Structural Equation Model for Assessing Relationship Between Green Skills and Sustainable Entrepreneurial Intentions

Abstract

In order to address environmental challenges, higher education is required to promote competencies that support sustainable entrepreneurship. This study analyzes the relationship between green skills and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions among business students in Mexico. A quantitative, cross-sectional, and explanatory design was applied with a sample of 766 students from two higher education institutions in Hidalgo. Data were examined through partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results confirm positive and significant relationships between green skills and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions, progressing through four stages: green knowledge, mastery of green skills, use of green skills, and green skill development. The model reveals that 44.50% of green entrepreneurial intention is associated with green skills, indicating that students with stronger green competencies are more likely to pursue sustainable ventures. This study contributes to the literature by addressing a gap in the Latin American context and provides implications for educational institutions and policymakers to strengthen sustainability-oriented entrepreneurship.

1. Introduction

At present, society faces multiple environmental problems, such as pollution and global warming, which require changes from the citizen’s perspective and a greater awareness of the impacts of human activities. The productive sector is not alien to this transition, which implies the need for adjustments to business models based on higher consciousness and responsibility, i.e., changes in organizational processes with a tendency to care for the environment [1]. Given the problems that plague society, professionals who enter the labor market or become entrepreneurs should promote sustainability as a strategic axis of business activity. Entrepreneurship is a driver of economic development, generating jobs and expanding the business network, in addition to fulfilling the social function of offering goods and services. Thus, to reduce the harmful impacts of unsustainable manufacturing it is relevant that students, as future entrepreneurs, develop skills for sustainable entrepreneurship [2].

To achieve the contribution of human talent to the 2030 Agenda, an update in the educational field that promotes the development of human capital and social growth is essential [3]. For this reason, countries are increasingly concerned about the sustainable conduct of current and future companies [4]. There are high expectations regarding the potential of green skills to increase the sustainability of companies and regions. However, there remains a research gap on the implementation of green skills in education and continuing training, as well as their impacts on sustainability transitions [5].

Another problem is the lack of human talent with green skills [6], which is becoming an enormous challenge for the productive sector and makes it difficult to expand the supply of professionals with these ecological skills. Likewise, the implementation is still in its early stages and different approaches have been considered in order to integrate the SDGs into the educational offer; however, there are still some difficulties due to the lack of training [7].

The support of higher education institutions plays a relevant role in promoting green entrepreneurship programs and awareness-raising work on entrepreneurship through sustainable approaches [8]. In this line, topics that facilitate the development of green skills required by the productive sector have not yet been incorporated in many institutions, including those related to solving environmental pollution problems, interpreting environmental phenomena, and studying environmental issues [1]. On the other hand, a 2024 literature review study on green entrepreneurship intentions and university support analyzed 150 articles from Scopus, indicating a lack of literature on the association between these variables [9]. The review concluded that there has been no study on green skills and green entrepreneurship intentions in the Mexican context; therefore, research on sustainable entrepreneurial intentions is still in its infancy, remaining a little-explored topic [10,11].

Mexico lags in the development of green skills, which may pose a risk to the achievement of national and international climate goals. There is a gap between the demand for green skills in the productive sector and the capacity of the education system to provide professional profiles that meet these needs and generate actions that lead to sustainable development. In this regard, there are few sustainable development programs, but rather related disciplines that address these issues without being specialized. It is therefore important to generate this approach in education, from basic levels of training to higher education. Higher education institutions have committed to the SDGs aligned with the 2030 agenda. However, the results are not sufficient, which may increase the gap with other parts of the world. It is therefore a priority to contribute to the formulation of strategies to improve the country’s position with a view to a green economy [2,3,4,7].

