The country holds the world’s largest freshwater reserves and the third largest water potential on Earth; and 80% of Brazilian water resources are concentrated in the Amazonian region. The largest Brazilian river basin, i.e., the Amazonian basin, crosses several South American countries, such as Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela, besides Brazil. The Amazon river is the main river in this basin and the largest river in the world—it is 7075 km long, including its several tributaries. In addition, it covers almost the entire Brazilian Northern region, as well as lands in its Mid-Western region [43]. Figure 4 shows the whole Amazonas river and its multiple tributaries.

Water resources in the Amazonian region play a key role for both local ecosystems and the human communities depending on them. Changes in land use and cover, such as deforestation and reforestation processes, significantly affect the water balance in the Amazonian basin, since they influence rainfall events and evapotranspiration processes [44,45]. According to Ribeiro et al., the most preserved sub-basins, such as those of the Negro and Solimões rivers, present the highest annual rainfall and evapotranspiration rates, whereas the most deforested areas, such as the Madeira, Tapajós and Xingu river sub-basins, present the lowest rates [46].

The hydrogeomorphological dynamics of Amazonian rivers in preserved areas plays a crucial role in aquatic habitat distribution processes. River erosion and deposition processes affect fishing-zone and vegetation-cover formation, which plays an essential role in maintaining aquatic biodiversity [30]. Riverside vegetation is closely associated with water resources, since it plays an essential role in both maintaining water quality and conserving aquatic biota. It is essential to protect these areas to guarantee the integrity of water bodies [47]. In turn, Amazonian Indigenous communities significantly depend on freshwater ecosystems, such as rivers and lakes, in order to survive. Any change in the quality and availability of these water resources has a significant impact on these communities [48].

Amazonian floodplains support important ecosystem services, as well as influence global water and carbon cycles. Changes in the hydrological regime, such as increased flooding rates, have major implications for this region’s ecology and biogeochemistry [48].

The Amazonian region features a combination of vast forests, abundant water resources, and high temperatures. This combination leads to a significant evaporation process that forms “atmospheric rivers” which, in turn, are atmospheric humidity corridors that transport large amounts of water vapor to other parts of the country and the South American continent, and that influence rainfall distribution rates. However, deforestation and climate change threaten this phenomenon by changing water availability and rainfall patterns. Thus, the Amazonian region can reach an irreversible tipping point, since deforestation slows down the hydrological cycle to such an extent that rainforest ecosystems cannot be sustained [36].

3.3. Degradation Factors in the Amazonian Region

Territorial occupation in the Amazon has been carried out in an uncontrolled and irrational manner for a few decades. Consequently, a large part of its biome is converted into agricultural, pasture, plant extraction, and/or logging areas; into areas used for mineral exploration, including mining; as well as into urban areas comprising highways and hydroelectric power plants, on a yearly basis. These intense socio-spatial and economic transformations in the Amazonian territory have led to increased biome deforestation and urban expansion rates, to land conflicts, to the formation of industrial hubs like Manaus Free Trade Zone, to illegal logging, as well as to agricultural activity ‘metropolization’ and expansion, among others [49,50].

Satellite monitoring applied to the Amazonian region has evidenced that forest resilience has declined due to global climate change. Greenhouse gases, which have a direct impact on global warming, stand out among the factors contributing to boost these changes. Projections on climate conditions in the Amazonian region have pointed out that temperature rates will increase. This condition will increase both the number and the duration of dry days a year, an issue that could lead to water stress [51].

With respect to the expansion of areas aimed at agricultural activities, for example, forests’ conversion into pasture, has increased the mean surface temperature by approximately 25%, as well as decreased annual evapotranspiration rates by 30%, rainfall rates by 25%, and surface runoff by 20%. These factors have led to longer dry seasons in the Southern half of the Amazon basin [52].

Unprecedented human activities put the quality of Amazon basin water and, consequently, human health at risk. Batista et al. have shown concern about high contaminant levels observed in the Amazon basin [53].

