Community Perceptions of Ecosystem Services from Homegarden-Based Urban Agriculture in Bandung City, Indonesia

Abstract

Urban agriculture, particularly homegarden-based urban agriculture, has gained recognition as a valuable tool for promoting sustainability in rapidly urbanizing cities. This study investigates community perceptions of the ecosystem services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung City, Indonesia. The research aims to assess how urban residents perceive the contributions of homegardens to food security, environmental sustainability, and social well-being. Using a mixed-methods approach, qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with key informants, while quantitative data were obtained from a survey of members of the urban agriculture community. The results revealed that homegardens play a supplementary role in food production, providing fresh produce but contributing only minimally to overall food security. They were recognized for their role in biodiversity conservation, microclimate regulation, disaster risk reduction, social cohesion, and improving mental well-being. Despite these benefits, challenges such as limited space, lack of knowledge, and competing land uses hinder the full integration of homegardens into urban systems. The findings suggest that enhancing education and policy support for urban agriculture can help maximize the utilization of the potential of homegardens in urban sustainability. Future research should focus on overcoming these barriers and exploring strategies for expanding homegarden practices in urban areas.

1. Introduction

Urbanization is a global trend reshaping cities worldwide, particularly in rapidly growing regions such as Indonesia [1,2,3]. In Indonesia, urban expansion often reduces agricultural land, leading to challenges such as food security, environmental sustainability, and social cohesion [4,5,6,7,8,9]. Bandung, a city in West Java, Indonesia, exemplifies these issues. Rapid urban growth presents significant challenges in maintaining food security and ensuring sustainable environmental management [10,11]. Urban agriculture, particularly homegarden-based systems, has emerged as a promising solution to these challenges [12,13]. Homegardens, small-scale agricultural systems within urban households, provide food and offer a variety of ecosystem services, contributing to the ecological, economic, and social resilience of cities. Homegardens are multifunctional, playing key roles in biodiversity conservation, food production, and community well-being, making them crucial for urban sustainability in cities like Bandung [12,14,15,16].

Homegardens in urban settings offer significant advantages in tackling issues caused by rapid urbanization [17]. Research by Aerts et al. (2016) and George (2024) highlights that homegardens play an essential role in enhancing urban food security by providing a steady supply of diverse crops and fresh produce [18,19]. These gardens help households maintain nutritional resilience, particularly during times of economic strain or food price fluctuations [20,21,22]. Homegardens are also critical in promoting biodiversity [23,24]. They act as reservoirs for traditional plant varieties, often neglected in large-scale agriculture, ensuring the conservation of local species [25,26,27,28,29]. Homegardens mitigate urbanization’s environmental impacts, such as the urban heat island effect, by providing green spaces that cool the environment and improve air quality [29,30,31,32]. The ecological, social, and economic benefits of homegardens make them essential for long-term sustainability in rapidly urbanizing cities [33,34,35].

In cities like Bandung, the loss of agricultural land due to urban expansion exacerbates food insecurity and environmental degradation [36,37]. As urban development progresses, the availability of land for agricultural use decreases, increasing reliance on external food sources typically transported from rural areas. This reliance not only raises food costs but also increases the carbon footprint from transportation [38,39,40,41,42]. Additionally, urban sprawl leads to the loss of vital green spaces, which play a key role in biodiversity, environmental health, and community well-being [21,43,44,45,46,47]. In contrast to rural areas, where agriculture is naturally located, urban centers like Bandung face the challenge of accommodating food production within limited space. Homegardens, which utilize small plots of land within the urban environment, offer a sustainable solution. By promoting local food production, homegardens reduce the need for long-distance food transportation, thus lowering greenhouse gas emissions associated with food supply chains [48,49,50]. Furthermore, they provide urban residents with direct access to fresh, nutritious produce, enhancing food security and reducing the environmental impact of urban living [18,39,51,52,53]. Although the potential for increasing urban food production in cities like Bandung is limited by land constraints, supporting homegardens could still significantly enhance local food resilience and sustainability.

Despite their benefits, challenges remain in fully utilizing homegardens in rapidly urbanizing cities like Bandung [37,54,55]. Several barriers hinder the effective use of homegardens in urban areas. These challenges include limited land availability, insufficient access to resources, lack of knowledge about sustainable agriculture, and competition for land due to urbanization [22,56,57,58,59,60]. These obstacles prevent homegardens from reaching their full potential in contributing to urban food systems and biodiversity [7,39,61]. While urban agriculture is generally viewed positively, there is limited understanding of how different demographic groups perceive the ecosystem services of homegardens. Research by Sanyé-Mengual et al. (2020) suggests urban agriculture enhances social cohesion and access to fresh produce, yet socio-economic factors influencing perceptions are often overlooked, particularly in diverse cities like Bandung [62,63,64,65]. This gap highlights the need to investigate how socio-economic factors impact perceptions and how these challenges can be addressed to optimize homegardens’ role in urban sustainability.

