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Article

Design and Evaluation of a Compact IoT-Enabled Microfarm for Decentralized Urban Agriculture Applied to the Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom)

by
Marlon O. A. Foffano
1,2,3,4,*,
Ricardo C. Michel
5,
Denise M. G. Freire
3,4,6 and
Elisa D. C. Cavalcanti
3,4,6,*
1
Graduate Program in Chemistry (PGQu), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
2
ATIPCOS—Applied Technologies for Innovative Mushroom Cultivation and Sustainable Bioprocesses, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
3
Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology (LaBiM), Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
4
Hub of Open Innovation in Bioproducts (HOIB), National Institute of Science and Technology (INCT), Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
5
Analytical Technology Integration Laboratory (LabITAn), Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
6
Graduate Program in Biochemistry (PPGBq), Institute of Chemistry (IQ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(22), 10332; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210332
Submission received: 19 September 2025 / Revised: 5 November 2025 / Accepted: 13 November 2025 / Published: 18 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization of Renewable Resources for the Production of Biobased Products Through the Implementation of Circular Bioeconomy Principles: Second Edition)
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Abstract

We developed and evaluated a compact mushroom fruiting chamber equipped with Internet of Things technologies, designed to support decentralized urban agriculture. The system was constructed from a retrofitted glass-door refrigerator and integrated with Internet-connected sensors and a custom microcontroller to monitor and regulate temperature and humidity continuously. The control unit managed key variables, including temperature and relative humidity, during the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms. Experimental trials assessed the effectiveness of the IoT-based system in maintaining optimal growth conditions by dynamically adjusting parameters tailored to the fungus’s specific physiological requirements during fruiting. The prototype successfully maintained a stable cultivation environment, achieving an average temperature of 25.0 °C (±0.7 °C) and relative humidity of 90% (±8%). Under optimized conditions (18 °C, with the cultivation block plastic cover preserved), mushroom yield reached 230 ± 2 g per block, corresponding to a biological efficiency of 44% and an estimated productivity of up to 612.04 kg m−2 per year. Furthermore, the system achieved a water footprint of only 4.39 L kg−1 of fresh mushrooms, significantly lower than that typically reported for conventional cultivation methods. These results demonstrate the feasibility of an efficient, compact, and water-saving controlled environment for mushroom cultivation, enabled by IoT-based technologies and organic residue substrates. Remote monitoring and control capabilities support urban food security, reduce transport-related emissions, optimize water use, and promote sustainable practices within a circular economy framework. The system’s adaptability suggests potential scalability to other crops and urban agricultural contexts.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Urban agriculture is increasingly recognized as a strategic approach to enhancing food security and promoting sustainability in metropolitan areas. By enabling food production within cities, it mitigates critical challenges, including the carbon footprint of long-distance transportation and the substantial food losses inherent to extended supply chains, while promoting the recycling of urban and agro-industrial waste and ensuring stable, direct access to fresh, nutritious foods [1,2,3,4,5]. Among the viable alternatives within this context, mushroom cultivation stands out as an efficient and sustainable solution with the potential to significantly contribute to food and nutritional security [6].
Mushrooms are valued for their high nutritional profile—rich in protein, vitamins, and essential minerals—and for their medicinal properties [7,8,9]. A notable advantage of fungal cultivation is its compatibility with substrates derived from organic waste, such as straw, sawdust, and spent coffee grounds, making it particularly suitable within the circular economy [10]. This practice facilitates the valorization of waste, reducing landfill-bound material and mitigating environmental and social impacts caused by improper disposal.
Within the realm of Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA), technological innovations play a pivotal role by enabling precise control over key environmental variables, including temperature, humidity, light, and CO2 concentration. Such control is critical for maximizing productivity, minimizing pest and disease incidence, and optimizing resource use, particularly in urban areas characterized by limited space and suboptimal environmental conditions [11]. The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) into CEA further enhances operational efficiency by allowing remote and continuous monitoring of environmental parameters. This facilitates dynamic adjustments that optimize yield and quality, supports traceability across the supply chain, and improves resource use through integrated management systems [12,13,14].
Many studies have shown the effectiveness of IoT-based systems in mushroom cultivation, highlighting improvements in environmental control, crop quality, and overall productivity [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. For instance, He et al. developed a containerized cultivation system equipped with IoT technologies to remotely monitor and regulate temperature, humidity, and CO2 levels, maintaining optimal, stable conditions throughout the production cycle [15]. Likewise, Thong-un and Wongsaroj reported that oyster mushrooms cultivated under IoT-regulated conditions showed significantly improved growth compared to those grown using traditional methods [13]. Additional studies have developed remote monitoring platforms that can be operated on smartphones or computers, enhancing production efficiency and reducing operational risks and costs [16,17].
Despite this progress, most systems remain semi-controlled, focusing primarily on humidity regulation through basic actuation mechanisms such as water pumps or ultrasonic humidifiers [13,18,19,20,21,23,24]. As summarized in Table 1, only a limited number of studies report fully controlled systems capable of simultaneously managing multiple environmental parameters—namely, temperature, humidity, and air quality—through integrated IoT architectures. These comprehensive systems are typically larger in volume and more complex in design, employing air conditioning units, heating elements, and automated ventilation [15,16,22,25]. Volumetric comparison shows that reported cultivation chambers range from 0.04 m3 to approximately 81 m3, reflecting a transition from compact laboratory prototypes to large semi-controlled pilot installations. Most semi-controlled systems operate at scales above 20 m3 and are designed primarily for monitoring [18,19,23,24].
In many tropical and subtropical regions, high ambient temperatures pose a significant challenge to the expansion of mushroom cultivation, as most edible and medicinal species require cooler conditions for optimal fruiting [26]. This climatic limitation restricts year-round production and reduces yield consistency in uncontrolled environments. However, these same regions are often major agricultural producers and generate substantial volumes of lignocellulosic agro-industrial residues. For example, Brazil, one of the world’s leading agrarian economies, produces large quantities of by-products such as sawdust and cereal straw, which can be repurposed as low-cost, sustainable substrates for mushroom cultivation. Annually, Brazil generates approximately 350 million tons of lignocellulosic residues, underscoring its vast potential for biomass-based applications [27]. Leveraging these residues aligns with circular economy principles and creates opportunities for environmentally and economically sustainable production. In this context, IoT-enabled controlled-environment systems offer a robust strategy to overcome climatic constraints and substrate limitations, enabling efficient, decentralized mushroom production tailored to local conditions.
Therefore, this study presents the design, implementation, and evaluation of a compact IoT-based fruiting chamber adapted from a commercial glass-door refrigerator. The system enables automated temperature and humidity control, ensuring efficient mushroom cultivation in urban environments. Its performance was experimentally validated to assess environmental stability, yield efficiency, and water use, establishing a proof of concept for decentralized, technology-assisted mushroom production.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Fruiting Chamber Construction

