Spatial Management and Ecological Wisdom of Ancient Human Settlements in the Yiluo River Basin (Luoyang Section), China

Abstract

The wisdom embedded within traditional human settlements offers profound insights for addressing contemporary ecological challenges. This study systematically investigates the spatial management strategies and ecological wisdom of ancient settlements in the Yiluo River Basin (Luoyang Section), a cradle of Chinese civilization. A mixed-methods approach combined with historical document analysis was utilized, and the results reveal how these settlements achieved harmonious coexistence between human activities and the natural environment over millennia. The research uncovers a sophisticated system of ecological wisdom, primarily manifested across four key dimensions: (1) Macro-Topography-Responsive Siting Strategy: Settlement locations adhered to the principle of “nestling against mountains and facing water,” utilizing natural barriers and resources to mitigate flood risks and optimize microclimates. (2) Context-Adaptive Spatial Layout: The internal layout of settlements was attuned to local topography, water systems, and wind corridors, enhancing living comfort and aesthetic appeal. (3) Gray–Green–Blue infrastructure Synergy: Ancient water management systems were integrated with farmland and transportation routes, forming a synergistic network for irrigation, drainage, flood control, and transportation. (4) Culture–Nature Symbiosis: Cultural practices integrated human life cycles with natural landscapes, fostering regional identity and cultural sustainability. This study argues that the ecological wisdom of ancient Yiluo settlements—marked by its systematic and adaptive nature—provides a valuable historical paradigm for enhancing ecosystem services, building climate resilience, and achieving human–nature harmony in contemporary watershed management and urban–rural development.

1. Introduction

Settlements, as complex social–ecological systems, are perpetually at the forefront of the interaction between human activities and the natural environment [1]. In the Anthropocene, rapid global urbanization has triggered a series of ecological crises: habitat fragmentation, intensified environmental pollution, degradation of ecosystem services, and significantly increased vulnerability to climate change [2,3,4,5,6]. Achieving sustainable development has been unequivocally established as a global priority by the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (particularly SDG 11 (Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable)) and the New Urban Agenda [7,8].

Confronting these challenges, academic and practical interest in ecological wisdom—enduring, adaptive knowledge deeply rooted in traditional practices that once underpinned long-term human–nature coexistence—has grown markedly [9,10,11]. This wisdom, often manifested as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) [11,12], offers valuable lessons for modern sustainable planning. Research in this area has flourished, exploring cases from ancient hydraulic systems like the Dujiangyan [13,14] to traditional village planning [10,15]. Studies indicate that historical settlements often achieved sustainability by organically integrating spatial layouts with local ecological processes.

The Yiluo River Basin, renowned as the birthplace of Chinese civilization (“the earliest China”), presents an exemplary case for studying ecological wisdom [5,16,17]. For over four thousand years, settlements here evolved from simple villages to magnificent capital cities, embodying a rich legacy of human adaptation to the natural environment [18,19]. Although existing research has touched upon settlement morphology [20], environmental evolution [21], and the layouts of individual capitals [22,23], a systematic analysis of the spatial management and ecological wisdom underpinning the long-term sustainability of the entire basin’s settlement system remains notably lacking. Specifically, prior studies have not sufficiently: (1) deconstructed the multi-dimensional nature of this wisdom into an analyzable framework; (2) empirically linked specific spatial strategies to targeted ecosystem service outcomes; or (3) proposed a transferable model that bridges historical TEK with contemporary planning paradigms.

To address these gaps, this study establishes the following core research questions: (1) How was the spatial distribution and adaptation of ancient settlements in the Yiluo River Basin shaped by the physio-geographical characteristics of the basin? (2) What constitutes the multi-dimensional structure of the ecological wisdom embedded in their siting, spatial adaptation, infrastructure coupling, and culture–nature symbiosis? (3) How can this historical wisdom be operationalized to inform modern sustainable planning? To answer these questions, we propose and test four hypotheses (detailed in Section 2.2.1) centered on the systematic, adaptive, and multi-dimensional nature of this wisdom and its contemporary relevance.

Crucially, we translate the conceptual TEK framework into an operable research design through the HNIEP analytical model (Human–Nature Integrated Ecological Planning). This model operationalizes ecological wisdom into four key dimensions—Minimization, Systematic Adaptation, Multifunctional Coupling, and Cultural Integration—each with defined principles, planning elements, and target ecosystem services (see

Table 1. The HNIEP model assumes the Yiluo River basin.