The present study considers two educational programs in the business area taught in higher education institutions in Hidalgo, regarding their offer of subjects focused on environmental care. The first one, Business Management Engineering, includes Sustainable Development, while the Undergraduate Degree in Management considers Social Responsibility in Organizations. The study is relevant as it is necessary to understand the level of green skills students claim to have in order to strengthen their development, which is expected to contribute to achieving a sustainable future. Therefore, the teaching role is essential to impart ecological knowledge and ensure that the human talent to be introduced into the labor sector is aware of the importance of environmental care; in this context, green entrepreneurship represents an alternative to respond to climate change and resource challenges [12,13,14,15].

Thus, as educational institutions that offer support programs, guidance, and facilities to encourage the development of green businesses are expected to strengthen green entrepreneurial interest and behaviors in their students [16,17], previous studies on sustainable entrepreneurship have maintained that higher education and business students are essential as potential future sustainable entrepreneurs [18]. Furthermore, SDG-related programs significantly influence students’ participation in sustainability activities during their education, and even outside institutions [19]. Green entrepreneurial intent reflects an individual or group’s desire to engage in environmentally sustainable business practices. The challenge is to translate such desires into positive green business actions [20]; therefore, improving the entrepreneurial intentions of students at a higher level has become a research topic for academics in recent years, which implies a relationship between university education (green skills) and sustainable entrepreneurship [21,22].

Thus, the research question arises: is there a relationship between green skills and the sustainable entrepreneurial intentions of higher education students in the business area? The objective of this study is to assess the relationship between the green skills and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions of business students through the use of a partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM). This study contributes to research on sustainable entrepreneurship with an empirical study in the Mexican context. It also contributes to the generation of knowledge on the impacts of green skills on sustainable entrepreneurial intentions, as well as informing the establishment of strategies that inspire practical improvements in education to strengthen sustainable entrepreneurship. The structure of this paper is as follows: the Introduction is followed by the Literature Review, Methodology, Results, Discussion, and Conclusions sections.

Literature Review

The economy is closely related to nature, with the environment considered as part of the productive factors. In the context of economic growth, the environment is an exogenous economic factor; meanwhile, in development economics, it is established as a financial resource and driver of economic development [23].

The term green economy was introduced in 1989 by Pearce et al., in response to the undervaluation of environmental and social costs in the price system, as well as the excessive use of natural resources and the need to move to more sustainable practices, leading to the launch of the Green Economy Initiative in 2008 [24,25]. The green economy concept seeks to improve human well-being and social equity while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. The green economy concept establishes that the use of resources, carbon emissions, and waste generated at present should not compromise the needs of the future [26]. Therefore, it has become a strategic axis of public policies to provide a healthy environment [27,28].

It is thus essential that current businesses or future ventures consider their environmental approaches in such a way that they contribute to achieving Sustainable Development Goals 12 and 13, which establish responsible production and consumption, as well as action for the climate. This implies improving education, awareness, and human capacity regarding climate change mitigation and, from a business point of view, identifying sustainable consumption and production models. To do this, we must understand the environmental and social impacts of certain products and services—both in their life cycle and in how they alter the environment through their use in different ways.

Higher education institutions face the challenge and responsibility of equipping future professionals with the skills and tools needed to address current and future challenges. They should promote the development of competencies in entrepreneurship and sustainability, enabling students to create business ideas that prioritize sustainability [29]. In this sense, education becomes a tool that promotes environmental awareness and the development of green skills that reflect the incorporation of youth in activities with this orientation, such as waste separation, tree planting, and cleaning [10]. Business education with an ecological focus contributes to improving students’ skills and strengthening their confidence by enabling the development of a positive perception of entrepreneurship, achieved through providing the necessary knowledge to maintain entrepreneurship from this perspective [30].

Therefore, entrepreneurial competencies are fundamental for the development of sustainable entrepreneurship. Green skills integrate the capacity of human talent to interact with the environment constructively and enthusiastically, which implies a solid awareness of environmental problems and the desire to protect the environment, for which it is essential that they understand basic concepts such as solid waste, emissions, and pollution [31]; the development of such an understanding is associated with the process of knowledge exchange, particularly during academic life [32,33]. Based on the above, it is relevant to define green competencies which, according to the literature review, integrate the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes required by human talent to live and contribute to a society that reduces the negative impacts of human activities on the environment through the sustainable behaviors of companies, and communities [14,34,35,36]. Due to the complexity of the “green skills” concept, three levels of associated skills and/or competencies are considered: general sustainability skills, intermediate transversal skills, and specific green skills. In addition to these three types, it has been suggested that values and interest in sustainability are fundamental attributes [37].