A fruiting chamber was developed as a proof of concept for small-scale controlled mushroom cultivation, enabling precise regulation of temperature and humidity. The system was constructed using a glass-door commercial refrigerator with LED lighting retrofitted. Key modifications included the integration of a temperature and humidity controller, connected to the refrigerator’s cooling system, and an external ultrasonic humidifier. Some components were employed to ensure environmental control within the chamber. The ultrasonic humidifier maintains adequate humidity levels, while a 20 mm silicone hose channels the mist into the internal space. A 25 mm flange secures the hose to the system, ensuring a tight and functional connection. The control and monitoring system is based on an IoT architecture. It includes an ESP32 microcontroller with integrated Wi-Fi, a DHT22 temperature and humidity sensor, a 5V power supply, and two relay modules. The detailed design of this system is provided in Section 2.2. Together, these elements form an integrated platform for the automated management of internal environmental conditions, supporting the optimal development of mushroom fruiting bodies. Figure 1 presents a schematic diagram of the fruiting chamber and its IoT-based monitoring and control system.
The ESP32 microcontroller functions as the central processing unit, enabling real-time environmental monitoring and remote control via wireless communication. Relay modules manage high-power components, including the cooling unit (condenser and evaporator) and the humidification system. The environmental sensor continuously measures temperature and relative humidity (RH) and transmits the data to the controller. Both the ventilation and LED lighting systems are directly connected to the primary power source and operate continuously to maintain stable conditions.

2.2. IoT-Based Monitoring and Control System

The architecture of the IoT system developed for the remote monitoring and control of environmental parameters within the fruiting chamber, specifically temperature and RH, is organized into four functional layers: (i) User Interface and Data Visualization, (ii) Communication, (iii) Hardware and Controller, and (iv) Controlled Cultivation Environment. The structure of these layers is illustrated in Figure 2.
At the core of the system is the ESP32 microcontroller, a widely adopted platform in IoT applications. It is integrated with a DHT22 temperature and humidity sensor, a digital component capable of operating across a full humidity range (0–100%) and a temperature range from −40 to 80 °C. The DHT22 is known for its high precision, with an accuracy of ±0.5 °C for temperature and ±2% for RH measurements [28,29]. The experiments were conducted using the factory calibration provided by the manufacturer, without additional post-calibration adjustments. The ESP32 processes data from the DHT22 sensor and, based on predefined logic, activates or deactivates environmental control devices, such as the chamber’s cooling system and ultrasonic humidifier. These devices are operated via relay modules integrated into the control circuit. The equipment, their respective technical specifications, and functions are summarized in Table 2. The control logic was implemented using a straightforward Boolean algorithm, as outlined in Algorithm 1.
Algorithm 1. Basic control logic for temperature and humidity.
1.  IF DHT data is valid THEN
2. IF temperature > setpointTemp + hysteresisTemp THEN
3.   TURN ON temperature relay
4. ELSE IF temperature ≤ setpointTemp THEN
5.   TURN OFF temperature relay
6. END IF
7.  ELSE
8. TURN OFF temperature relay
9.  END IF
10. IF DHT data is valid THEN
11.   IF humidity < setpointHumidity THEN
12.  TURN ON humidity relay
13.   ELSE
14.  TURN OFF humidity relay
15. END IF
16. ELSE
17. TURN OFF humidity relay
18. END IF
The system connects to the Internet via Wi-Fi, enabling continuous data exchange with the Arduino IoT Cloud. This platform stores environmental data from the cultivation chamber and synchronizes it with user-defined setpoints for temperature and humidity. The data can be accessed and analyzed in real time or retrospectively through a web or mobile interface. Data transmission was configured to occur at 30-s intervals, ensuring a high-resolution temporal record of environmental dynamics. The recorded data were analyzed to assess system performance and refine control parameters as needed. The control logic operates autonomously and does not depend on a continuous Internet connection. The system executes its control routines locally, as described in Algorithm 1, and relies on the constant operation of its sensor, DHT. In the event of an Internet disconnection, the controller automatically attempts to reestablish the Wi-Fi connection while maintaining full local functionality via a control loop.