Previous studies suggest strategies to integrate homegardens into urban planning. Aerts et al. (2016) and Artmann and Sartison (2018) emphasize the importance of providing technical support and resources to urban residents for engaging in homegarden-based agriculture [18,39]. This includes training in sustainable agricultural practices, providing access to water and land, and raising awareness of the ecological and social benefits [48,66,67,68,69,70]. Fostering community engagement through participatory planning helps identify local needs, ensuring urban agriculture initiatives align with community values [64,71,72]. Engaging residents in these practices enhances the effectiveness of urban agriculture, contributing to more sustainable and resilient urban environments [73,74,75]. Integrating homegardens into broader urban sustainability frameworks, like the SDGs, aligns local initiatives with global sustainability goals, contributing to long-term resilience [29,76,77,78,79].

Studies show that positive community perceptions of homegardens and urban agriculture significantly influence their adoption and success. Diekmann et al. (2020) and Anwar et al. (2023) argue that when communities perceive the benefits, such as improved food security, biodiversity, and social ties, they are more likely to engage in these practices [21,80,81,82,83]. Negative perceptions, often based on land use competition or environmental impacts, can hinder urban agriculture adoption [73,84,85,86]. Understanding public perception is crucial to the success of urban agriculture, as it informs the services provided by homegardens. This understanding can inform policies and interventions to address barriers and maximize urban agriculture’s benefits [33,87,88,89,90,91].

Several indicators have been used to assess homegardens’ effectiveness in urban environments. These include crop diversity, food production volume, and ecological benefits such as improved soil health and increased green space [58,92,93,94,95]. These indicators provide a comprehensive view of urban agriculture’s contributions to food security and environmental health. Community engagement in homegardens contributes to urban sustainability goals, including SDGs related to food security (SDG 2), sustainable cities (SDG 11), and climate action (SDG 13) [29,77,96,97]. Engaging communities in homegarden practices enhances food security, promotes social cohesion, fosters environmental stewardship, and empowers residents for sustainable urban development [72,98,99,100].

Urban agriculture, particularly through homegardens, provides a valuable solution to challenges posed by rapid urbanization in cities like Bandung. Homegardens contribute to food security, promote biodiversity, and offer ecosystem services enhancing urban sustainability. To realize their full potential, barriers to their adoption and integration into urban systems must be addressed. This study explores community perceptions of homegardens in Bandung, aiming to identify strategies to strengthen their role in urban sustainability. By understanding public views and challenges regarding homegardens, this research aims to inform policies that support their adoption and foster more resilient, sustainable urban environments in rapidly urbanizing cities across Indonesia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Design and Study Locations

This study employs a mixed-methods research design, combining both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques to provide a comprehensive understanding of community perceptions regarding homegarden-based urban agriculture [101,102]. The qualitative component examines the detailed experiences and perceptions of key stakeholders, while the quantitative data provide a broader, generalizable overview of the community’s views on homegardens and their associated ecosystem services, following the approach outlined by Creswell et al. (2022) [103].

For the qualitative component, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 key informants (leaders and active members of urban agriculture communities) across 13 purposively selected locations in Bandung. These interviews aimed to gather in-depth insights into the role of homegardens in local food systems, biodiversity conservation, food security, and community well-being. To ensure consistency and reliability across the interviews, an interview guide was developed. The guide covered core themes related to the study’s objectives, including food security, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem services. Some sample questions included:

• “How do you perceive the role of homegardens in improving food security within your community?”
• “What are the challenges you face in managing your homegarden, and how do you overcome them?”
• “In your opinion, how does urban agriculture contribute to environmental sustainability in your area?”
• “Can you describe how your community benefits from homegardens in terms of social cohesion and cultural practices?”

These semi-structured interviews were conducted in person, recorded with participant consent, and subsequently transcribed for thematic analysis. The responses were then coded to identify key themes and patterns.

For the quantitative component, a structured survey was administered to 3–4 randomly selected members from each of the 13 urban agriculture communities. The survey measured respondents’ perceptions of the ecosystem services provided by homegardens, focusing on their contribution to food security, environmental sustainability, and social cohesion. The survey included both closed-ended questions and Likert-scale items to quantify perceptions and provide a broad overview of community attitudes.

The study was conducted in Bandung, Indonesia, a rapidly urbanizing city facing challenges related to food security, biodiversity conservation, and environmental sustainability. As shown in Figure 1, the study area includes 13 homegarden-based urban agriculture sites in Bandung City, which are distributed across 8 sub-districts. These locations were purposively selected to ensure diverse representation of homegarden practices in the city. The survey and interviews were conducted between August and October 2024, providing a focused and in-depth assessment of community experiences during this period.