At present, engineering, management, and environmental monitoring skills are among the most in-demand job skills to achieve the transition to a sustainable and environmentally responsible economy [38]. Therefore, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained through education for sustainable entrepreneurship are encompassed by the essential systemic, normative, strategic, and interpersonal competencies that empower individuals to perform tasks in their journey as future sustainable entrepreneurs [39]. Green skills can be applied by entrepreneurs and, from an entrepreneurial standpoint, such skills are considered as a catalyst for social change, allowing for the introduction of new products, processes, and organizational forms [40].

Therefore, this study was carried out based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, which effectively determines the factors that affect a person’s entrepreneurial intentions [41,42,43]. In particular, the intention to perform a previously proposed behavior will arise first, becoming the direct antecedent of actual behavior; this idea allows us to explore sustainable entrepreneurial intentions [44,45]. In this context, being an entrepreneur is a planned behavior which develops due to several factors, including education; therefore, it is not a spontaneous decision. Education has an impact on traditional entrepreneurial intentions and, so, it can be expected that education focused on sustainability will influence a student’s attitudes toward sustainable approaches [46,47,48].

Green entrepreneurs are individuals or organizations who identify opportunities to develop environmentally friendly products, services, or processes, i.e., they consider the associated environmental and social repercussions [49]. Although the relationship between economic development and environmental protection is clear, green entrepreneurship involves the deliberate search for solutions to environmental or social problems by applying business concepts to achieve positive impacts on financial, social, and environmental sustainability [9]; for this reason, it is a topic of research which has been increasingly considered worldwide, centered on business development with a social and environmental focus [50].

To achieve sustainable entrepreneurship management, it is essential for entrepreneurs to cultivate the necessary green skills. Educational institutions should enhance the learning of such skills by incorporating a socio-environmental focus, thus enabling students to develop awareness, skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and commitment to addressing environmental issues and improving environmental conditions [51]. Thus, to achieve green entrepreneurship, it is essential to promote values and positive attitudes toward environmental sustainability and ecological development through environmental education, ultimately achieving pro-environmental behaviors. In addition, thematic content related to environmental pollution, energy conservation, renewable energy, environmentally friendly design, solid waste management, use of water resources, management of natural resources, manufacturing processes, sustainable lifestyles, biodiversity, and ecosystems must be implemented, which can generate a form of educational development that integrates the set of training activities offered by academic institutions to develop human talent [52,53,54].

Thus, green entrepreneurial intention is the antecedent to the behavior, referring to the situation in which the individual generates interest, attention, and the decision to implement a specific action; here, the intention to act is based on various factors that lead to a precise behavior [55,56]. Therefore, the intention to undertake becomes a precursor to carry out entrepreneurial behaviors; that is, the intention predicts those behaviors which concretize from various antecedents, finally influencing the individual’s intention to create companies [42,57,58].

It is important to note that experience and education contribute to knowledge acquisition. The accumulation of business knowledge leads to a more realistic understanding of business activities which, in turn, influences the intention to pursue entrepreneurship [43,58,59]. However, when considering business or environmental education as a precursor to green entrepreneurship, it is essential to recognize the differences in background, interests, skills, and aspirations among individuals. These variations highlight the importance of green skills as an essential requirement for achieving environmental behaviors [35,60]. Therefore, to measure green skills, four dimensions are developed progressively and in different levels: green knowledge, mastery of green skills, use of green skills, and green skill development [36]. This proposal considers that green knowledge is first generated, followed by the mastery of green skills, the use of green skills and, finally, green skill development, as depicted in Figure 1.