2.3. Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom)

The functionality of the developed fruiting chamber was evaluated by cultivating Pleurotus ostreatus, a commercially significant mushroom species widely consumed for its nutritional and economic value. Initial propagation of the fungal strain was conducted on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium at 25 °C for 14 days until complete mycelial colonization of the Petri plates. For inoculum production, 1 kg of sorghum grains was boiled in 1.5 L of water for 30 min until the grains were swollen and reached a moisture content of approximately 65%. The hydrated grains were then drained, supplemented with 2% (w/w) calcium carbonate, and allowed to cool to room temperature. Subsequently, 400 g portions of the prepared grains were packaged in polypropylene bags and sterilized in an autoclave at 1 atm for 15 min. Each bag was inoculated with two mycelial discs (9 mm in diameter each) of P. ostreatus. The inoculated bags were incubated in the dark at 25 °C until complete colonization of the grains, which occurred within approximately 15 days. The cultivation substrate was formulated from Pinus spp. sawdust and supplemented with 10% (w/w) corn bran. Moisture content was adjusted to 65% by adding water. Cultivation blocks were prepared by packing 1.5 kg of moist substrate into 30 × 60 cm polypropylene bags, followed by sterilization at 1 atm for 1 hour. Each block was inoculated with 10% (w/w) of the previously prepared grain-based inoculum and sealed with a cotton plug to allow gas exchange. The inoculated cultivation blocks were then incubated in a dark chamber at 25 °C until complete colonization, which required approximately 15 days. Fully colonized blocks were subsequently transferred to the IoT-controlled fruiting chamber and subjected to fruiting induction under controlled conditions. Trials were conducted at different temperatures while maintaining a constant RH of 90% to assess the responsiveness of P. ostreatus fruiting performance to thermal variation.

2.4. Cultivation Monitoring and Analytical Procedures

Mushrooms were harvested at the stage when the pileus was fully expanded, with its margins slightly enrolled [30]. Water consumption was determined by monitoring the water reservoir over a 47-day cultivation period. The biological efficiency (BE) of each cultivation was calculated according to the standard Equation (1).
BE % = F r e s h   w e i g h t   o f   h a r v e s t e d   m u s h r o o m s   ( g ) D r y   w e i g h t   o f   s u b s t r a t e   ( g ) × 100
All cultivation experiments and analyses were conducted in triplicate within the same system. The experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), and significant differences among means were determined using Tukey’s test (p < 0.05).

3. Results

3.1. Environmental Performance

An operational prototype of the fruiting chamber was developed, as shown in Figure 3, using a glass-door refrigerator, an external ultrasonic humidifier, and an environmental control and monitoring system based on IoT architecture.
Data collected from the IoT system during cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus confirmed that the chamber maintained a stable internal environment, with a target temperature of 25 °C and a target RH of 90%. Figure 4 presents five distinct cooling cycles, illustrating the natural fluctuations in temperature and humidity throughout the cultivation period. These cycles result from the chamber’s responsive cooling system, which is triggered when the temperature exceeds a programmed threshold, with a set differential of 2 °C.
During cooling cycles, a noticeable drop in RH was observed due to condensation on the internal evaporator coil. However, the humidification system responded promptly, restoring moisture to the desired level. These thermal and humidity cycles occurred consistently throughout the fruiting phase.
Figure 5a,b display the statistical analysis of temperature data collected over 24 h. The histogram (Figure 5a) shows a symmetrical distribution with low skewness, indicating a high degree of uniformity in temperature control. The box plot (Figure 5b) summarizes statistical parameters, including the minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and maximum. The mean temperature was 25.0 °C, with a standard deviation of 0.7 °C, confirming a narrow range of 24.3 °C to 25.7 °C.
Figure 5c,d show the humidity distribution over the same period. The histogram (Figure 5c) and box plot (Figure 5d) indicate a mean RH of 90% with a standard deviation of 8%. The data exhibits negative skewness, with most humidity values clustering above the mean.
Continuous monitoring was extended over a 7-day fruiting period, and results demonstrated sustained stability in both temperature and humidity regulation. Figure 6 summarizes this long-term performance through various graphical analyses. Daily variation (Figure 6a) shows consistent trends with minor fluctuations. The heatmap (Figure 6b) reveals a high density of humidity values in the 90-100% range, illustrated by red, yellow, and green tones. Lower-density regions (blue/violet) correspond to brief humidity dips during cooling events.