According to Couto (p. 172), “deforestation, desertification, water stress, impacts on the atmosphere and air quality, and the impact of solid waste and sanitation” can affect populations’ health and have negative effects on public coffers [54]. Sorribas et al. have pointed out that changes observed in both climate and hydrology are capable of changing flooding events taking place in plains, as well as the ecological conditions of different ecosystems [55].

Moreover, the construction of major hydroelectric dams in the Amazonian region to further develop the country must be taken into consideration. However, these large infrastructures are a threat to the Amazon basin’s integrity, since they change river flows and affect the species living there [56]; yet, this process has a severe impact on local biodiversity and traditional communities. Oftentimes, these constructions do not take into account the knowledge of riverside dwellers, communities, and Indigenous peoples. Consequently, they fail to meet the needs of these populations [57].

In addition, modern industrial and agricultural activities degrade Amazonian ecosystems at a much higher rate than natural processes, since these activities threaten their biodiversity reserves and global ecosystem services [3].

Souza et al. conducted a study focused on investigating ecosystem services provided by the Brazilian Amazon region. Their findings have evidenced changes in land use resulting from intense deforestation, based on data about the area deforested in the 1990s, 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s [58]. According to Gonçalves et al., deforestation can change rainfall systems and, consequently, affect water availability and regional climate patterns, a fact that has a direct impact on springs’ permanent preservation areas. The consequences of this process encompass biodiversity loss, decreased soil nutrient uptake and relative air humidity, springs’ degradation due to erosion, and reduced water infiltration due to soil compaction or lack of vegetation [59].

Although the rivers and forests in the Amazonian region are important freshwater ecosystems, climate change and the inadequate use of natural resources due to anthropogenic activities have changed these ecosystems, and impaired freshwater quality and availability on the planet [60]. Figure 5 summarizes the main degradation factors associated with the impacts on the Amazonian biome and with their consequences.

The main biome degradation factors shown in Figure 4, mainly those that have a direct impact on its biodiversity, can significantly affect water resources in this biome, as well as in other regions on the planet. According to Kohler et al. (p. 22) [61], increased deforestation due to agricultural activity, mainly in permanent preservation areas (PPAs), has a series of interconnected impacts, namely the following:

(1) Soil mechanical and chemical erosion, leaching processes, and slopes’ exposure to water erosion; (2) increased sediment load transportation in river channels leading to significant soil dragging and riverside landslides; (3) channel widening, river silting, as well as reduced river depth leading to water spreading and to changes in river course, followed by increased flooding rates [61].

The greater the loss of forested areas, the stronger the rainfall inhibition; this factor gives rise to a vicious wildfire cycle, reduces water vapor, and increases smoke emissions into the atmosphere, a fact that, consequently, suppresses rainfall events [61]. Thus, the Amazon region degradation process resulting from human disturbances and illegal activities, such as logging, wildfire, and deforestation, in association with drought and extreme rainfall events, affects biodiversity dynamics and resilience to global changes [51].

According to Bush, climate instability in the Amazonian region is associated with ecological oscillation, as well as with drought- and fire-induced tree mortality, and it is indicative of an imminent tipping point. The high risk of irreversible collapse of Amazonian biodiversity requires policies aimed at mitigating deforestation and wildfire events [62].

Thus, the exploitation of agriculture and livestock farming, among other human activities, via deforestation has led to soil degradation processes, such as soil compaction (crusting) and erosion processes that have resulted in river silting, surface and groundwater contamination, intense biodiversity loss and, most of all, in reduced water levels in water bodies, which, in turn, has led to water shortage [63].

Figure 6 describes the vicious cycle caused by biodiversity degradation in the Amazon biome and its impact on water availability.