It can be deduced that ecological skills are associated with ecological entrepreneurial intentions, which require ecological knowledge and the mastery, use, and development of ecological skills. This leads to the following research question: is there a significant relationship between green skills and green entrepreneurial intentions? Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study, as summarized in Figure 2.

Hypothesis 1.

Green knowledge has a positive effect on the mastery of green skills.

Green knowledge is crucial for entrepreneurs to develop ecological skills and incorporate them into the execution of their projects. It serves as an input for the acquisition of information, which is subsequently transformed into skills. Only individuals with sufficient environmental knowledge can master green skills and identify ecological business opportunities to address problems and create solutions that are grounded in ecological awareness. The transition from mere cognitive acquisition to practical application requires a degree of mastery that enables the mobilization of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in an integrated manner [11,34,61,62,63,64,66].

Hypothesis 2.

Green knowledge has a positive effect on the use of green skills.

Green knowledge refers to the level of environmental knowledge possessed by an entrepreneur. For the use of green skills to be consolidated, the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge must first take place. In this way, the use of green skills that the entrepreneur has developed can be applied in projects oriented toward environmental sustainability. In other words, green knowledge is associated with the use of green skills, as the effective application of such skills requires that entrepreneurs feel confident in possessing them. The greater the environmental knowledge, the greater the capacity to exercise green skills. Moreover, constant execution reinforces and consolidates this process [11,34,61,62,63,64,66].

Hypothesis 3.

Mastery of green skills has a positive effect on the use of green skills.

The mastery of green skills facilitates actions that contribute to improving environmental protection. If entrepreneurs are able to master ecological skills, it will have a significant positive impact on their sustainable activities and, consequently, on environmental protection. Sustainable resource management and the adoption of ecological behaviors serve as antecedents for the effective use of green skills in real contexts. The greater the perceived mastery of a skill, the higher the probability that an individual will use it continuously and consistently [5,14,33,62,63].

Hypothesis 4.

Use of green skills has a positive effect on green skill development.

The development of green competencies requires prior mastery in their execution. The constant use of ecological skills constitutes a key factor for their progressive development, as continuous practice in real contexts fosters improvement and promotes the consolidation, refinement, and expansion of these competencies. Recurrent use of green skills enables individuals to consolidate what has been learned, identify limitations, and foster continuous improvement that drives further development [5,14,33,62,63].

Hypothesis 5.

Green skill development has a positive effect on green entrepreneurial intent.

Green skill development is a determining factor for green entrepreneurial intent, since the practical application of knowledge, skills, and attitudes oriented toward the adoption of environmentally responsible behaviors is a key driver of entrepreneurial intentions. Education in sustainable entrepreneurship generates green knowledge, which is recognized as a catalyst for sustainable entrepreneurial intent. Therefore, the antecedent of green entrepreneurial intent implies a process in which the acquisition of green knowledge comes first, followed by the mastery of green skills, then the use or application of green skills and, finally, the development of green skills, which stimulates the entrepreneurial orientation toward creating businesses or projects with business models that are grounded in sustainability principles [8,9,11,18,20,21,22,44,47,60,65].

2. Materials and Methods

This research is empirical, applied, quantitative, cross-sectional, descriptive, and explanatory. It aims to explain the causal relationships between ecological skills and ecological entrepreneurial intentions, which requires ecological knowledge and the mastery, use, and development of ecological skills as antecedents.

2.1. Population and Sample

The study population consisted of 1126 students enrolled in two higher education programs in the field of business in the state of Hidalgo during the July–December 2024 semester. These institutions were selected due to their similar characteristics in terms of graduate profiles in the business area and entrepreneurial orientation and they are studying sustainable development, as well as their accessibility and viability for the research team’s study. A statistical calculation of the sample for a finite population was performed, yielding a result of 288 students. However, thanks to the commitment of the researchers responsible for the project and the follow-up carried out with the students, the number of responses obtained exceeded the minimum required, with 766 responses collected, which compensated for incomplete surveys and ensured sufficient power in the statistical analysis. The sample size was increased prior to the objective statistical analysis of this study and is reported transparently. This reflects greater participation and allows for more reliable results, as it exceeds the minimum number indicated in the statistical sample.