3.2. Cultivation Performance

To assess the performance of the IoT-enabled fruiting chamber and its environmental monitoring system, fruiting trials were conducted using the commercially relevant mushroom species Pleurotus ostreatus. Fruiting began after the fungal mycelium fully colonized the substrate. The blocks fully colonized by mushroom mycelium were incubated in the constructed fruiting chamber under two controlled temperature conditions, 25 ± 1 °C and 18 ± 1 °C, with RH maintained at 90%. Constant illumination and ventilation were provided through LED strips and an integrated airflow system.
A key advantage of the chamber design, its transparent glass door, enabled continuous visual inspection throughout the fruiting process without disrupting internal conditions. Primordia formation was observed on day four, indicating the initiation of the fruiting stage. By day six, the primordia had developed into mature fruiting bodies, characterized by elongated stipes and well-expanded caps, ready for harvest. The progression of mushroom development is shown in Figure 7.
Under the initial conditions (25 °C, 90% RH, without polypropylene bag), the fruiting blocks yielded 133 ± 6 g of fresh mushrooms, accompanied by a substantial weight loss of 898 g from the substrate (Figure 8a,b).
Based on these findings, a second cultivation trial was conducted under improved conditions: temperature was lowered to 18 ± 1 °C, and the plastic covering was largely preserved around the blocks. This adjustment significantly increased mushroom yield to 230 ± 2 g, a 1.7-fold increase compared to the initial trial. In this scenario, 51% of the substrate weight loss was attributable to fruit body formation.
The fruiting chamber can accommodate up to 10 (ten) 3 kg cultivation blocks per production cycle, yielding a theoretical output of 3.80 kg of fresh mushrooms per harvest (7 days). Given its footprint of approximately 0.32 m2 and an overall equipment volume of 0.614 m3 (52.5 × 190.3 × 61.5 cm), the system achieves a production density of 11.77 kg m−2 per week, scaling to 47.0 kg m−2 per month and an annual yield of approximately 612.04 kg m−2. When considering the total space occupied in the production environment, the volumetric productivity reaches approximately 6.19 kg m−3 per week, or 321.9 kg m−3 annually.
Water consumption was also evaluated over a 47-day (seven-week) fruiting period at 18 °C and 90% RH. During this time, the chamber maintained an average of five cultivation blocks and consumed only 22 mL of water per day. Each block required 948 mL of water during substrate preparation and produced an average of 230 g of fresh mushrooms over a two-week cycle. Fruiting alone accounted for 61.6 mL of water per block, resulting in a total of 1009.6 mL of water used per block throughout the whole cycle. Based on these data, the system’s water footprint was calculated as 4.39 L of water per kilogram of mushrooms produced. When normalized to the internal chamber volume of 326 L, the water consumption corresponded to 0.067 mL L−1 day−1, or 3.15 mL L−1 over the entire 47-day cycle.