2.2. Data Collection

The data collection process for this study combined qualitative and quantitative methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of community perceptions of homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung [103,104]. These methods ensured that both detailed individual perspectives and broader community insights were captured. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with key informants who had direct experience and knowledge of homegarden management in Bandung. Semi-structured interviews were chosen for their flexibility, allowing for in-depth exploration while ensuring that key topics such as ecosystem services, food security, and biodiversity conservation were addressed [105]. An interview guide was developed to align with the study’s objectives. The interviews were conducted in person, recorded with participant consent, and subsequently transcribed for thematic analysis. Quantitative data were gathered through a structured survey administered to urban residents involved in homegarden-based urban agriculture communities. The survey consisted of closed-ended questions and Likert scale items designed to measure respondents’ perceptions of various aspects of homegardens, including their contributions to food security, biodiversity, and social well-being. The surveys were distributed in eight sub-districts of Bandung, covering a total of 13 homegarden-based urban agriculture locations to ensure a representative sample of the community. This method provided a broader view of the community’s attitudes toward homegardens and their role in promoting urban sustainability [101,102,103].

2.3. Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques to ensure a comprehensive interpretation of the findings. Qualitative data from the semi-structured interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. This method is widely used in qualitative research due to its flexibility and effectiveness in identifying recurring patterns and themes [106]. In this study, the interview transcripts were manually coded to identify key themes related to food security, biodiversity, and urban sustainability. The identified themes were then categorized and analyzed to explore the underlying patterns and relationships. Quantitative data from the survey were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics were employed to summarize demographic characteristics and quantify the perceptions of respondents regarding the benefits and challenges of homegardens. Frequencies, percentages, and mean scores for Likert scale items were used to present a clear and concise summary of the data. This analysis provided an overall picture of community attitudes and helped identify trends in perceptions of homegarden-based urban agriculture [105,107,108].

2.4. Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations were a key component of this study to ensure the protection of participants and the integrity of the research process. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection, ensuring that they were fully informed about the study’s purpose, procedures, and any potential risks. Participation was voluntary, and participants were assured of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequence. Confidentiality was maintained throughout the study by anonymizing participant data and securely storing all records [109,110].

2.5. Limitations of the Study

While the study provides valuable insights into community perceptions of homegardens in Bandung, there are some limitations to consider. First, the study was conducted in a specific urban context, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other cities in Indonesia. Second, the reliance on self-reported data may introduce potential biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias. Finally, the focus on homegarden-based urban agriculture communities may not fully represent the broader urban population of Bandung, as these participants may already have an interest in or experience with homegardens.

3. Results and Discussion

This study investigates community perceptions of ecosystem services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung, categorized into provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. The data obtained from a sample of survey respondents and key informants were analyzed using both descriptive statistics and thematic analysis.

Demographic analysis based on the survey responses indicates that the majority (56%) of participants have completed high school, followed by 14% with elementary education, 10% holding a bachelor’s degree, and 8% with a diploma. The mean age of respondents is 49.8 years, with a large proportion of participants being housewives, highlighting the important role of women in urban agriculture. Occupation also plays a significant role, as housewives reported higher engagement in home gardening activities compared to other occupations, such as informal workers and small business owners. Gender distribution was predominantly female (79.2%). Land access data revealed that most participants had private land (44.4%) or public land (43.1%), with some using government land. Seed sourcing was most commonly from self-propagation (44.4%) and government programs (43.1%).

As illustrated in Figure 2, community perceptions of ecosystem services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung City are categorized into four main services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. The percentages represent the distribution of responses in each category. In the provisioning services category, 32.81% of respondents disagreed, and 27.08% were neutral, indicating uncertainty and dissatisfaction, which is attributed to the limited knowledge and skills of the community in managing homegardens effectively. In contrast, regulating services were met with higher acceptance, with 36.46% agreeing and 18.75% strongly agreeing, suggesting a general perception of their benefits. Cultural services were also highly valued, with 44.35% agreeing and 17.86% strongly agreeing, reflecting recognition of the importance of cultural heritage and traditions in homegarden-based agriculture. Feedback for supporting services was mostly positive, with 31.67% agreeing and 32.08% neutral, indicating potential for improvement and greater engagement in enhancing these services to better support homegarden practices.

3.1. Provisioning Services

This section examines the public perception of the provisioning services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung City. Provisioning services, which include food security, consumption patterns, economic impact (income), and food quality, are crucial in understanding how homegarden-based agriculture contributes to urban sustainability and food systems. As shown in Figure 3, perceptions of these provisioning services vary among respondents. The findings reveal a mixed perception of the effectiveness of these services, with some respondents expressing uncertainty about their role in urban food security and local economies.

This divergence in opinion presents an opportunity for growth and improvement. As noted by Sriyadi (2022), although many urban residents are motivated to use their homegardens for agriculture, improving technical training and management skills could significantly boost productivity and the impact of homegarden-based farming [111]. With the right knowledge and support, the potential for homegardens to contribute more effectively to food security and economic well-being could be enhanced, making homegarden-based urban agriculture a more reliable and efficient component of Bandung’s food system.