2.2. Data Collection Method

The survey was presented as a data collection method and is structured into three sections. The first section collects sociodemographic variables such as gender, age, marital status, semester, and educational program, while the second part collects information through dichotomous and closed-answer questions about entrepreneurial intentions. The third section includes an adapted green skills scale [36], which consists of 15 items measuring four dimensions: 1. Green knowledge, 2. mastery of green skills, 3. use of green skills, and 4. green skill development. Five items are included to assess sustainable entrepreneurial intentions (Appendix A) [67].

All questions are measured on a Likert scale, as follows: 1—strongly disagree; 2—disagree; 3—indifferent; 4—agree; 5—strongly agree. To adapt the scale to the Mexican context, the research objective and the relevance of the scale were first reviewed, following which it was translated into Mexican Spanish and reviewed by an expert committee. In October, a pilot test was conducted with 30 students, and adjustments were made to the items that required greater clarity. Subsequently, psychometric validation was performed, yielding a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.878–0.942. Additionally, it was validated in the structural equation model.

2.3. Procedure and Data Analysis

The surveys were administered via Google Forms during November and December. First, the group tutors and members of the research group went to the classrooms to invite the students to respond. Subsequently, a link to the form was shared via institutional email, and a weekly reminder was sent.

To ensure respect for the participants, confidentiality of information, and informed consent, the project was submitted to the institution’s Research Ethics and Bioethics Committee, number key: ITESA/DTII/IGE/014-25, approval code: CEBI-01-2025. Therefore, based on Article 17, Section I of the Regulations of the General Health Law on Health Research in the Mexican Republic, it is considered a risk-free study, as no intentional intervention or modification of the participants’ physiological, psychological, or social variables was carried out.

The analysis of results was prepared in two sections. The first involved the descriptive statistics of the sociodemographic variables and the answers to the dichotomous and closed-ended questions. On the other hand, to achieve the objective of predicting the construct of green entrepreneurial intentions, we chose to use the PLS-SEM technique due to its exploratory and descriptive orientation in the Mexican context. Therefore, the relationships between green skills and green entrepreneurial intentions were assessed; that is, we sought to identify the relationships between the latent variables that explain the observed data through predictive analysis, as a relevant element in scientific research. Therefore, the structural equation model and multivariate statistical model were generated, allowing for hypothesis testing through the use of a data-generating model which may or may not fit the data [68]. The model was developed using SMART-PLS version 4, is a product manufactured by GmbH in Bönningstedt, Germany, enabling partial least squares (PLS) and path analyses to establish the correlations between indicators which, in this case, are those that determine green entrepreneurial intent.

To calculate the reliability and validity of the constructs, an evaluation of the latent variables—including green knowledge, mastery of green skills, use of green skills, green skill development, and green entrepreneurial intent—was carried out. All 21 items met the minimum required value of 0.70 [69].

3. Results

The descriptive results reflect that of the total number of students surveyed, of which 56.4% were women, 43.00% were men, and 0.7% preferred not to indicate their gender. The average age was 20.4 years. Regarding marital status, 95.7% indicated that they were single, 1.2% were married, 2.1% were in a free union, and 1.0% preferred not to respond. Participation by semester was as follows: first (16.97%), second (10.70%), third (15.14%), fourth (10.18%), fifth (13.84%), sixth (8.75%), seventh (13.32%), eighth (4.44%), ninth (4.05%), and tenth and above (2.61%). Regarding the educational program, 62.17% were studying for an undergraduate degree in Management and 37.86% a Business Management Engineering degree.

The results for the dichotomous questions are shown in

Table 1. Responses to dichotomous questions.