4. Discussion

This prototype was designed to validate the concept of automated environmental regulation using the custom-built IoT controller. The custom-built controller was implemented to override the default operating parameters of a commercial refrigerator by interfacing directly with its motor, effectively bypassing the factory-installed internal control system. This modification was essential to repurpose the appliance into a functional fruiting chamber for mushroom cultivation in regions with high ambient temperatures. The chamber’s core function is to consistently cool the cultivation space to temperatures below those of the external environment, an especially critical feature in subtropical and tropical climates.
The system was deployed in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where summer minimum temperatures typically range from 23 to 24.5 °C and winter minimums from 17.0 to 18.5 °C [31]. Maximum summer temperatures often exceed 40 °C, according to the Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET). These climatic extremes underscore the importance of implementing controlled-environment systems for mushroom cultivation in warm climates.
The optimal fruiting temperatures for the most cultivated edible and medicinal mushroom species worldwide typically range between 7 °C and 30 °C, depending on the species. For instance, Flammulina velutipes requires low temperatures (7–15 °C), while Pleurotus ostreatus, Lentinula edodes, Hericium erinaceus, Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus sajor-caju, Ganoderma lucidum and Agaricus bisporus fruit best in intermediate conditions (13–26 °C). More thermotolerant species, such as Pleurotus djamor, can fruit at temperatures up to 30 °C. These values are consolidated from various studies in the literature [32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. As illustrated, the optimal fruiting temperatures for most mushroom species are significantly lower than those commonly observed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.
The controller’s implementation enabled year-round temperature regulation, ensuring stable and ideal conditions for fungal development regardless of external climatic fluctuations. In addition to temperature, both ventilation and humidity are critical to the performance of a cultivation chamber, as they directly impact fruiting success and yield [50]. Inadequate air circulation, poor humidity control, and CO2 accumulation can lead to microclimatic inconsistencies that suppress productivity.
To mitigate these risks, the chamber was equipped with a humidification system integrated with the refrigerator’s airflow pathway. A fan was strategically placed near the evaporator region, and a silicone hose was connected to the external humidifier through a lateral inlet fitted with a 25 mm flange (as shown previously in Figure 2). This port was specifically positioned at the height of the refrigerator’s internal ventilation system to ensure direct injection of moist air into the airflow stream. Leveraging the refrigerator’s existing ventilation infrastructure, known for its wide distribution and internal circulation capacity, enabled rapid homogenization of both temperature and humidity. This design facilitated a continuous and uniform supply of humidified air, promoting gas exchange and preventing microclimatic variation inside the chamber. As a result, the chamber maintained an ideal and consistent internal environment, enhancing fungal growth, minimizing manual intervention, and optimizing resource use within a compact footprint, demonstrating the feasibility of adapting consumer-grade appliances for decentralized, small-scale urban mushroom production, as further evidenced.
The operational parameters programmed into the controller included a fixed control differential (hysteresis) of 2 °C, establishing a regulated temperature range around the target setpoint to prevent unnecessary cycling of the refrigeration system. This short-duration thermal cycle was specifically designed to allow dispersed water droplets to be properly absorbed into the circulating air, ensuring homogeneous humidity distribution without exceeding the upper threshold. These settings were tested for performance, and iterative preliminary adjustments led to the conclusion that these configurations provided a good environmental stability for mushroom cultivation.
The characteristic thermal oscillation shown in Figure 4 provides valuable insight into the chamber’s thermal and humidity dynamics, which are critical for optimized mushroom development. Regarding Figure 5, the noticeable drop in RH due to condensation was an expected phenomenon; in fact, similar environmental micro-fluctuations are commonly reported challenges in related controlled systems [16,22,25,51]. The negative skewness observed in humidity data reflects these drops, which were efficiently counteracted by the humidifier, restoring moisture levels to optimal conditions. These results validate the effectiveness of the cooling and ventilation systems in maintaining the target temperature range.
Maintaining this fine-tuned humidity balance is essential, as it prevents substrate drying and sustains a microclimate conducive to mushroom fructification, as extensively reported in the literature [50,52,53]. The automatic climate control mechanism minimized the need for manual intervention while maximizing operational efficiency, ensuring an optimal and stable cultivation environment. The overall data (Figure 6) confirm the system’s capacity to maintain critical environmental parameters within optimal ranges, ensuring uniform growth conditions throughout the cultivation cycle. The integration of IoT-based automation and data logging allows for high-precision environmental control, with potential benefits for reproducibility, product quality, and operational efficiency in mushroom cultivation systems, as demonstrated and suggested by previous studies [20,25,54].
The results from the first cultivation trial suggest that the pronounced moisture loss negatively affected yield, indicating excessive dehydration. The absence of plastic covering is likely responsible for this outcome, as it may have accelerated water evaporation and compromised moisture retention; however, the higher temperature may also have contributed to the result, since elevated thermal conditions accelerate both metabolic activity and evaporative water loss [55]. The 1.7-fold increase in yield in the second trial, achieved by lowering the temperature to 18 °C and preserving the plastic, highlights this. In this improved scenario, the fact that 51% of the substrate weight loss was attributable to fruit body formation indicates an efficient biomass conversion.
The findings emphasize the critical need for precise environmental regulation in Pleurotus ostreatus cultivation, especially given that the species’ optimal growth range falls below the average ambient temperatures found in much of Brazil, which frequently exceed 25 °C. Given the sensitivity of many mushroom species to elevated temperatures, successful year-round cultivation in warm and tropical regions requires the implementation of climate-controlled systems, such as CEA and IoT technologies.
Here, our study contributes beyond related research that mainly focuses on the technical validation of sensors and demonstrating that environmental control is achieved, but does not quantify the resulting biological impact [22,56,57]. Other studies seek to validate IoT-controlled environments by demonstrating that controlled environments produce more mushrooms than uncontrolled ones [13,20,25]. Our work moves beyond these initial validation steps and simple “controlled vs. uncontrolled” comparisons. We not only validate the high-precision environmental control (Section 3.1) but also directly correlate it with essential quantitative production metrics, including yield (g/block), production density (kg m−2 year−1), water footprint (L kg−1) and volumetric water consumption rate (mL L−1 day−1) (Section 3.2).