Overall, the loss of forested areas can lead to a rainfall-inhibiting process, which, in turn, can have a significant impact on the maintenance of biome ecosystems, as shown in the vicious cycle depicted in Figure 5. Intensive agriculture and livestock farming, a lack of territorial planning, the monoculture of certain species, and the introduction of exotic species for cultivation purposes are some of the factors affecting biodiversity in the Amazonian region [61]. The impacts deriving from native vegetation loss associated with inappropriate land use in the Amazon also affect the lives of people living in urban areas, given the relevant role played by hydrological cycles in climate regulation processes [64].

3.4. Integrative Review on Biodiversity and Water Resources Conservation in the Amazonian Region

Table 3. Summary of biodiversity conservation strategies implemented in the Amazonian region.

Conservation Factor	Mitigation Strategies
Biodiversity Reason for conserving: Conserving biodiversity in the Amazonian region is a sine qua non to help maintain living conditions in this biome and on the planet.	Implementing and reinforcing public policies and environmental legislation to help strengthen the application of environmental laws and increase control over deforestation, logging, and illegal mining activities [64].
	Satellite monitoring and surveillance, as well as the use of artificial intelligence to identify and punish illegal deforestation activities in real time [65,66].
	Monitoring scientific studies that help us understand changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in order to adjust conservation strategies. Moreover, constant monitoring of Amazonian biodiversity based on using technologies, such as drones and geographic information systems [67,68].
	The Amazon is home to a vast number of species, many of which are threatened. Understanding the interactions between species and ecological processes is vital to maintaining the resilience of the ecosystem. In the Amazon biome, there are considerable gaps in the understanding of population ecology and the taxonomic and geographical knowledge of species, fundamental elements for preserving biodiversity. Efforts to identify priority areas for multi-species inventories are crucial for improving taxonomic knowledge and mapping species distributions in order to formulate biodiversity conservation policies [69,70].
	Improving fire prevention and control strategies by developing and implementing advanced monitoring systems to identify and respond to wildfire events right away [71]. This process comprises using satellite technologies and early warning systems [72].
	Promoting projects aimed at the reforestation and recovery of deforested areas by restoring forest cover and biodiversity. Ecological restoration projects contribute to restoring essential habitats for biodiversity in the Amazonian region. This process can include replanting native species and removing the invasive ones [73].
	Maintaining permanent preservation areas, Legal Reserves, and Conservation Units, based on society’s participation in this process, and increasing the effectiveness of Conservation Unit management councils to help conserve biodiversity [74].
	Participatory Action Research (PAR) can be used as an efficient strategy for preserving biodiversity and promoting sustainable development in the Amazon. This type of research involves the participation of local stakeholders in data collection and environmental monitoring [75].
	Engaging in and helping local communities and Indigenous peoples to protect and sustainably manage forests by respecting Amazonian peoples’ traditional knowledge [76].
	Economic incentives for conservation processes, based on implementing financial compensation mechanisms for local farmers and communities that adopt sustainable land-use practices and preserve forest areas [77].
	Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as conservation agriculture, no-till farming techniques, and crop rotation to help reduce the need for wildfires [78].
	Promoting livestock practices to minimize environmental impact and to reduce the need for expanding the livestock farming area [79].

Source: elaborated by the authors, based on current research data (2024).

summarizes the main biodiversity conservation strategies implemented in the Amazon biome.

The possibility of implementing the strategic proposals listed in Table 3 reflects the need for a multifaceted and collaborative approach among several society sectors, as recommended by the environmental governance theory. It is essential to integrate sustainable practices, scientific monitoring, and community engagement to help preserve this vital Amazonian ecosystem.

The studies presented highlight the complexity of biodiversity conservation in the Amazon, emphasizing the importance of integrated strategies that take ecological, social, and economic aspects into account. For effective conservation, it is necessary to fill knowledge gaps, improve local governance, and establish policies that harmonize progress with environmental conservation. Cooperation between researchers, local communities, and policymakers is essential to ensure the lasting sustainability of the Amazon’s abundant biodiversity.

Table 4. Summary of water resource conservation strategies implemented in the Amazonian region.