Core Principles	Planning Elements and Strategies	Target Ecosystem Services
P1. Minimization Respect the natural foundation and minimize the ecological footprint of human settlements.	• Optimal Siting: “Nestling against mountains and facing water,” avoiding flood-prone areas, selecting regions with high ecological carrying capacity.	• Risk Regulation • Habitat Provision • Water Regulation
	• Scale Control: The scale of settlements matches the supply capacity of local resources (especially water).
	• Intensive Land Use: Preserve flat and fertile land for farming; settlements follow the terrain with high-density layouts.
P2. Systematic Adaptation Plan human systems as an organic extension of natural systems.	• Form Adaptation: Settlement layout, building orientation, and street patterns conform to topography, water systems, and prevailing wind direction.	• Microclimate Regulation • Aesthetic and Cultural Value • Health Benefits
	• Visual Integration: Apply concepts like “100 feet for form, 1000 feet for momentum” to create harmonious visual corridors.
	• Micro-scale Regulation: Use water bodies, vegetation, and terrain to create comfortable local microclimates (cooling, ventilation).
P3. Multifunctional Coupling Skillfully couple gray, blue, and green infrastructure for functional overlay and synergy.	• Multifunctional Water Systems: Integrate functions like water supply, irrigation, drainage, flood control, firefighting, navigation, and landscaping within a single water network.	• Enhanced Provisioning • Enhanced Regulation • Efficiency
	• Ecological Transportation: Combine road systems with natural corridors (river valleys, ridge lines) to reduce ecological fragmentation.
	• Composite Space Use: Open spaces like ponds and squares serve multiple purposes (water storage, gatherings, drying crops, socializing).
P4. Cultural Integration Elevate ecological practices into cultural concepts and institutions for intrinsic sustainable development.	• Cultural Symbol Creation: Transform natural elements into cultural symbols through “pictographic meaning” (e.g., “Jade Belt encircling the village”) or naming “Eight Views of Luoyang” to strengthen ecological identity.	• Cultural Identity • Educational Value • Social Cohesion
	• Institutional Constraints: Establish village covenants and rules (e.g., time-based water usage systems) to manage common resources and avoid the “Tragedy of the Commons.”
	• Philosophical Internalization: Integrate philosophical ideas like “Harmony between Heaven and Humankind” into concepts of life and death (e.g., “burial at Beimang”) and daily life, forming a deep ecological ethic.

). This structure directly guides our data collection and analysis by specifying:

• Data Types: We integrate qualitative data (historical texts, field interviews) with spatial data (GIS vector and raster data, remote sensing imagery) and quantitative metrics (spatial statistics, viewshed calculations).
• Sampling Strategy: Our analysis focuses on a systematic sample of 68 traditional villages and major capital city sites, ensuring representation across different topographic settings, historical periods, and settlement scales.
• Evidence Hierarchy: We employ data triangulation, cross-verifying findings from historical archives, GIS-based spatial analysis, field surveys, and comparative case studies to build a robust chain of evidence for each dimension of the HNIEP framework.

Furthermore, our mixed-methods approach is explicitly designed to work in concert to address the research questions. Historical document analysis provides the contextual depth and evidence of intentionality behind spatial strategies (e.g., records of hydraulic engineering projects). GIS (Geographic Information System) spatial analysis quantitatively tests and visualizes the spatial patterns and environmental correlations hypothesized in the literature (e.g., settlement proximity to water, topographic preferences). Field investigation then establishes the ground truths of these findings, identifies remnants of ancient infrastructure, and captures intangible cultural practices through interviews. This integration allows for cross-validation: for instance, GIS-identified spatial patterns of “nestling against mountains and facing water” are verified against Feng Shui principles found in historical texts and the observed layout of traditional villages. In cases of conflicting evidence, priority is given to spatially verifiable data (GIS and field survey) for assessing physical layout and adaptive function, while historical and interview data are prioritized for interpreting cultural meaning and planning intent. This synergistic approach advances a systematic understanding of the “spatial governance–ecological wisdom” nexus by empirically connecting specific spatial management actions (the “how”) with their underlying ecological logic and intended benefits (the “why”) across different scales and dimensions.

By bridging historical wisdom with modern challenges through this structured approach, this study aims to contribute new perspectives and a transferable analytical framework to the academic discourse on sustainability and resilient human settlement construction.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The Yiluo River Basin is a major southern tributary of the middle-lower Yellow River, geographically located in western Henan Province. This study focuses specifically on the Luoyang Section of this basin (Figure 1). The area features complex and diverse landforms, overall presenting a typical basin pattern described as “embraced by three mountains, with one river flowing through”: the north, west, and south are surrounded by the Mangshan Mountains, Xionger Mountains, and Funiu Mountains foothills, respectively, while the east opens and transitions into the Huang-Huai Plain, forming a relatively open alluvial plain (Figure 1). The study region holds a significant position within national and provincial strategies. According to the “Henan Province Territorial Spatial Plan (2021–2035),” Luoyang is explicitly designated as a sub-central city in the Zhongyuan Urban Agglomeration. Based on the latest population data, Luoyang City has a resident population of approximately 7 million (“Luoyang City Seventh National Population Census Bulletin”). Population distribution is highly concentrated in the alluvial plain area along the Yiluo River, particularly in Luoyang’s central urban area and the county towns under its administration, exhibiting a distinct characteristic of linear aggregation along the river. This distribution pattern is closely linked to the region’s long history of agricultural activity and its advantageous water resources.

The Yiluo River Basin is one of the core heartlands of Huaxia civilization. The basin contains a wealth of world-renowned archaeological sites and cultural heritage, including the Erlitou Site, the Yanshi Shang City, the Eastern Zhou Royal City, the Han-Wei Luoyang City ruins, and the Longmen Grottoes. The Funiu Mountain range in the southern part of the basin is designated as a national nature reserve and is included as a priority area in the “China Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan.” The Yi River and Luo River, as the main trunk rivers, flow from southwest to northeast through the basin, converge near Luoyang urban area to form the Yiluo River, continue northward, and eventually empty into the Yellow River. The region experiences a typical warm temperate continental monsoon climate with four distinct seasons and concurrent rain and heat. The northern Mangshan Mountains significantly block cold northwesterly winds in winter, resulting in a relatively mild and humid climate within the basin. These advantageous natural geographical and climatic conditions not only provided a solid foundation for early agricultural development but also attracted continuous human settlement and cultural evolution, making it an ideal region for studying millennia-long human–land interactions and ecological adaptation processes [24].