The chamber, aligned with previous studies, demonstrated high efficiency in maintaining stable thermal and humidity conditions, resulting in an ideal microclimate for fruiting. The ability to precisely control these two critical variables validates the success of the implemented environmental control technologies. The observed high productivity reinforces the importance of automated, connected systems in CEA for achieving consistent, high-quality yields.
It should be noted that the productivity estimates do not account for the additional non-productive area required for operational access, such as door opening. But these preliminary results highlight the high productivity of the developed equipment, enabling the cultivation of food with high nutritional value. For instance, Orsini et al. reported that, under optimized conditions, urban crops of conventional fruit and vegetable species cultivated with advanced technologies can reach up to 50 kg m−2 year−1 [5]. This value is lower than the yield observed for Pleurotus ostreatus cultivated in the fruiting chamber developed in the present study.
The calculated water footprint of 4.39 L kg−1 represents an interesting reduction compared to conventional cultivation methods, which typically range from 15 to 18 L kg−1 [58]. These results highlight the chamber’s high water-use efficiency and its potential to support sustainable mushroom production in resource-limited urban environments.
It is worth noting that this study did not evaluate the morphological or nutritional quality of the mushrooms produced in this device. Future investigations should address these aspects and determine the potential market value of the products cultivated in this microfarm. It is important to note that energy consumption was not monitored in this study, which represents a limitation. Although theoretical estimates based on the chamber’s rated power provide an approximate indication of energy demand (0.32 kWh h−1 at 8 °C), future work should include direct energy measurements to better assess the system’s efficiency and operational costs.
IoT integration supports a new idealized decentralized urban mushroom cultivation, making it feasible to implement multiple cultivation units throughout a city. These microfarms can be distributed across diverse urban environments, including bakeries, grocery stores, restaurants, schools, residences, and other small businesses, creating a scalable and localized food production network. The chamber’s compact design enables deployment in non-traditional cultivation settings, supporting local production of fresh mushrooms near their point of consumption.
This approach reinforces the principles of urban agriculture described by Steenkamp et al. by embedding food production within the urban centers and enhancing the resilience of local supply chains [59]. This distributed model could enhance urban food system resilience by reducing dependency on centralized logistics chains and mitigating vulnerabilities associated with long-distance transportation. In the context of increasing environmental disruptions driven by climate change, a decentralized production system would likely experience less disruption and sustain partial food supply continuity. In contrast, conventional large-scale monoculture-based systems are increasingly susceptible to environmental and climate-related risks, posing a long-term threat to food security in urban centers [60,61,62].
The compact design of the fruiting chamber enables the cultivation of a wide variety of edible and medicinal mushroom species within spatially constrained urban environments. Its small footprint (0.32 m2) is particularly advantageous in cities, where space is limited and costly. The compact and modular design of these microfarms allows multiple units to be co-located, thereby enhancing the scalability of production in space-constrained environments. This feature is critical for urban agriculture, as it enables producers and consumers alike to cultivate diverse mushroom varieties under customized environmental conditions in proximity. Such spatial flexibility optimizes the use of available urban space and facilitates crop diversification, which is essential to meet the heterogeneous demands of local markets. Furthermore, the ability to independently control individual chambers enables simultaneous cultivation of different mushroom species with varying environmental requirements, thereby increasing the resilience and profitability of urban food systems.
The proposed mushroom cultivation farm framework is aligned with circular economy principles, in which the reuse of organic residues plays a central role [10,63]. Figure 9 presents a conceptual model for integrating mushroom production into a circular economy framework using the compact fruiting chamber developed in this study.
In the proposed system, mushroom cultivation begins with the preparation of growth blocks composed primarily of agro-industrial residues, such as sawdust and cereal straw, which are predominantly lignocellulosic. These materials, supplemented with grains, are inoculated with selected fungal strains and incubated under controlled conditions until complete colonization. The incubation phase is ideally conducted in peri-urban or interface zones, strategically located between urban and rural areas. This placement strategy aims to enhance logistical efficiency by utilizing agricultural waste from rural regions while ensuring proximity to urban centers for the timely delivery and supply of cultivation materials. During incubation, strict temperature control is critical to ensure optimal vegetative mycelial growth, tailored to each fungal species’ biological requirements. Once colonization is complete, the blocks are transferred to urban centers for the fruiting phase. Fruiting and the post-harvest distribution phase represent the most delicate stage of mushroom cultivation, as both yield and quality are highly sensitive to variations in temperature and RH [64,65]. The developed IoT-based chamber supports remote monitoring and precise environmental regulation, allowing mushrooms to be fruited in urban locations such as retail outlets, restaurants, or residences. This configuration enables on-demand harvesting, ensuring that mushrooms are picked at peak freshness, immediately before sale or consumption, directly at the distribution point. This localized and circular model shortens supply chains, reduces spoilage, and could improve urban food resilience, enhance sustainability, and open new markets for high-quality, locally produced mushrooms.
Waste management is a cornerstone of the circular economy model. In mushroom cultivation, the residual biomass, known as SMS, represents a valuable by-product that can be repurposed for various applications. SMS may be converted into organic fertilizers suitable for both small-scale urban gardens and large-scale rural agricultural operations [66,67,68]. Furthermore, from a biotechnological standpoint, SMS has the potential to produce high-value bioproducts and bioactive compounds, such as antioxidants, ergosterol, and industrial enzymes [69,70,71]. This waste valorization strategy exemplifies the bioeconomy approach, integrating protein-rich food production with the generation of functional bioactives, leveraging resource reuse in urban settings, and supported by IoT-enabled technologies.
As emphasized by Nowysz et al., diversification and decentralization are key elements of food security [72]. These principles highlight the critical importance of distributed production systems that support the cultivation of a diverse range of crops. In this context, the small-scale IoT-based fruiting chamber developed in this study addresses these priorities by fostering local autonomy in food production. The chamber empowers both producers and consumers to engage in localized, environmentally controlled cultivation of mushrooms, enhancing sustainability, nutritional diversity, and economic viability. The integration of controlled-environment IoT technologies into compact cultivation systems offers a scalable and adaptable solution to contemporary agricultural challenges, particularly in densely populated urban areas where space, resources, and logistical infrastructure may be limited. By enabling controlled cultivation across a range of climatic conditions in confined urban spaces, this technological innovation aligns with global efforts to transition to resilient, sustainable, and decentralized food systems.