Description	Yes	No	Total
In my professional training, I have taken subjects related to entrepreneurship.	85.20%	14.80%	100.00%
In my professional training, I have taken subjects on sustainable development, ecology, and the environment.	91.10%	8.90%	100.00%
Do you feel you have a solid background in entrepreneurship?	73.10%	26.90%	100.00%
Have you studied any specific entrepreneurship program with a green or sustainable focus?	25.30%	74.70%	100.00%
Would you like to receive training in entrepreneurship with a green or sustainable focus?	83.40%	16.60%	100.00%

Source: own elaboration.

, indicating that 85.20% had taken subjects related to entrepreneurship and 91.0% had taken subjects linked to environmental issues. Only 73.10% perceived that they had solid training in entrepreneurship, and 83.40% reported that they would like to receive entrepreneurship training with a sustainable focus.

Table 2. Answers to questions about entrepreneurial intentions.

Description	Being an Employee of a Company	Being a Founder and Working in Your Own Company	Successor in a Family Business	Other, I Don’t Know Yet	Total
What was your intention when choosing the career you are currently studying?	34.5	48.6	7.0	9.9	100
What is your intention to choose the career you are currently studying after finishing your studies?	32.1	54.7	8.1	5.1	100
What is your intention regarding the career you are studying five years after finishing your studies?	24.3	65.4	8.3	2.0	100

Source: own elaboration.

presents the results regarding entrepreneurial intentions, showing that entrepreneurial intentions increase from the moment of choosing a career, upon completing studies, and five years after.

Figure 3 shows the multivariate statistical analysis was performed in SmartPLS 4, considering two phases: the first involved a measurement model that considers the psychometric properties of the scales used to measure the variables, while the second involved estimation of the structural model which implies the strength and direction of the relationships [70].

(a)

Measurement model

The generated model shown in Figure 4 illustrates the reliability of the items. After executing the PLS algorithm, it was found that all the items exhibited acceptable loading factors, ranging from 0.839 to 0.941; this result is significant, as the minimum value is 0.70.

The results obtained for validation of the previous model are shown in

Table 3. Internal consistency assessment (Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability).

	Cronbach’s Alpha	Compound Reliability (rho_a)	Compound Reliability (rho_c)
Green entrepreneurial intent	0.923	0.929	0.942
Green knowledge	0.878	0.886	0.916
Green skill development	0.887	0.888	0.931
Mastery of green skills	0.921	0.921	0.944
Use of green skills	0.942	0.942	0.958

Source: own elaboration.

below, which includes the internal consistency metrics; namely, Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability. Regarding the Cronbach’s alpha values for the five constructs, the minimum required value was met, as they were all greater than 0.7 [71,72,73,74,75]. Regarding the composite reliability, the results show values ranging from 0.878 to 0.942 for all constructs, higher than the desirable minimum value of 0.6 [76].

Table 4. External loadings, composite reliability, and average variance extracted.

Construct	Item	External Loading	Composite Reliability	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Green knowledge	GK1	0.805	0.878	0.733
	GK2	0.854
	GK3	0.868
	GK4	0.894
Mastery of green skills	MGS1	0.885	0.921	0.808
	MGS2	0.909
	MGS3	0.913
	MGS4	0.888
Use of green skills	UGS1	0.910	0.942	0.852
	UGS2	0.926
	UGS3	0.941
	UGS4	0.915
Green skill development	GSD1	0.932	0.887	0.818
	GSD2	0.939
	GSD3	0.839
Green entrepreneurial intent	GEI1	0.861	0.923	0.765
	GEI2	0.893
	GEI3	0.877
	GEI4	0.888
	GEI5	0.854

Source: own elaboration.

shows the convergent validity values, which refer to the representation of a set of indicators or items in a construct, validated in terms of the average variance extracted [AVE] which explains the variance between a construct and its respective indicators. In all cases, a value greater than 0.50 was observed, i.e., ranging between 0.733 and 0.852 [69,70,72,77,78,79]. Therefore, the observable variables determine at least 73.30% of the variation in each latent variable. Regarding such factors, a value of at least 0.70 is generally suggested [69,80,81].