3.1.1. Perception of Food Security

The results from the Likert scale analysis reveal that the majority of respondents perceived homegardens as having a limited contribution to food security. In the “Food Security” category, the mean score of 1.60 indicates that a significant portion of respondents (60.42%) strongly disagreed that homegardens significantly contribute to their daily food supply (Figure 4). This suggests that, for most respondents, homegardens serve more as a supplementary rather than a primary source of food. While homegardens do provide supplementary foods such as vegetables, fruits, and herbs, their overall contribution to meeting daily food needs is limited. These findings align with the distribution of responses, where most of the answers fell within the lower scales (1 and 2), indicating a perception of limited support provided by homegardens to daily food requirements. Factors such as the small size of gardens, limited knowledge of farming techniques, and time constraints due to urban living were likely contributors to this perception. Despite these limitations, homegardens remain a supplementary food source, particularly in providing fresh, organic produce.

3.1.2. Perception of Food Quality

The results from the Likert scale analysis indicate that a significant number of respondents expressed positive perceptions of produce from homegarden-based urban agriculture. In the “Food Quality” category, the mean score of 2.58 suggests that most respondents had a favorable view of the quality of homegrown food. Specifically, a large portion of respondents (35.42%) rated the quality of food from homegardens as higher compared to market-bought produce, indicating a preference for homegrown food in terms of quality (Figure 5). This was reflected in the distribution of responses, where many respondents rated the quality of homegrown food as superior, in line with the findings of studies by Goldstein et al. (2017) and Steenkamp et al. (2021), which suggest that homegarden-based urban agriculture offers healthier and more sustainable alternatives to conventionally grown food [58,92]. However, despite this perceived higher quality, respondents still expressed a preference for purchasing food from markets or supermarkets. This is supported by the higher percentages of responses on the lower Likert scale (2 and 3), pointing to the challenge of integrating homegarden-based urban agriculture into urban food systems, where the convenience of market-bought food often outweighs the perceived benefits of local, organic food.

3.1.3. Perception of Consumption Patterns and Preferences

The results from the Likert scale analysis support the survey findings regarding the consumption of homegrown food. In the “Consumption Patterns and Preferences” category, the mean score of 2.92 indicates that while some respondents regularly consume food grown in their own homegardens, the majority still prefer other sources of food. As shown by the distribution of responses, 47.9% of respondents disagreed with the idea of regularly consuming food from their homegardens, reflecting a stronger preference for other food sources, possibly due to convenience and variety offered by local markets. However, 27.1% of respondents agreed with regularly consuming homegrown food, pointing to a smaller yet notable group that values homegrown produce, especially organic, pesticide-free products. This aligns with the trend observed in the Likert scale data, where a larger portion of respondents fell in the neutral (3) and disagree (2) categories, highlighting that homegrown food remains relatively uncommon in daily consumption despite its perceived benefits. This preference for market-bought food is primarily driven by convenience and product diversity, which are factors that urban dwellers prioritize. However, the growing interest in homegrown food, particularly in organic produce, suggests a shift toward more sustainable consumption practices. Studies by Sugiyanto et al. (2022) and Saputri et al. (2016) further emphasize that consumption patterns are closely linked to food security, with urban agriculture, particularly homegarden-based practices, offering potential improvements in access to nutritious food [112,113].

3.1.4. Perception of Economic Impact (Income)

The results from the Likert scale analysis align with the survey findings regarding the economic impact of homegarden-based urban agriculture on household income. In the “Economic Impact” category, the mean score of 2.40 suggests that the majority of respondents perceive homegardens as having a limited impact on household income. As shown in Figure 3, 43.75% of respondents expressed a neutral opinion, indicating that they neither agreed nor disagreed on the role of homegardens in contributing to household income. Additionally, 33.33% of respondents disagreed, and 16.67% strongly disagreed, further emphasizing that homegarden-based agriculture is not viewed as a significant source of income. Despite this, many respondents acknowledged the economic benefits homegardens provide in terms of household consumption savings, particularly in reducing grocery expenses, especially for vegetables. This is consistent with the neutral to negative responses observed in the Likert scale data, which suggest that while homegardens may not be a primary income source, they do play a role in alleviating food costs. The relatively small scale of production limits the potential of homegardens to function as a major income generator, but they remain an important supplementary tool, especially for households looking to reduce their food expenditure. This finding is in line with research by Abdoellah et al. (2023) and Amalia and Mahmudiono (2017), which emphasize that homegarden-based urban agriculture can help supplement household food budgets, especially for lower-income households [22,114].

3.2. Regulating Services

This section examines public perception of the regulating services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung City. As illustrated in Figure 6, respondents perceive homegardens as valuable in providing regulating services, including microclimate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and disaster risk reduction, such as mitigating flood risks and promoting climate resilience. Respondents generally recognized the importance of these services, especially in enhancing environmental resilience and supporting sustainable development. The positive reception of regulating services is likely due to growing awareness of biodiversity and environmental sustainability in urban areas. Public acceptance is closely linked to knowledge about the environmental benefits of homegardens, and community support is shaped by social and cultural norms, which influence the willingness to adopt these services [115].