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the feasibility and relevance of integrating IoT technologies into small-scale, urban mushroom cultivation. Converting a compact glass-door refrigerator into a fully automated fruiting chamber offers a practical approach to maintaining optimal environmental conditions in hot urban settings and achieving stable yields of Pleurotus ostreatus.
Beyond its technical validation, the system contributes conceptually to the decentralization of food production and the advancement of circular urban agriculture. The use of lignocellulosic agro-industrial residues as substrates and the potential valorization of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) highlight the environmental and economic sustainability of this model. Its modular design and remote operation capabilities suggest potential for distributed community-level production networks that strengthen urban food resilience.
Nevertheless, some limitations should be acknowledged. The study did not assess long-term equipment durability, energy consumption, or real production costs, which may affect large-scale feasibility and economic competitiveness. Future work should address these aspects, evaluate the system’s adaptability to other mushroom species and crops, and integrate advanced sensing or predictive control algorithms to improve energy and resource efficiency.
Overall, this research designs scalable, IoT-enabled cultivation systems that align technological innovation with sustainable urban food systems, helping cities mitigate the combined challenges of climate change, food security, and resource management.

6. Patents

This study resulted in two intellectual property registrations in Brazil, an invention patent titled “Câmara de frutificação de cogumelos com visibilidade e condições ambientais controladas” (BR10202401745, filed on 26 August 2024) and a computer program titled “System for controlling the environmental parameters of a mushroom fruiting chamber” (512024002922-2, registered on 12 August 2024), both deposited at the Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial (INPI).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.O.A.F., E.D.C.C. and D.M.G.F.; methodology, M.O.A.F.; software, M.O.A.F.; validation, M.O.A.F., D.M.G.F., R.C.M. and E.D.C.C.; formal analysis, M.O.A.F.; investigation, M.O.A.F. and R.C.M.; resources, D.M.G.F.; data curation, M.O.A.F. and R.C.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.O.A.F.; writing—review and editing, M.O.A.F., R.C.M., E.D.C.C. and D.M.G.F.; visualization, M.O.A.F.; supervision, E.D.C.C. and D.M.G.F.; project administration, E.D.C.C. and D.M.G.F.; funding acquisition, D.M.G.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors declare that this study received funding from the National Institute of Science and Technology (INCT)—Hub of Open Innovation in Bioproducts (HOIB), process number 406629/2022-6, and from special projects of the Science Park of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), process number IQ-26953. The funders were not involved in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation of the results, writing of the manuscript, or the decision to submit the article for publication.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

Marlon O. A. Foffano, Denise M. G. Freire, and Elisa D. C. Cavalcanti are inventors of a patent (BR10202401745) and a registered computer program (512024002922-2), both filed with the Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial (INPI), Brazil. Marlon O. A. Foffano is also an investor and shareholder of ATIPCOS Inova Simples (i.s.). Ricardo C. Michel declares no conflicts of interest. These intellectual property interests and the author’s commercial affiliation do not influence the objectivity or integrity of the research findings. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any additional commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
IoTInternet of Things
CEAControlled Environment Agriculture
PDAPotato Dextrose Agar
RHRelative Humidity
BEBiological Efficiency
SMSSpent Mushroom Substrate
INMETInstituto Nacional de Meteorologia (Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology)