Table 5. Discriminant validity analysis according to the Fornell–Larcker criterion.

	Green Entrepreneurial Intent	Green Knowledge	Green Skill Development	Mastery of Green Skills	Use of Green Skills
Green entrepreneurial intent	(0.874)
Green knowledge	0.569	(0.856)
Green skill development	0.667	0.692	(0.904)
Mastery of green skills	0.555	0.816	0.646	(0.899)
Use of green skills	0.663	0.739	0.752	0.752	(0.923)

Source: own elaboration.

shows the result of the discriminant validity analysis using the Fornell–Larcker criterion, which shows that each measurement variable—regardless of the number of indicators—explained at least 50% of the variance; in this case, they were found to exceed 80%, which indicates a good level [72,81]. In particular, the Fornell–Larcker criterion—which considers the square root of the AVE of the constructs for comparison of their correlations—confirmed that each variable shared more variance with its indicators than those of other variables, i.e., the correlation was higher with that construct than with the other constructs in the model [81].

Table 6. HTMT ratio matrix.

	Green Entrepreneurial Intent	Green Knowledge	Green Skill Development	Mastery of Green Skills	Use of Green Skills
Green entrepreneurial intent
Green knowledge	0.627
Green skill development	0.730	0.785
Mastery of green skills	0.599	0.899	0.715
Use of green skills	0.706	0.810	0.822	0.807

Source: own elaboration.

shows the Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratio matrix, which establishes whether the predictors are related to their respective constructs; in the matrix, the ratios should be less than 1. The HTMT results showed values below the threshold of 0.90 in all relationships except for one: Mastery of green skills with Green knowledge (0.899), which is at the upper limit, although there is a high correlation between both constructs, the discriminant validity can be considered acceptable under the criterion of 0.90 [82,83].

(b)

Structural model

Figure 5 represents the structural model and causal relationships between latent variables.

Table 7. Model fit evaluation.

	Saturated Model	Estimated Model
SRMR	0.047	0.068
d_ULS	0.456	0.982
d_G	0.525	0.545
Chi-cuadrado	2392.213	2437.961
NFI	0.839	0.836

Source: own elaboration.

shows the results of the structural model’s adequacy evaluation using the standardized residual mean square root (SRMR) as a measure of goodness of fit; the normalized fit index (NFI) was also calculated. The results confirmed the adequacy of the model, as the SRMR value was less than 0.08 and the NFI value is close to the acceptable threshold of 0.90, considering the exploratory context of the study [78].

Bootstrapping analysis was performed using two tails to validate the structural model and hypothesis testing results, which involved a non-parametric procedure to test the statistical significance of the PLS-SEM results [84,85,86]. Figure 6 represents the model generated via PLS, which indicates that all items were significant for each dimension (p < 0.000).

As shown in

Table 8. Coefficient of determination R².

	R-Squared	Adjusted R-Squared
Green entrepreneurial intent	0.445	0.444
Green skill development	0.565	0.565
Mastery of green skills	0.665	0.665
Use of green skills	0.613	0.612

Source: own elaboration.

, the R² value of the model was 0.445, reflecting that the relationship explained by the model is moderately confirmatory, i.e., 44.50% of green entrepreneurial intentions are associated with green skills. Therefore, green skills present a significant progressive relationship: first, green knowledge; followed by mastery of green skills; third, the use of green skills; and, finally, the development of green skills. Therefore, once the last level has been progressively reached, it is significantly associated with sustainable entrepreneurial intentions in the case of business students in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico [81].

Furthermore,

Table 9. Summary of results obtained with SmartPLS 4: Path Analysis.