2.2. Method

A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining qualitative and quantitative analyses to ensure both depth and breadth of the research. Central to this approach is data triangulation, enhancing the reliability of conclusions through cross-verification by different data sources. To ensure full transparency, reproducibility, and address potential biases, the following subsections detail the provenance, collection timeframe, sampling standards, assigned weight, bias control, and quality assurance for each data type. Furthermore, a structured “Workflow Checklist” is provided for each core analytical technique, specifying the implementation path, software, parameters, and outputs.

2.2.1. Theoretical Framework Construction

Method: Meta-analysis of Literature

Systematically reviewing domestic and international theoretical literature on “Ecological Wisdom” [25,26,27,28], “Socio-Ecological Systems (SES)” [29,30], “Ecosystem Services” [31,32,33], and the “Adaptive Cycle” [34], we proposed applicable hypotheses and an analytical framework—the HNIEP model [35]—for the Yiluo River Basin.

Hypothesis 1:

Ancient human settlement planning in the Yiluo River Basin was an active, systematic adaptive process, not a passive, fragmented collection of experiences.

Hypothesis 2:

The core of this process was maximizing the synergy between human well-being and ecosystem services while minimizing the negative disturbance of human activities on the natural environment.

Hypothesis 3:

The resulting ecological wisdom is cross-scale (from watershed to building), multi-dimensional (from spatial to cultural), and can be systematically parsed through the HNIEP framework.

Hypothesis 4:

This ancient ecological wisdom retains significant instructive value and practical relevance for guiding contemporary sustainable planning.

The HNIEP framework (Table 1) serves as an analytical tool for systematically dissecting any traditional settlement (e.g., the 68 samples in this study) and categorizing its ecological wisdom into the following four dimensions, structured around core principles, corresponding planning elements/strategies, and target ecosystem services (Figure 2):

Further refining the HNIEP model, an analytical framework based on a Socio-Ecological System (SES) adaptive cycle and ecological wisdom, containing a “Pressure–State–Response–Wisdom” logic chain, was summarized to guide all subsequent data collection and analysis (Figure 3).

2.2.2. Historical Document and Archive Analysis

Method: Qualitative Content Analysis

Data Sources and Temporal Coverage: Ancient texts (e.g., Shang Shu, Shui Jing Zhu, Luoyang Qielan Ji) provided foundational philosophical and descriptive records spanning pre-Qin to Northern Wei dynasties [36,37,38]. Local chronicles (e.g., Luoyang City Records, Yiyang County Records) offered systematic historical data on climate, disasters, hydrology, and settlement changes from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the Republican era [39,40]. Archaeological reports and scholarly papers focused on major sites (e.g., Erlitou, Yanshi Shang City) covered findings from the 20th century to 2025 [41,42,43].

Sampling Standard: The sampling aimed for theoretical saturation, prioritizing documents with direct relevance to settlement construction, water management, environmental perception, and landscape description within the study area.

Bias Control & Quality Assurance: To mitigate source bias, we cross-referenced multiple independent records (e.g., comparing official chronicles with personal travelogs). The quality of historical data was assessed based on the author’s experience, the document’s temporal proximity to the events described, and internal consistency. Modern archaeological reports were prioritized for spatial and factual data due to their empirical basis.

2.2.3. Spatial Information Technology and Geographic Data Analysis

Method: GIS Spatial Analysis, Remote Sensing (RS) Interpretation, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Analysis, Viewshed Analysis, Wind Environment Simulation.

Data Sources, Specifications, and Preprocessing:

Basic Geographic Data: Acquiring raster data, including a 30 m resolution DEM (Geospatial Data Cloud, accessed 5 September 2024), and modern remote sensing images (Google Satellite hybrid map, 2023). Historical maps (e.g., Republic of China-era topographic maps) were georeferenced (RMS (Root Mean Square) error < 10 m) to the WGS_1984_UTM_Zone_49N coordinate system.

Settlement Database Construction: Using vector data processing, spatially vectorizing the 68 sample traditional villages (point layer) and historical capital city sites (polygon layer). Village locations were primarily sourced from the Chinese Traditional Village Website (http://www.chuantongcunluo.com/, accessed 2 September 2024), supplemented by Baidu Maps API for coordinate verification. Attribute data included name, era, and scale.

Bias Control & Quality Assurance: Modern RS images and DEM served as the primary basemap and for deriving terrain parameters. Settlement vector data were the core for quantitative spatial pattern analysis. This data was assigned the highest weight for testing hypotheses about distribution patterns and environmental relationships due to its objectivity and quantitative nature.

Spatial Analysis Operations:

Buffer Analysis: Generating buffers at different distances (e.g., 100 m, 250 m, 500 m, 1000 m) along the Yi, Luo rivers and their main tributaries to quantitatively analyze the dependence of settlement distribution on the water system.