Conservation Factor	Mitigation Strategies
Water resources Reason for conserving: It is essential to conserve water resources in the Amazonian region to help maintain biodiversity, local communities’ well-being, and climate stability.	Maintaining and restoring riparian forests along rivers and streams to protect watercourses from erosion and pollution, and to preserve aquatic biodiversity [47,80].
	Recent research has pointed to crucial measures, such as enforcing environmental flows, improving water quality, preserving and restoring vital habitats, managing the exploitation of freshwater organisms, preventing and controlling invasive species, and safeguarding and restoring freshwater connectivity, so that Amazonian water resources are preserved [81].
	Implementing integrated water resource management systems to balance water use and preservation by taking into account both human needs and ecological requirements [56].
	Promoting the water–energy–food–forest nexus is crucial to promoting water resources in the Amazon. Maintaining forest resources improves water quality, controls erosion, and increases resilience against droughts and floods. Appropriate management practices are needed to protect and conserve the quantity and quality of rivers and lakes and the aquatic ecosystems of the biome [82].
	Investing in water infrastructure and sewage treatment systems in urban areas. Monitoring industrial effluent discharges [83].
	Establishing guidelines focused on effective management processes in the Amazon river basin, based on steady methods, databases, regulatory instruments, and on a coordinating body [84]. It is necessary to establish integrated environmental and water management policies [85].
	Mitigating deforestation and wildfire events to help minimize their impact on water resources’ quality and quantity [86].
	Identifying and protecting aquifer recharge areas to maintain groundwater availability, which is essential for communities and ecosystems in the investigated region [87].
	Promoting environmental education and involving local communities in water conservation processes can increase awareness about, and collaboration in, sustainable practices [88].
	Carrying out continuous monitoring and scientific research to track the quality and quantity of water resources, to identify emerging issues and to adjust conservation strategies, whenever necessary [89].
	Using satellite remote sensing to monitor and better understand water cycles and hydrological processes in the Amazonian region [90]. The use of satellite-based remote sensing has supported new research and important discoveries about the Amazon’s water cycle, contributing to a better understanding of the water balance and aquatic environments [91].
	Carefully assessing the environmental and social impacts associated with the expansion of hydroelectric power plants in the Amazonian region, from multiple perspectives [92].
	Developing and implementing continuous monitoring systems to identify and control pollution sources, such as mercury deriving from illegal mining, to help mitigate environmental and public health impacts [93].
	Encouraging agricultural and land management practices to minimize water resource degradation and pollution issues caused by fertilizers and pesticides [78].

Source: elaborated by the authors, based on current research data (2024).

summarizes the water resource conservation strategies aimed at the Amazon.

The strategies summarized in Table 4 reflect the need for an integrated and multidisciplinary approach to help conserve water resources in the Amazonian region by taking into account both environmental preservation and human needs. The implementation of strategic policies, the use of advanced monitoring technologies, and collaboration with local communities are essential to tackle environmental challenges and ensure the sustainability of water resources in the region.

Previous studies addressed strategies to fight biodiversity and water resources degradation in the Amazonian biome. Therefore, Table 3 and Table 4 seek to integrate strategic alternatives provided in several studies and to place them in perspective in order to be used. In other words, this study suggests that implementing isolated strategies is not enough to reverse biodiversity and water resources deterioration, and to achieve their preservation. Thus, presumably, the identified results help filling gaps in studies on this topic.

The multi-scale complexity of socio-environmental issues, in turn, poses challenges that require joint actions to achieve sustainable and socially equitable development. Thus, according to the environmental governance theory, the sustainable management of the Amazon’s natural resources depends on the participation of governmental entities at different levels, NGOs, organized civil society, and companies that, altogether, must jointly plan and make decisions [19].