3.2.1. Perception of Microclimate Regulation and Cooling Effects

The findings indicate that respondents have a moderate perception of the cooling effects of homegardens, with an average Likert score of 2.81. This suggests that while respondents recognize the role of homegardens in regulating microclimates, they feel that the broader environmental impact may be limited. While the broader impact on microclimate regulation may be uncertain, respondents acknowledged the role of urban agriculture in mitigating heat. These effects are influenced by factors such as plant species, vegetation density, and yard conditions. Supporting research shows that vegetation density and plant species, particularly trees with dense canopies, play a significant role in cooling [116,117,118]. Despite some uncertainty, the potential of homegardens to mitigate the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect is clear. Studies suggest that green spaces, including homegardens, can reduce the UHI effect by lowering temperatures and improving air quality [119,120]. Though rated as moderate in this study, homegardens play a crucial role in microclimate regulation and contribute to climate change mitigation.

3.2.2. Perception of Biodiversity Conservation

As depicted in Figure 7B, the contribution of homegarden-based urban agriculture to biodiversity conservation is acknowledged, with many respondents perceiving it as moderate, suggesting that homegardens have the potential to support urban biodiversity. The average Likert score for this perception is 2.79, reflecting a neutral to somewhat disagreeing stance. A majority rated the contribution as moderate (41–60%), followed by lower ratings (21–40%) and higher ratings (61–80%). This indicates that while homegarden-based urban agriculture is recognized for supporting biodiversity, its impact is perceived as limited in some instances.

Research indicates that homegarden-based urban agriculture, particularly when designed with biodiversity in mind, contributes to species conservation by integrating a variety of plants, both food and non-food species. These mixed-use gardens provide habitats for pollinators and other beneficial species, enhancing ecosystem services [57,121]. Additionally, the incorporation of agroforestry practices in urban areas, like homegardens, can support biodiversity conservation by providing habitats for various species, including pollinators, which are crucial for agricultural productivity [122,123,124,125].

However, the perceived moderate contribution of homegarden-based urban agriculture to biodiversity could stem from limited awareness or engagement with biodiversity conservation practices. Respondents focusing more on food production may not fully recognize the biodiversity benefits of their homegarden-based agricultural practices. The effectiveness of biodiversity conservation through homegarden-based agriculture may also depend on how many species are incorporated into these spaces and the overall design of the yard [126,127,128].

3.2.3. Perception of Disaster Risk Mitigation and Climate Change Adaptation

The study found recognition of homegarden-based urban agriculture’s role in mitigating natural disaster risks, such as floods and landslides. The average Likert score for this perception is 4.00, reflecting a generally positive view of the role of homegardens in disaster risk mitigation and climate adaptation. As shown in Figure 8, homegardens are perceived by respondents to play an important role in mitigating disaster risks, particularly by absorbing rainwater to reduce flood risks and improving air quality through plant-based filtration. These findings emphasize homegardens’ contribution to disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Homegarden-based agriculture also supports environmental sustainability by improving biodiversity, managing water resources, and regulating temperatures. Integrating homegardens into urban planning can enhance food security and contribute to climate change adaptation.

Furthermore, 20.2% of respondents highlighted homegardens’ role in maintaining biodiversity, while others pointed to benefits such as soil stabilization (11.5%) and erosion prevention (10.6%). These results underscore the ecological benefits of homegardens in building resilient communities capable of adapting to climate challenges.

Interview results revealed that respondents have implemented various strategies to cope with climate change impacts, such as water storage systems for drought management and protective measures for plants during heavy rains. These adaptive strategies reflect a proactive approach in protecting homegarden-based agriculture against changing weather patterns. Water storage systems, including rainwater harvesting and reservoirs, are crucial for managing drought and water scarcity, improving water availability, soil retention, and mitigating the impacts of droughts, ensuring continued crop productivity. Additionally, plant protection strategies, such as drought-resistant crop varieties and improved irrigation techniques, help reduce crop loss during extreme weather events, which are becoming more frequent due to climate change. Proactive strategies like crop diversification and climate-smart agricultural practices further enhance the resilience of homegardens, fostering community resilience and improving food security [65,129].

3.3. Cultural Services

This section explores public perceptions of cultural services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung City. Cultural services refer to the non-material benefits people gain from interacting with ecosystems, such as esthetic value, relaxation, community empowerment, and the transmission of local knowledge. These services play a critical role in enhancing urban residents’ quality of life by promoting mental well-being, fostering social cohesion, and preserving cultural heritage. As depicted in Figure 9, cultural services provided by homegardens received the most positive feedback, with respondents emphasizing their value in enhancing esthetic appeal, fostering social interaction, and supporting community cohesion. The following subsections discuss respondents’ perceptions of these services, highlighting their importance within the context of homegarden-based agriculture.