Overlay Analysis: Overlaying settlement points with terrain factor layers (slope, aspect, elevation) to analyze topographic preferences for settlement location (

Table 2. Workflow Checklist 1: Buffer and Overlay Analysis.

Component	Specification
Objective	Quantitatively analyze settlement distribution dependence on water systems and topographic preferences.
Implementation Path	1. Generate multi-ring buffers around rivers. 2. Derive slope/aspect from DEM. 3. Spatially join/overlay settlement points with buffer and terrain layers.
Software & Version	ArcGIS (v. 10.8)
Key Parameters	Buffer distances: 100 m, 250 m, 500 m, 1000 m. Slope classification: <5° (flat), 5–15° (gentle), >15° (steep). Aspect classification: North (315–45°), South (135–225°).
Output Format	Result tables (.dbf/.xlsx) with settlement attributes and environmental variables; Thematic maps (.pdf) visualizing spatial relationships.

Note: Buffer distances were selected to represent feasible daily access to water in a pre-modern context and to test sensitivity at multiple scales. Slope and aspect classifications follow standard geomorphological and solar exposure principles, crucial for understanding agricultural suitability and microclimate. This analysis provides the foundational spatial correlation evidence for the Minimization principle (P1).

).

Viewshed Analysis: Selecting typical settlement points as observation points to simulate their visible range under different viewing angles (30°, 60°, 120°), quantitatively verifying the visual landscape control wisdom of “100 feet for form, 1000 feet for momentum” [44] (

Table 3. Workflow Checklist 2: Viewshed Analysis.

Component	Specification
Objective	Quantitatively verify the visual landscape control wisdom of “100 feet for form, 1000 feet for momentum”.
Implementation Path	1. Define observer points at settlement centers. 2. Run viewshed tool for specified horizontal view angles. 3. Calculate land cover composition within visible areas.
Software & Version	DJI Fly (v. 1.19.0, Produced in Shenzhen, China)
Key Parameters	Observer height: 1.6~100 m. Horizontal viewing angles: 30°, 60°, 120°. Observer points: 5 representative Settlements.
Output Format	Binary raster layers (.tif jpg) indicating visibility;

Note: The observer height (1.6~100 m) is beyond the human eye level. The three horizontal view angles (30°, 60°, 120°) were chosen to operationalize the ancient concept of differentiated landscape perception at “form” (detailed), “mid-range,” and “momentum” (panoramic) scales. This analysis directly tests the Systematic Adaptation principle (P2) regarding visual aesthetics and its contribution to Cultural Ecosystem Services.

).

Wind Environment Simulation: Based on DEM and 3D settlement models, to simulate wind speed and pressure distribution under summer/winter wind directions, scientifically validating the microclimate regulation effect of the “nestling against mountains and facing water” pattern (

Table 4. Workflow Checklist 3: Wind Environment Simulation.

Component	Specification
Objective	Scientifically validate the microclimate regulation effect of the “nestling against mountains and facing water” pattern.
Implementation Path	1. Build 3D terrain and simplified building model. 2. Mesh the computational domain. 3. Set boundary conditions and solve CFD model. 4. Post-process results.
Software & Version	ANSYS Fluent (v. 2022 R1)
Key Parameters	Wind directions/speeds: NW/3.5 m/s (winter), SE/2.5 m/s (summer). Turbulence Model: Standard k-ε. Mesh: Unstructured tetrahedral with local refinement.

Note: Wind parameters are based on local meteorological data for typical seasonal conditions. The Standard k-ε turbulence model is suitable for general wind flow simulations around buildings and terrain. The simulation is deemed sufficient for validating the macro-level microclimate regulation effect of the settlement pattern, a key aspect of the Systematic Adaptation principle (P2) and Regulating Ecosystem Services.

).

2.2.4. Field Investigation and Survey

Method: Field Observation, GPS Surveying, UAV Aerial Photography, Unstructured Interviews

Operations: Current Situation Survey:

Temporal Framework and Sampling: Fieldwork was conducted intensively between June and August 2024. The 68 traditional villages surveyed were selected from the GIS sample to represent the diversity of topographic settings (riverside, foothill, mountain) and preservation states.

Data Acquisition and Quality Control: GPS surveying used Trimble R10 GNSS receivers (cm-level accuracy post-processing). UAV aerial photography used a DJI Phantom 4 RTK (ground resolution ~3 cm; flight plans ensured >80% overlap).

Bias Control & Quality Assurance: Field data was weighted as the primary source for ground-truthing GIS patterns, verifying the physical presence of features, and capturing intangible cultural practices. It served as the definitive validator for spatial data accuracy.

2.2.5. Case Study: Deep Description and Comparative Study

Method: Cross-Case Comparative Analysis

Sample Selection Criteria: The selection of the 68 traditional villages and ancient Capital city settlement samples was based on a stratified sampling strategy to ensure representativeness across key dimensions relevant to the study of ecological wisdom. The selection criteria were as follows:

Historical Period Coverage: Samples were chosen to represent major historical dynasties and periods of development within the Yiluo River Basin, ensuring temporal breadth.

Geographical Distribution: Samples were distributed across the entire Luoyang section of the basin, covering different topographic units (e.g., alluvial plains, foothill gentle slopes, river terraces, mountain valleys) to capture spatial variability.