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the fruiting chamber and its IoT-based control and monitoring system. The Wi-Fi-enabled ESP32 microcontroller serves as the central processing unit, enabling remote control and monitoring. Relay modules are used to switch high-power loads as needed, such as the refrigeration and humidification systems. A temperature and humidity sensor continuously monitors the environmental conditions and communicates with the controller. The ventilation and lighting systems are directly connected to the power supply and operate continuously.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the fruiting chamber and its IoT-based control and monitoring system. The Wi-Fi-enabled ESP32 microcontroller serves as the central processing unit, enabling remote control and monitoring. Relay modules are used to switch high-power loads as needed, such as the refrigeration and humidification systems. A temperature and humidity sensor continuously monitors the environmental conditions and communicates with the controller. The ventilation and lighting systems are directly connected to the power supply and operate continuously.
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Figure 2. Schematic representation of the IoT-based environmental control system, showing the interaction layers: user interface and data visualization, communication, hardware components, and the controlled cultivation environment for mushrooms.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the IoT-based environmental control system, showing the interaction layers: user interface and data visualization, communication, hardware components, and the controlled cultivation environment for mushrooms.
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Figure 3. An IoT-enabled mushroom fruiting chamber assembled using a glass-door refrigerator, an ultrasonic humidifier, and an integrated environmental control and monitoring system. The main components are: (1) Controller; (2) Glass door; (3) Water reuse system; (4) LED strip; (5) Evaporator; (6) Sensor; (7) Fan; (8) Valves; (9) Humidification system; (10) Condenser.
Figure 3. An IoT-enabled mushroom fruiting chamber assembled using a glass-door refrigerator, an ultrasonic humidifier, and an integrated environmental control and monitoring system. The main components are: (1) Controller; (2) Glass door; (3) Water reuse system; (4) LED strip; (5) Evaporator; (6) Sensor; (7) Fan; (8) Valves; (9) Humidification system; (10) Condenser.
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Figure 4. Real-time monitoring of temperature and humidity during mushroom fruiting at 25 °C and 90% RH.
Figure 4. Real-time monitoring of temperature and humidity during mushroom fruiting at 25 °C and 90% RH.
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Figure 5. Statistical analysis of 24-hour temperature and humidity data in the fruiting chamber. (a) Temperature histogram; (b) Temperature box plot; (c) Humidity histogram; and (d) Humidity box plot.
Figure 5. Statistical analysis of 24-hour temperature and humidity data in the fruiting chamber. (a) Temperature histogram; (b) Temperature box plot; (c) Humidity histogram; and (d) Humidity box plot.
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Figure 6. Environmental analysis during a 7-day fruiting period: (a) Daily variation in humidity (blue) and temperature (red), with error bars; (b) Humidity heatmap showing data point density; (c) Temperature box plot with quartiles and outliers; (d) Humidity box plot with corresponding statistical elements; (e) Temperature frequency histogram with curve fitting; and (f) Humidity frequency histogram with trend curve.
Figure 6. Environmental analysis during a 7-day fruiting period: (a) Daily variation in humidity (blue) and temperature (red), with error bars; (b) Humidity heatmap showing data point density; (c) Temperature box plot with quartiles and outliers; (d) Humidity box plot with corresponding statistical elements; (e) Temperature frequency histogram with curve fitting; and (f) Humidity frequency histogram with trend curve.
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Figure 7. Cultivation blocks of P. ostreatus at different stages of development inside the IoT-controlled fruiting chamber.
Figure 7. Cultivation blocks of P. ostreatus at different stages of development inside the IoT-controlled fruiting chamber.
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Figure 8. Fruiting performance of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivation blocks at 18 °C and 25 °C, with or without polypropylene bags. (a) Weight loss of cultivation blocks across successive harvests and (b) Mushroom yield under the two cultivation conditions (temperature × presence/absence of polypropylene bags). Different letters above the bars indicate statistically significant differences among means according to Tukey’s test (p < 0.05).
Figure 8. Fruiting performance of Pleurotus ostreatus cultivation blocks at 18 °C and 25 °C, with or without polypropylene bags. (a) Weight loss of cultivation blocks across successive harvests and (b) Mushroom yield under the two cultivation conditions (temperature × presence/absence of polypropylene bags). Different letters above the bars indicate statistically significant differences among means according to Tukey’s test (p < 0.05).
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Figure 9. Schematic representation of an IoT-enabled circular bioeconomy model for urban mushroom cultivation. Agro-industrial residues (a) are processed into growth substrates (b), which are inoculated and incubated in large peri-urban cultivation farms (c). Once fully colonized, the blocks are transported to urban smart fruiting chambers (d), where mushrooms are cultivated under controlled conditions using IoT-enabled systems. After fruiting, the spent mushroom substrate (SMS) (e) is repurposed as animal feed (f), input for biorefineries producing bio-based products (g), compost for urban agriculture (h), or soil amendments in rural farming (i).
Figure 9. Schematic representation of an IoT-enabled circular bioeconomy model for urban mushroom cultivation. Agro-industrial residues (a) are processed into growth substrates (b), which are inoculated and incubated in large peri-urban cultivation farms (c). Once fully colonized, the blocks are transported to urban smart fruiting chambers (d), where mushrooms are cultivated under controlled conditions using IoT-enabled systems. After fruiting, the spent mushroom substrate (SMS) (e) is repurposed as animal feed (f), input for biorefineries producing bio-based products (g), compost for urban agriculture (h), or soil amendments in rural farming (i).
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Table 1. Comparative characteristics of IoT-based mushroom cultivation chambers with different control levels and volumes.
Table 1. Comparative characteristics of IoT-based mushroom cultivation chambers with different control levels and volumes.
Ref.Dimension
(m)		Volume
(m3)		Control
Level		Parameters
Controlled		Actuators/
Equipment		Publication Year
[18]5.47 × 3.47 × --Semi-controlledHumidity, air qualityFan, water pump2021
[19]8.00 × 4.00 × 2.3073.6Semi-controlledHumidityWater pump2021
[13]--Semi-controlledHumidity, air qualityWater pump, fan2022
[15]9.00 × 3.00 × 3.0081.0Fully controlledTemperature, humidity,
air quality		Ultrasonic humidifier,
air conditioner, fan, heater		2022
[20]1.50 × 1.50 × 0.801.8Semi-controlledHumidityWater pump2023
[21]0.70 × 0.65 × 0.450.20Semi-controlledHumidityUltrasonic humidifier2023
[22]0.435 × 0.320 × 0.2850.04Fully controlledHumidity, air quality,
temperature		Ultrasonic humidifier,
fan, peltier		2023
[23]6.00 × 4.00 × --Semi-controlledHumidityWater pump2024
[24]3.50 × 2.50 × 3.0026.3Semi-controlledHumidityWater pump, fan2024
[16]14.00 × 7.00 × --Fully controlledTemperature, humidity,
air quality		Air conditioner, water
pump, fan		2024
[25]--Fully controlledTemperature, humidity,
air quality		Ultrasonic humidifier,
air-conditioner, fan		2024
Table 2. Equipment, technical specifications, and functions of the IoT-enabled fruiting chamber.
Table 2. Equipment, technical specifications, and functions of the IoT-enabled fruiting chamber.
EquipmentTechnical SpecificationsFunction
Glass-door
refrigerator		Volume: 326 L; modified with
external ports		Maintains chamber temperature and allows visual monitoring
Ultrasonic
humidifier		400 mL h−1 outputGenerates fine mist to control
internal humidity
FlangePVC, 25 mm diameterConnect the humidifier hose to
the chamber wall
Silicone
hose		Flexible tubing, 20 mm inner
diameter, 1 m length		Delivers humidified air to
the chamber interior
ESP32
microcontroller		ESP32-WROOM-32; 240 MHz
dual-core CPU; integrated Wi-Fi and Bluetooth		Executes control logic and
communicates with the cloud
DHT22
sensor		Measurement: 0–100% RH and −40 °C to +80 °C; accuracy: ±0.5 °C and ±2% (RH)Measures temperature and
humidity in real time
Two-channel
Relay module		5 V, 10 A per channelSwitches cooling and humidification devices automatically
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Foffano, M.O.A.; Michel, R.C.; Freire, D.M.G.; Cavalcanti, E.D.C. Design and Evaluation of a Compact IoT-Enabled Microfarm for Decentralized Urban Agriculture Applied to the Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom). Sustainability 2025, 17, 10332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210332

AMA Style

Foffano MOA, Michel RC, Freire DMG, Cavalcanti EDC. Design and Evaluation of a Compact IoT-Enabled Microfarm for Decentralized Urban Agriculture Applied to the Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom). Sustainability. 2025; 17(22):10332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210332

Chicago/Turabian Style

Foffano, Marlon O. A., Ricardo C. Michel, Denise M. G. Freire, and Elisa D. C. Cavalcanti. 2025. "Design and Evaluation of a Compact IoT-Enabled Microfarm for Decentralized Urban Agriculture Applied to the Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom)" Sustainability 17, no. 22: 10332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210332

APA Style

Foffano, M. O. A., Michel, R. C., Freire, D. M. G., & Cavalcanti, E. D. C. (2025). Design and Evaluation of a Compact IoT-Enabled Microfarm for Decentralized Urban Agriculture Applied to the Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster Mushroom). Sustainability, 17(22), 10332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172210332

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