It is essential to protect, restore, and sustainably use the Amazonian region to help reverse the climate crisis, biodiversity loss, and water resource degradation processes. Public policies and intensive planning are necessary to help (i) rule out deforestation, forest degradation, and wildfires; (ii) restore deforested and degraded lands; (iii) protect permanent preservation areas (PPAs), Legal Reserves (LRs), and Conservation Units (CUs); (iv) protect biodiversity involving fauna, flora, fungi, and bacteria that play essential roles in environmental conservation processes; (v) strengthen the bioeconomy of standing forests; (vi) protect springs, water sources, rivers, and river basins; (vii) invest in science, technology, and innovation; (viii) include local communities and Indigenous peoples in the construction and protection of the Amazonian region; and (ix) promote environmental education in schools, among other measures. However, this process requires building a new economy centered on preserving the environment and caring for people, mainly for the local population, and on establishing effective public policies [65].

Mitigation strategies adopted to maintain biodiversity and water resources’ health in the Amazonian region (highlighted in Table 1 and Table 2) point towards some convergences and show the need for joint work with several fronts involved in this process, such as local, regional, and federal governments, as well as universities, the private sector, and organized civil society. It is important to bear in mind that resources provided by nature cannot be solely exploited for the benefit of a few stakeholders.

Finaly, activities such as mining and agriculture notoriously also cause soil and water degradation, but this research focused exclusively on the scenarios of biodiversity and water resource degradation, something that can be seen as a limitation of this study, but which could be explored in future analyses.

4. Conclusions and Policy Implication

The herein adopted integrative research review methodology enabled featuring the ecosystem services provided by, and the degradation process taking place in, the Amazon region, as well as identifying potential alternatives to help minimize the negative environmental and social impacts of this process on the Amazon. The analyzed research strongly supports biodiversity and water resource conservation in the assessed biome.

The current study has evidenced that the Amazonian biodiversity is an invaluable resource that features local ecosystems and effectively contributes to global climate balance. It is essential to protect and sustainably manage these resources to help preserve ecological health and human well-being in terms of food and water security. Therefore, it is important to highlight that efforts made to conserve and protect natural environments, such as the Amazonian environment, play an essential role in maintaining different biomes and ecosystems, and require mapping priority actions to help mitigate real socio-environmental conflicts.

However, despite its importance, the Amazonian biodiversity faces significant threats due to anthropogenic activities, such as deforestation, illegal mining, water bodies’ contamination, irregular agricultural expansion, soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and biopiracy, among others.

Deforestation in this biome has led to accelerated habitat loss and ecosystem fragmentation processes that, in turn, undermine the ability of the Amazon forest to provide essential ecological services. Climate change also worsens these issues, since it affects rainfall patterns, as well as increases both the frequency and the intensity of extreme weather events.

Based on the herein analyzed studies, changes in surface water runoff caused by temperature and rainfall variations have affected the quality of water resources in the Amazonian region. Accordingly, changes in land use and coverage due to deforestation have also changed the hydrological cycle in it. The main human pressures on water resources comprise activities, such as extensive agriculture and livestock farming, unplanned urban network expansion, industrialization, and climate change, which have a direct impact on both the quality and quantity of the water available, as well as on aquatic ecosystems and on society overall.

Traditional agriculture carried out within the Amazon biome also significantly affects soil conservation and biodiversity, and has a negative impact on water resources. Inadequate irrigation, as well as intensive machinery, fertilizer, and pesticide use, affect water bodies and contribute to water pollution. Chemical substances and organic pollutants deteriorate water quality and can have long-term effects on aquatic ecosystems, without proper control. The Amazonian region, in turn, is susceptible to all these likely use and contamination types.

It is necessary to adopt integrated strategies focused on protecting and conserving forested areas, on promoting sustainable soil management techniques, as well as on implementing public policies that take into consideration the need for local development and the preservation of the Amazon’s natural resources, to ensure the preservation of the Amazonian biodiversity and water resources. Collaboration among governments, non-governmental organizations, local communities, researchers, and enterprises is essential to meet the challenge of protecting this global biological and water heritage, as recommended by the environmental governance theory. The schematic representation of the conclusion and policy implications, summarizing the results of this research in bullet points, in alphabetical order, highlighting threats and potentialities, is presented in Figure 7.