Settlement Type and Scale: The sample includes a spectrum of settlement types, from large capital city ruins (e.g., Erlitou, Han-Wei Luoyang City) to medium-sized commercial towns and small traditional villages, allowing for cross-scale analysis.

Data Availability and Preservation Status: Priority was given to sites with sufficient archaeological data, historical records, and relatively well-preserved spatial features that could be verified through field investigation. The initial pool was sourced from authoritative inventories, primarily the Chinese Traditional Village Website and major archaeological site catalogs, before applying the above criteria for final selection.

Operations: Selecting 4–5 most representative settlements from the 68 traditional villages and ancient Capital city settlement samples (e.g., one capital ruin, one commercial town, one mountain village, one riverside village) for in-depth case studies. The selection of these specific cases was purposive, aiming to maximize contrast in their environmental context and primary functions, thereby illuminating how the core principles of the HNIEP framework are manifested and adapted under different conditions. Juxtaposing their spatial management strategies under the HNIEP framework for comparative analysis, inducting their common ecological wisdom and specific strategies for coping with different environments.

3. Results

3.1. Ecological Wisdom in Siting: Responding to Macro-Natural Structure

The siting of ancient settlement sites, from villages to capitals, demonstrates a profound understanding of macro-topography and hydrology. The principle that “When establishing a capital, it must be either below a great mountain or above a vast river” was strictly followed. The macro-geographical features of the Luoyang Basin were described as “Rivers and mountains surround and support it, its strategic position is unmatched under heaven”, providing both defensive advantages and crucial resources. However, the flood threat posed by the Yellow River and its tributaries remained a primary driver of siting development.

Archaeological and historical records indicate that in response to climate change and flood disasters, people continuously migrated settlements from low-lying vulnerable areas to higher elevation terraces. Taking capital development as an example: from the Erlitou site near the Luo River, to the Wangcheng of the Eastern Zhou period at the confluence of three rivers, to the cities of the Han-Wei period and the capital of the Sui-Tang period, these capitals employed advanced hydraulic engineering, such as the Yang Canal for water supply and flood control [24]. This evolutionary process reflects a human transition from passive dependence on water resources to active and symbiotic water management (Figure 4).

GIS-based spatial analysis of the systematic sample of 68 traditional villages (sourced from the Chinese Traditional Village Website and verified against historical maps, as detailed in Section 2.2.3) revealed a distinct distribution pattern closely tied to water systems. The calculation, based on a 250 m buffer analysis from river channels, showed that 88.14% (n = 60) of the sampled villages were located within this buffer zone. Notably, among these riverside settlements, 90% (n = 61) were situated adjacent to tributaries rather than the main trunk rivers. This “tributary-intensive” distribution pattern effectively reduced flood risk from the main channel while ensuring convenient water access. Village scale often correlated closely with river size and transportation convenience, corroborating the ancient wisdom of “Large rivers have capitals, medium rivers have towns, small rivers have villages”. The siting of traditional villages embodies profound ancient survival philosophy, simple ecological wisdom (i.e., the enduring, adaptive knowledge facilitating human–nature coexistence), and a deep understanding of natural laws, centrally reflected in the exquisite consideration and harmonious utilization of landscape patterns, slope aspects, and land use types. Siting typically followed the principle of “embracing shade and holding onto yang, backing onto mountains and facing water”, relying on mountains to block winter cold winds, welcoming sunlight and summer cool breezes, and proximity to water sources to guarantee domestic, irrigation, and drainage needs. Traditional villages were often built on foothill gentle slopes or river valley terraces, avoiding floods and facilitating natural drainage and soil conservation; building layouts followed the mountain contours in an orderly, staggered manner, reducing earthworks while ensuring sunlight and ventilation. Furthermore, a concentric land use structure formed around traditional villages: the residential area at the core, surrounded successively by farmland, terraces, and woodland, constituting a self-sufficient, resource-recycling micro-ecosystem. This siting and layout strategy integrates geographical, ecological, and sociological wisdom, “embedding” human habitation into the natural substrate in an adaptive, sustainable manner, achieving long-term harmonious coexistence between humans and the environment (Figure 5).

3.2. Ecological Wisdom in Spatial Adaptation: Harmony with Topography and Climate

The internal spatial organization structure of settlements shows exquisite adaptation to local micro-geography and climate.

Visual Perception & Aesthetics: Ancient planners applied principles of visual psychology akin to “100 feet for form, 1000 feet for momentum”. Viewshed analysis (a GIS technique simulating visible areas from specific points) from settlement centers revealed carefully designed landscape compositions encompassing river and mountain contours within a 120° panoramic view, green spaces and farmland within a 60° mid-range view, and detailed river and mountain scenery within a 30° view (

Table 5. Calculation of view scale for five representative perspectives of the Luoyang section of the Yiluo River.

View	Proportion of Sky View	Proportion of Green View	Proportion of Waler View	Proportion of Building	Total
View1	10%	70%	0%	10%	100.00%
View2	25%	60%	5%	10%	100.00%
View3	10%	40%	0%	50%	100.00%
View4	40%	50%	0%	10%	100.00%
View5	10%	40%	5%	45%	100.00%

). This layout created a living environment that was both visually pleasing and spiritually uplifting, forming a profound emotional connection with nature [22,23] (Figure 6).