3.3.1. Perception of Esthetic Value

The findings suggest that esthetic value in homegarden-based urban agriculture plays a moderate role in shaping community perceptions. The average Likert score for this perception is 3.31, indicating a generally neutral view on the esthetic value of homegardens. A majority of respondents (58.33%) expressed a neutral opinion on the esthetic value of homegardens, while 29.17% agreed and 6.25% strongly agreed. A small portion (6.25%) disagreed, and 2.08% strongly disagreed, indicating that while esthetic considerations are valued, they do not significantly influence the overall perception of homegardens (Figure 9). Despite not being the dominant factor, visually pleasing green spaces in urban yards still provide environmental benefits. Studies by Kuo (2015) highlight that esthetic spaces, such as decorative plants and small gardens, can improve mental well-being by reducing stress [130]. As shown in Figure 10, respondents identified ornamental plants, flowers, and hanging plants as key features that contribute to the esthetic value of homegardens, enhancing both their visual appeal and relaxation potential. These findings align with the understanding that urban green spaces can serve as places for relaxation and visual enjoyment, ultimately enhancing residents’ quality of life.

3.3.2. Perception of Relaxation and Stress Reduction

Relaxation and stress reduction services were highly valued by respondents, with 52.08% agreeing and 39.58% strongly agreeing that homegarden-based agriculture provides effective spaces for relaxation (Figure 9). The average Likert score for this perception is 4.19, reflecting a strong agreement on the role of homegardens in offering relaxation and stress reduction benefits. These results align with studies by Lin et al. 2023 and Felappi et al. 2020, which emphasize the positive effects of green spaces on mental health, particularly in reducing stress and anxiety [131,132]. Additionally, Berg et al. (2015) highlighted that well-structured outdoor spaces play a significant role in psychological well-being by alleviating mental tension [133].

As illustrated in Figure 11, common relaxation activities in homegardens include sitting and enjoying the peaceful environment, as well as socializing with neighbors, reflecting the mental health benefits of green spaces. Social activities, such as chatting with neighbors and gardening with family, were also common, illustrating that these spaces promote individual relaxation while fostering social interaction. These findings emphasize the dual role of homegarden-based urban agriculture as both a personal retreat and a communal space that strengthens relationships among community members.

Interviews with respondents revealed that gardening or spending time in the yard provides mental clarity and stress relief. One respondent mentioned that observing plants grow and watering them brought a sense of joy and refreshment. This aligns with the idea that interacting with plants is not only a physical activity but also offers psychological benefits, especially in urban environments.

3.3.3. Perception of Biophilia

Biophilia, the emotional and physical connection between humans and nature, was another important cultural service identified in this study. The majority of respondents (52.1%) reported that homegarden-based urban agriculture enhanced their connection to nature (Figure 9). The average Likert score for this perception is 3.54, indicating a generally positive but moderate view on the role of homegardens in fostering biophilia. This supports the concept of biophilia, which suggests that humans have an inherent tendency to connect with the natural world. Naghibi et al. (2024) argue that this connection offers psychological and physical benefits, including improved mood and stress reduction [134].

Respondents’ positive views on biophilia suggest that homegarden-based urban agriculture plays a key role in strengthening emotional and physical connections to nature. As demonstrated by Kuo (2015), urban green spaces promote well-being by fostering these connections and enhancing ecological awareness [130]. Furthermore, biophilic design in urban environments can increase environmental awareness and encourage more sustainable living practices [130].

Figure 12 further highlights the significant impact of homegarden-based urban agriculture on fostering a connection with nature, with 32.7% of respondents feeling more connected to and responsible for the environment after engaging in gardening activities. Additionally, 27.9% reported increased knowledge about plants and ecosystems, while 26.0% were motivated to adopt more environmentally friendly gardening practices. These findings indicate that homegarden-based agriculture not only strengthens the connection between individuals and nature but also serves as an informal learning tool that promotes environmental awareness.

3.3.4. Perception of Social Interaction and Community Cohesion

Social interaction and community cohesion, key cultural services, were also valued by respondents. The average Likert score for this perception is 3.31, reflecting a neutral to moderately positive view on the role of social interaction in homegarden-based urban agriculture. Figure 9 shows that 58.33% of respondents expressed a neutral opinion about the role of social interaction in homegarden-based urban agriculture, with 22.92% agreeing and 6.25% strongly agreeing that it plays an important role. This reflects an acknowledgment that, while social interactions may not be a primary focus, they still contribute to the overall success and sustainability of homegarden-based agriculture in urban settings.

Figure 13 further underscores the impact of homegarden-based urban agriculture on community cohesion. A significant portion of respondents (61–80%) recognized the value of homegarden-based agriculture in fostering social solidarity within the community. This highlights the role of homegarden-based urban agriculture not only as a means of producing food but also as a catalyst for building networks of support and cooperation. The shared experience of gardening, exchanging produce, and working together in the yard strengthens social ties and promotes a sense of shared responsibility within the neighborhood.

