Impact of Regional and Seasonal Characteristics on Battery Electric Vehicle Operational Costs in the U.S.
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- This study presents a methodology that can yield practical results by comprehensively considering actual driving patterns, regional temperatures, and energy prices.
- This study enables comparative analysis across different regions by targeting the entire United States rather than a single region.
- The study utilized results from dynamometer tests conducted under various temperatures, enabling the precise analysis of energy and fuel consumption across different conditions.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Scenarios with Configuration of Vehicles
2.2. Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) Assumptions
2.2.1. Household Travel Survey
2.2.2. Monthly VMT
2.3. Temperature Impacts on Vehicle Performances
2.3.1. Variation in Energy Consumption, Range, and Fuel Economy
2.3.2. Energy Loss from Cold Start
2.4. Electricity and Fuel Consumption
2.4.1. BEV Scenario
2.4.2. PHEV Scenario
2.4.3. BEV and Conv Scenario
2.4.4. HEV Scenario
2.5. Operational Costs
3. Results
3.1. Operational Costs in BEV Scenario
3.2. Operational Costs in PHEV, BEV and Conv, and HEV Scenarios
4. Discussion
4.1. Comparison of Operational Costs Result with a Previous Study
4.2. Impact of Seasonal and Regional Factors and Driving Patterns on Cost Competitiveness
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Name | Vehicle | Cabin Volume (ft3) | EPA Fuel Economy (MPG(e)) | 0 °F Test Data |
---|---|---|---|---|
BEV1 | 2020 Tesla Model 3 | 112 | 121 | Available |
BEV2 | 2020 Chevrolet Bolt | 111 | 118 | Available |
PHEV1 | 2017 Toyota Prius Prime | 111 | 133 | Available |
PHEV2 | 2016 Chevrolet Volt | 109 | 106 | Not available |
HEV | 2021 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid | 121 | 47 | Not available |
Conv | 2018 Toyota Camry | 114 | 26 | Not available |
Assumptions | Present Study | [41] | |
---|---|---|---|
Annual VMT | 6007–17,378 miles | 12,400 miles | |
Fuel economy | Depends on the temperature | OEM information | |
Electricity prices | USD 0.10/kWh–USD 0.31/kWh (residential) * USD 0.17/kWh–USD 0.54/kWh (DCFC) * | USD 0.09/kWh | |
Gasoline price | USD 2.69/gal–USD 4.54/gal ** | USD 4.28/gal | |
Vehicle | BEV | 2020 Tesla Model 3 and 2020 Chevrolet Bolt | 2024 Kia Niro EV Wind |
PHEV | 2017 Toyota Prius Prime and 2016 Chevrolet Volt | 2024 Kia Niro PHEV EX | |
HEV | 2021 Hyundai Sonata | 2024 Kia Niro HEV LX |
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Kim, K.-H.; Kim, N.; Vijayagopal, R.; Stutenberg, K.; Hwang, S.-H. Impact of Regional and Seasonal Characteristics on Battery Electric Vehicle Operational Costs in the U.S. Sustainability 2025, 17, 3282. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083282
Kim K-H, Kim N, Vijayagopal R, Stutenberg K, Hwang S-H. Impact of Regional and Seasonal Characteristics on Battery Electric Vehicle Operational Costs in the U.S. Sustainability. 2025; 17(8):3282. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083282
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Kyung-Ho, Namdoo Kim, Ram Vijayagopal, Kevin Stutenberg, and Sung-Ho Hwang. 2025. "Impact of Regional and Seasonal Characteristics on Battery Electric Vehicle Operational Costs in the U.S." Sustainability 17, no. 8: 3282. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083282
APA StyleKim, K.-H., Kim, N., Vijayagopal, R., Stutenberg, K., & Hwang, S.-H. (2025). Impact of Regional and Seasonal Characteristics on Battery Electric Vehicle Operational Costs in the U.S. Sustainability, 17(8), 3282. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083282