Spatial Form and Orientation: Settlement layouts followed the natural conditions of the landscape environment. Settlements adhered to the core Feng Shui pattern of “embracing shade and holding onto yang, backing onto mountains and facing water”. Their backing (north side) against mountains (usually the main peak or branches of a continuous range) effectively blocked cold winter northerly winds, forming a natural barrier and fully utilizing the advantages of the local temperate monsoon climate. Facing south towards open water bodies and gentle slopes maximized the intake of sunlight and summer cool southerly winds, benefiting house lighting and warming, while the open field of view facilitated lookout. Streams or rivers encircling the village front provided sources for domestic use, irrigation, and firefighting; their meandering forms facilitated drainage and flood discharge, nourishing the surrounding land (Figure 7).

3.3. Ecological Wisdom in Element Coupling: Synergistic Gray–Green–Blue Infrastructure

Ancient settlements mastered the art of combining gray (built, roads), green (natural), and blue (water) infrastructure (

Table 6. Table of Total Runoff Control Rate in Luoyang.

Land Use Type	Area (km2)	Area (km2)
Urban built-up area	295.8	0.32
Farmland	420.5	0.45
Woodland	120.3	0.13
Water body	92.4	0.10
Total	929.0	1.00

Note: Area data: Based on the Luoyang National Land and Space Planning (2021–2035) [45], the built-up area includes hardened surfaces such as roads and buildings; farmland includes dry land and paddy fields; forest land includes natural forests and plantations; water bodies include rivers, reservoirs, and wetlands. Runoff coefficient: Refer to the “Code for Design of Outdoor Drainage” (GB50014) [46] and the soil permeability of Luoyang.

and

Table 7. Luoyang Water Storage Capacity Table.

Name of Water Body	Belonging River	Storage Capacity (100 Million m3)
Xiaolangdi Reservoir	Yellow River	126.5
Luhun reservoir	Yi River	13.2
Guxian Reservoir	Luohe River	11.75
Qianping Reservoir	Beiru River	5.84
Total	—	157.29

Note: The storage capacity data is sourced from the bulletin of the Henan Provincial Water Resources Department and the reservoir project archives (2025).

).

Water System Management: Since the Xia–Shang periods, China has developed sophisticated water management systems. Capitals like Sui-Tang Luoyang not only built large-scale canal networks like the Tongji Canal for transport but also constructed supporting urban drainage systems, moats, and numerous reservoirs (historical records indicate 34 reservoirs in Sui-Tang Luoyang), creating an early “sponge city” model through rainwater regulation functions. This system effectively managed water resources [47].

The river system in the Yiluo Basin exhibits symmetrical left-right bank distribution in a dendritic pattern. The main trunks, the Yi and Luo Rivers, flow through the north and south sides of the basin, respectively, eventually converging to form the Yiluo River. The basin has numerous tributaries and a well-developed water system. The spatial relationship between settlements and riverbanks shows characteristics of close interdependence and mutual reflection. The Yiluo River meanders through the Luoyang section; ancient towns and villages within the basin tended to choose sites on both banks, forming a spatial layout that is both harmoniously coexistent and mutually reliant with the river. Research shows that nearly 90% of settlements are immediately adjacent to the riverbank, distributed across various river sections; settlements in the Yiluo Basin are mostly located near mountains and by water, distributed within geographical units surrounded by mountains or hills on three sides, forming a spatial pattern of “mountains encircling, water flowing around, multiple layers of protection.” Due to diverse river flows, settlements often bordered water on two or even three sides, fully enjoying the nourishment of water resources, with only a few located on gentle land far from the riverbank. Analysis of our settlement database identified three primary spatial types based on the villages’ geometric relationship with river channels: located on river convex banks, with streams or tributaries converging, living with their back to water (15 settlements, ~22%), mostly of the “green water encircling the village” type, benefiting from gentle flow and fertile land on convex banks, conducive to farming and settlement prosperity; located on river concave banks, with streams or tributaries converging (10 settlements, ~15%), often forming “interwoven water network” scenery, akin to the “convergence of wealth sources” in Feng Shui, due to rich ecological resources brought by water convergence; located on straight riverbanks, facing vast water surfaces (8 settlements, ~12%), these settlements were often important trading towns or transport hubs, valuing the convenience of river transport and the openness of the water area, which provided unique conditions for trade and cultural exchange [39,40] (Figure 8).

Transportation Network Integration: The ancient human settlement road system in Luoyang was perfectly integrated with natural topography and water systems. These roads extended along river valleys or mountain passes, forming a complementary transport network with water routes. Villages often clustered along these transport corridors, especially at the intersection of land and water routes, becoming core hubs for economic and cultural exchange. Street patterns within villages (linear, fishbone, dendritic, or grid) conformed to local topographic features (

Table 8. Statistical Table of Street and Lane Patterns in Traditional Villages in the Yiluo River Basin.