The importance of community empowerment through homegarden-based urban agriculture was further highlighted in interviews, where respondents noted that gardening activities helped build stronger relationships and fostered a spirit of mutual support. This aligns with the concept of community empowerment, where collective action in homegarden-based urban agriculture can enhance social networks and improve the resilience of urban communities.

3.3.5. Perception of Community Empowerment and Knowledge Sharing

Community empowerment and the transfer of local knowledge were highly valued by respondents. The average Likert score for this perception is 4.11, reflecting a strong agreement on the importance of community empowerment and knowledge sharing in homegarden-based urban agriculture. A substantial 68.75% agreed, and 20.83% strongly agreed that community empowerment is crucial for homegarden-based urban agriculture (Figure 9), highlighting the importance of active community participation in managing these agricultural spaces. Empowering communities through gardening activities not only enhances individual skills but also strengthens social ties, contributing to the sustainability of these initiatives. Similarly, 58.33% of respondents agreed, and 29.17% strongly agreed that sharing local knowledge is vital for the success of homegarden-based agriculture. The transfer of traditional farming knowledge, such as sustainable practices and resource management, is key to increasing food security and optimizing land use in urban areas. Interviews further revealed that gardening activities foster social cohesion and solidarity, with respondents noting that working together and sharing harvests helps strengthen social bonds and build a sense of belonging. These findings underscore the potential of homegardens as a tool for enhancing community well-being and social capital [26,37,135,136].

3.4. Supporting Services

This section explores the public perception of supporting services provided by homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung City. Supporting services, including knowledge transfer, nutrient cycling, ecosystem health management, and water availability, play a crucial role in maintaining sustainable urban agricultural systems and enhancing the resilience of urban environments. These services contribute to long-term soil health, biodiversity, and overall ecosystem stability, making them an essential component of urban food production. The following subsections discuss how respondents perceive these services and their potential benefits.

Supporting services are fundamental processes that enable other ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling, water management, and soil fertility, to function effectively. As shown in Figure 14, respondents expressed a range of opinions regarding these services, with many acknowledging their importance, while some remained neutral. This suggests that while awareness exists, further engagement and education could help strengthen public understanding of the role supporting services play in homegarden-based urban agriculture.

Barnaud et al. (2018) highlight that effective supporting services, such as soil fertility and pollination, are critical for sustaining homegarden-based urban agriculture [137]. However, as noted in Fida and Purwandari (2022), the perception of supporting services can be enhanced through targeted interventions such as training programs, technology access, and knowledge sharing [138]. The mixed responses to supporting services in this study may indicate a need for improved support structures to help residents understand and optimize these services within their homegarden-based urban agriculture practices.

3.4.1. Perception of Knowledge Transfer Supporting Ecosystems

Knowledge transfer supporting ecosystems was the most positively perceived service, with a majority of respondents agreeing or strongly agreeing on its importance (Figure 14). The average Likert score for this perception is 4.15, reflecting strong support for the role of knowledge transfer in supporting ecosystems. This reflects the broader role of homegarden-based agriculture not only as a space for food production but also as an educational tool. It allows community members to acquire practical knowledge on sustainable farming, which enhances their skills and fosters innovation in resource management [139,140].

As a space for learning, homegarden-based agriculture serves as a laboratory where community members can experiment with agricultural practices, share knowledge, and implement sustainable techniques. Collaboration between farmers, government, and educational institutions can broaden the adoption of environmentally friendly and sustainable farming practices, which are essential for maintaining local food security [139,140]. By raising awareness of sustainability and resource management, urban gardens encourage more efficient and sustainable land management [141,142]. Therefore, the role of knowledge transfer is critical for empowering the community and fostering practices that contribute to sustainable ecosystems [143].

3.4.2. Perception of Nutrient Cycling and Soil Fertility

Regarding nutrient cycling and soil fertility, 37.5% of respondents agreed that these services were important, with an equal number remaining neutral, and 18.75% strongly agreeing (Figure 14). The average Likert score for this perception is 3.67, reflecting a moderate level of agreement on the importance of nutrient cycling and soil fertility. Most respondents recognized the value of nutrient cycling, particularly in enhancing soil fertility through organic materials or sustainable practices. However, the neutral responses suggest variability in understanding soil management, with some respondents possibly having limited access to information or resources on practices like using organic fertilizers. These findings highlight the importance of improving education and access to resources to optimize soil fertility. Research shows that organic fertilizers, such as compost and manure, not only improve soil fertility but also promote microorganisms essential for nutrient release, contributing to long-term soil health and reducing environmental degradation [144,145,146,147].

Figure 15 shows that homegarden farmers in Bandung primarily use organic fertilizers. Compost is used at 36%, manure at 34.2%, liquid fertilizer at 24.3%, and green fertilizer at only 5.4%. The selection of organic fertilizers indicates a trend towards more environmentally friendly farming practices. The use of compost and manure not only improves soil fertility but also supports microorganism activity involved in decomposition and nutrient release for plants [145,148,149]. Previous studies also show that organic fertilizers enhance the soil’s capacity to absorb and retain water, which is crucial in homegarden-based urban agriculture systems with limited land and water resources [144,146,147]. In addition to improving soil fertility, organic fertilizers also contribute to maintaining environmental quality by reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers. Several studies indicate that long-term use of chemical fertilizers can lead to soil degradation and environmental pollution [144,146,147,150]. The decline in soil fertility due to the accumulation of chemical residues can reduce agricultural productivity and increase the risk of groundwater pollution and surrounding ecosystems [110,144]. By using organic fertilizers sustainably, urban farmers in Bandung can maintain more stable soil quality and enhance land productivity support [147,151].

3.4.3. Perception of Ecosystem Health Management

Ecosystem health management, which includes pest and disease control, soil fertility enhancement, and the use of sustainable farming techniques, was met with mixed responses. The average Likert score for this perception is 3.15, indicating a neutral to moderate view on the importance of ecosystem health management in homegarden-based urban agriculture. As shown in Figure 14, 54.17% of respondents expressed a neutral stance, while 25% agreed that ecosystem health management plays an important role in homegarden-based urban agriculture. This variation reflects the differing levels of understanding and application of ecosystem health management practices.

Some urban farmers have adopted sustainable farming techniques that support ecosystem balance, while others may not fully recognize the benefits or may face challenges in implementation [152,153,154]. A key practice in ecosystem health management is the use of organic pest control methods and diversifying crops to reduce pest pressure. These methods maintain ecological balance and promote healthier harvests. Studies have shown that biological control agents, such as natural predators and microorganisms, can effectively control pest populations without harming the soil or other components of the ecosystem [152,153,154]. Respondents showed an awareness of the importance of maintaining ecosystem health but may not consistently apply these practices. The neutral responses suggest that while some urban farmers engage in ecosystem health management, there is a gap in widespread adoption of such practices. Continued education and access to resources will be crucial for expanding the use of sustainable farming techniques across urban gardens.

3.4.4. Perception of Water Availability

Water availability is a crucial factor for sustaining homegarden-based urban agriculture, especially in areas where water resources are limited. The average Likert score for this perception is 3.33, indicating a neutral to moderately positive view on the role of water availability in supporting homegarden-based agriculture. The study found that over 40% of respondents expressed a neutral opinion on the role of homegarden-based agriculture in providing water for farming systems, while 27.08% agreed and 14.58% strongly agreed (Figure 14). This variation in responses highlights differences in access to water sources and the implementation of water conservation technologies.

The data on water sources used for homegarden-based urban agriculture in Bandung reveals that well water is the most common source (48%), followed by PAM/PDAM (29%) and rainwater (22%) (Figure 16). The heavy reliance on well water indicates that urban farmers are dependent on groundwater for irrigation, which can present challenges, particularly in areas where groundwater levels become depleted due to overuse [155,156,157]. On the other hand, the use of rainwater harvesting systems, although lower in percentage, demonstrates an effort to conserve water and reduce reliance on external water sources. Rainwater harvesting can help mitigate pressure on groundwater resources, especially in areas with high rainfall [158,159].

While water availability is acknowledged as a vital aspect of homegarden-based urban agriculture, the results suggest that access to water resources is not uniform across all areas. Some farmers face difficulties in obtaining clean water for irrigation, while others have more stable access. Addressing disparities in water access and promoting water-saving techniques will be essential for supporting the sustainability of homegarden-based urban agriculture in the long term.

4. Conclusions

This study explores the contributions of homegarden-based urban agriculture to sustainability in Bandung, Indonesia, focusing on its impact on food security, biodiversity conservation, microclimate regulation, and social well-being. While homegardens play a supplementary role in food production, they provide valuable ecosystem services, such as enhancing biodiversity, mitigating the Urban Heat Island effect, and fostering social cohesion. Despite these benefits, homegardens’ contribution to overall urban food security remains limited due to challenges like space constraints, insufficient knowledge, and land use competition.

To fully unlock the potential of homegardens, targeted interventions are needed, including improving community education on sustainable agricultural practices, offering technical support, and developing policies that encourage integrating homegardens into urban planning. These actions could significantly improve productivity, resource management, and resilience in urban food systems. Moreover, fostering a stronger connection between urban residents and their environment through homegardens could contribute to long-term urban sustainability and resilience.

This study emphasizes the importance of overcoming existing barriers and integrating homegardens more effectively into urban environments. It calls for collaboration between policymakers, urban planners, and community stakeholders to enhance the viability and impact of homegardens in promoting sustainable cities. Ultimately, such efforts will contribute to broader sustainability goals, such as those outlined in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).