Type	Illustration	Traditional Village	Proportion
linear type		Shangshan Village in Ruyang County, Lijia Yuan Village in Luoning County, Pipo Village in Luoning County, Jiangli Village in Luoning County, Yaowa Village in Luoning County, Chashang Village in Luoning County, and Xiaowanggou Village in Song County	15%
Fishbone type		Bojiling Village in Mengjin County, Qianshangzhuang Village in Luoning County, Wancun Village in Song County, and Dawanggou Village in Song County	9%
Branch type		Qiaozhuang Village in Mengjin County, Shibeiao Village in Mengjin County, Dayang River in Sihenan Village of Mengjin County, Boyunling Village in Luanchuan County, Weishan Village in Luoning County, Miaowa Village in Luoning County, Huangcheng Village in Luoning County, Houshangzhuang Village in Luoning County, Shichang Village in Song County, Wakou Village in Wanglou Village of Song County, Foquansi Village in Song County, Laodaogou Village in Song County, Ranba Village in Song County, Changzhuang Village in Song County, Wen Village in Yiyang County, Tugudong Village in Xin’an County, and Quqiang Village in Xin’an County	38%
Grid type		Houying Village in Mengjin County, Weipo Village in Mengjin County, Mangzhuang Village in Ruyang County, Caoliuzhuang Village in Ruyang County, Dawangmiao Village in Luanchuan County, Zhangcun Village in Luanchuan County, Gucheng Village in Luanchuan County, Tangying Village in Luanchuan County, Shimen Village in Luanchuan County, Chengcun Village in Luoning County, Caomiaoling in Luoning County, Gudong Village in Luoning County, Luhun Village in Song County, Chengcun Village in Song County, Longwangmiao Village in Song County, Xuecun Village in Xin’an County, and Shangwang Village in Yichuan County	38%

), reducing earthwork volume while maintaining ecological continuity [38,40] (

Table 9. Schematic diagrams of the street and alley layouts of traditional villages.

(a) Jiangli Village	(b) Pipo Village	(c) Wancun Village	(d) Qianshangzhuang Village
Traditional Village with Straight Line Street and Lane Pattern		Traditional Village with Fishbone Street and Lane Pattern
(e) Weishan Village	(f) Miaowa Village	(g) Longwangmiao Village	(h) Shangwang Village
Traditional Village with Branch shaped Street and Lane Pattern		Traditional Village with Grid shaped street and alley pattern

).

3.4. Ecological Wisdom in Culture–Nature Synergy: The Philosophy of Life and Place

In the Yiluo River Basin, the integration of human culture and the natural environment reached philosophical heights.

Symbolism and Metaphor: Settlements and landscapes were often named based on their forms, imbuing them with cultural meaning. For example, the name “Luoyang” means “north of the Luo River” (yang signifies north of the river due to sun exposure). A village encircled by water might be called “Jade Belt Encircling the Village.” This naming practice strengthened cultural identity and promoted deeper harmony with the natural environment [48,49].

The Eight Views of Luoyang are landscape poetry collections meticulously compiled by scholars throughout history, poetically condensing natural landscapes of different seasons and times into verse. This cultural practice not only showcased the ancients’ refined aesthetic appreciation of nature but also embodied the wisdom of integrating human life into natural rhythms. Meanwhile, Mangshan Mountain, located in the northern suburbs of Luoyang, was regarded as an auspicious final resting place (“Enjoy Suzhou-Hangzhou in life, be buried in Beimang after death”) due to its favorable topographic conditions [50]. This custom reflects the ancient philosophical view of life and death as organic components of the natural cycle, while also inadvertently preserving the lushness of the mountain forest vegetation. Together, they constitute a complete cultural–natural system of heaven–earth–human symbiosis [51] (Figure 9) (

Table 10. The concept and schematic diagram of the “Eight Views of Luoyang” in the Luoyang section of the Yiluo River Basin.

Eight Scenic Spots Names	Key Imagery	Scenic Photos
The Scenery of Mount Longmen	data
The Bell of White Horse Temple	Mountain Scenery
Golden Valley in Spring Sunshine	Temple Bell
Sunset View from Mount Mang	Spring Valley
The Morning Moon over Tianjin Bridge	Sunset View
Autumn Breeze on the Luo River Banks	Dawn Moon & Bridge
Morning Stroll at Pingquan Villa	Riverbank Breeze
Evening Rain on the Bronze Camel Road	Morning Stroll

).

4. Discussion

4.1. Theoretical Discussion: Interpreting the Ecological Wisdom System

The results of this study indicate that the ecological wisdom embodied in the ancient settlements of the Yiluo River Basin is a multi-scale, multi-dimensional, and dynamically adaptive complex knowledge system. Crucially, these defining features are substantiated by a chain of evidence derived from our mixed-methods approach, as detailed below:

The Multi-Scale Nature is demonstrated by data spanning from watershed-level settlement distribution patterns (quantified by GIS buffer and overlay analysis) to the micro-layout of individual villages (documented through field surveys and UAV DSM), and further to building orientation (observed in case studies).

The Multi-Dimensional Nature is validated through the triangulation of different data types for each dimension of the HNIEP framework. For instance, the Minimization principle (P1) is supported by GIS-derived spatial statistics (e.g., 88.14% of villages within 250 m of water) and historical records describing resource-based scale control. The Systematic Adaptation (P2) is evidenced by GIS viewshed analysis (visual perception), CFD simulation results (microclimate regulation), and field-verified building forms. The Multifunctional Coupling (P3) is grounded in archaeological findings and historical map analysis of water systems, combined with field-observed remnants of grey-green-blue infrastructure. The Cultural Integration (P4) is primarily supported by historical text analysis (e.g., naming of the “Eight Views of Luoyang”) and oral histories from field interviews.

The Dynamically Adaptive Nature is highlighted by the chronological sequence of capital city sites revealed through archaeological reports and historical archives, showing a clear transition from passive adaptation (e.g., migrating to terraces) to active transformation (e.g., constructing the Yang Canal) [52]. This evidence chain, cross-validated across sources, confirms that the system achieved long-term sustainability by consciously coupling social organization with ecosystem structure and processes [53].

4.2. Practical Implications for Modern Sustainability

The ancient ecological wisdom of the Yiluo River Basin offers profound, actionable insights for contemporary challenges. The translation from historical precedent to modern practice is articulated through specific mechanisms, design principles, and metrics.

Resilient Watershed and Territorial Spatial Planning: The siting principle of “developing relying on tributaries,” quantitatively evidenced by our finding that 90% of riverside villages were on tributaries, provides a transferable strategy for enhancing climate resilience. This can be operationalized in modern planning as follows: Implementation Pathway: Integrate this principle into ecological security pattern identification and Nature-based Solution (NbS) project siting [17,54,55]. Design Principle: Prioritize development along secondary and tertiary watercourses over main riverfronts for non-essential infrastructure. Assessment Metric: Use GIS-based least-cost path analysis to model and optimize such development corridors, with flood risk reduction (e.g., reducing the area in 100-year floodplains by a target percentage) as a key performance indicator.

Sponge Cities and Climate-Adaptive Construction: The ancient gray–green–blue infrastructure synergy offers a paradigm for low-impact development. The translation mechanism involves abstracting the core principle of multifunctional, decentralized water management. (1) Implementation Pathway: Inform the design of modern Sponge City systems by mimicking the distributed network of ponds, canals, and infiltration areas found in historical settlements. (2) Design Principle: Mandate that new developments incorporate a connected network of green spaces, permeable surfaces, and water-retention features that serve multiple roles (recreation, habitat, stormwater management). (3) Assessment Metric: Evaluate systems based on their runoff capture efficiency (targeting, e.g., >85% annual runoff volume capture) and peak flow reduction rate during standardized storm events, benchmarked against the performance of traditional systems [56].

Cultural Landscape Protection and Ecotourism Development: The wisdom of creating cultural symbols like the “Eight Views of Luoyang” provides a methodology for strengthening place identity. (1) Implementation Pathway: Apply this “pictographic meaning” approach in community-led cultural mapping and branding for heritage tourism and rural revitalization. (2) Design Principle: Identify and formally designate modern “views” or “scenes” that poetically integrate iconic natural features with sustainable human activities, creating new cultural narratives. (3) Assessment Metric: Monitor the growth in visitation to designated cultural landscape routes and use social media analytics and visitor surveys to quantify the strengthening of regional cultural identity and ecological aesthetic appreciation [57,58].

Infrastructure System Synergy and Integrated Planning: The cases of multifunctional ancient networks underscore the limitation of single-objective, gray-infrastructure-dominated planning. (1) Implementation Pathway: Advocate for and implement integrated green-blue-gray infrastructure systems in urban master planning. (2) Design Principle: Conduct mandatory “multi-functionality assessments” for all major infrastructure projects, requiring demonstrable simultaneous ecological, social, and economic co-benefits. (3) Assessment Metric: Develop a Composite Infrastructure Performance Index that quantifies benefits across domains, such as habitat connectivity units gained, recreational space added, and carbon sequestration potential [52,59].

4.3. Research Limitations and Future Research

This study focused on parsing the concepts and strategies of ecological wisdom from historical documents and spatial patterns, residing at the level of qualitative induction and spatial pattern analysis. A primary limitation is the relative lack of quantitative verification of the performance of ancient systems. For instance, precise data simulation and reconstruction are still lacking for the specific storage capacity of ancient water systems, their microclimate regulation amplitude (temperature/humidity changes), or ventilation efficiency under different layout patterns. Future research could further introduce: (1) Detailed Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to quantitatively reconstruct wind and thermal environments under different settlement layouts [60]; (2) Hydrological-hydraulic models to estimate the runoff regulation and peak flood reduction capabilities of ancient water management systems [61,62]; (3) Broader cross-cultural comparative studies, contrasting the Yiluo River case with other early civilization centers like Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Nile Valley, to potentially distill more universal principles of sustainable settlement formation and human adaptation patterns.

5. Conclusions

This study systematically reveals the spatial management strategies and endogenous ecological wisdom of ancient human settlements in China’s Yiluo River Basin. The research finds that its wisdom system comprises four core elements: siting in response to macro-topography and hydrology; optimizing microclimate and landscape aesthetics through meticulous spatial layout; forming a synergistic “gray–green–blue infrastructure” network integrating water management, transportation networks, and land use; and a symbiotic culture–nature relationship, deeply integrating philosophical worldviews with the daily living environment.

Facing contemporary challenges of climate change and urbanization, the practical significance of this ancient wisdom becomes increasingly salient. As exemplified by the Yiluo case study, long-term sustainable development requires not only technical prowess but, more importantly, achievement by establishing a holistic, adaptive, and respectful dialogue with nature. By translating these historical wisdoms into modern planning paradigms, we can pioneer new pathways for building more resilient, harmonious, and sustainable human habitats for the future.