	Path (β) Original Sample (O)	Statistics t (|O/STDEV|)	p Values	Comment
Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills	0.816	43.108	0.000	Accepted
Green knowledge -> Use of green skills	0.377	7.198	0.000	Accepted
Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills	0.447	8.480	0.000	Accepted
Use of green skills -> Green skill development	0.752	29.516	0.000	Accepted
Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent	0.667	21.363	0.000	Accepted

Source: own elaboration.

presents the results regarding the model and the proposed hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 was accepted (β = 0.816, p = 0.000), indicating that ecological knowledge has a significant relationship with mastery of green skills mastery. Hypothesis 2 was also accepted (β = 0.377, p = 0.000), indicating a significant relationship between green knowledge and the use of green skills. Similarly, hypothesis 3 was accepted, showing that there exists a significant relationship between the mastery and use of green skills mastery and green skills use (β = 0.447, p = 0.000). Regarding hypothesis 4, the results (β = 0.752, p = 0.000) indicated that there is a significant relationship between the use and development of green skills use and green skills development. Finally, hypothesis 5 was also accepted (β = 0.667, p = 0.000), confirming the relationship between the development of green skills and entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, the model allowed us to verify the existence of significant relationships between the four elements that drive green skills, which are developed progressively—first, green knowledge is obtained, followed by mastery of green skills, the use of green skills and, finally, the development of green skills—as well as their influence on green entrepreneurial intentions.

Table 10. Collinearity statistics for the inner model.

	Original Sample (O) VIF	Sample Mean (M)	2.5%	97.5%
Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
Green knowledge -> Use of green skills	2.986	3.019	2.441	3.530
Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills	2.986	3.019	2.441	3.530
Use of green skills -> Green skill development	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000

Source: own elaboration.

presents the collinearity statistics for the inner model. Multicollinearity reflects the linear dependence between predictor variables, i.e., the effect that each predictor variable has on the dependent variable—and can be assessed by calculating the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). All obtained VIF values were less than 5, indicating that multicollinearity between the data is unlikely [76,81,87].

Path coefficients are reported as standardized values ranging from −1 to +1, where higher absolute values indicate stronger predictive relationships between constructs, while values closer to zero suggest weaker associations. The statistical significance of these coefficients was assessed using the student’s t-values obtained through the resampling or bootstrapping procedure. As presented in

Table 11. Path coefficients (standardized regression coefficients).

	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)	T-Statistics (|O/STDEV|)	p Values
Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills	0.816	0.816	0.019	43.108	0.000
Green knowledge -> Use of green skills	0.374	0.377	0.052	7.198	0.000
Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent	0.667	0.666	0.031	21.363	0.000
Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills	0.447	0.443	0.053	8.480	0.000
Use of green skills -> Green skill development	0.752	0.752	0.025	29.516	0.000

Source: own elaboration.

, the relationships between Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills, Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent, and Use of green skills -> Green skill development were strong (0.816, 0.667, and 0.752, respectively). In contrast, the paths from Green knowledge -> Use of green skills and Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills were moderate (0.374 and 0.447, respectively). All relationships were found to be statistically significant [76,81,88,89].

Table 12. Coefficients of determination R².

	R2	Adjusted R2
Green entrepreneurial intent	0.445	0.444

Source: own elaboration.

shows the coefficient of determination, known as R², which is a statistical measure that indicates the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the set of independent variables in a regression model. In this case, it can be seen that 44.50% of the variability in entrepreneurial intentions was explained by the independent variables [76,81,89].

Furthermore,

Table 13. Effect sizes f².

	Original Sample (O)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)	T-Statistics (|O/STDEV|)	p Values
Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills	1.986	0.277	7.164	0.000
Green knowledge -> Use of green skills	0.121	0.037	3.250	0.001
Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent	0.800	0.136	5.880	0.000
Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills	0.173	0.049	3.552	0.000
Use of green skills -> Green skill development	1.300	0.209	6.208	0.000

Source: own elaboration.

shows the f² indicator was calculated to assess whether the omitted construct has a substantive impact on the endogenous constructs. The results show values greater than 0.15 and less than 0.35 for Green knowledge -> Use of green skills and Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills. Meanwhile, for Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills, Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent, and Use of green skills -> Green skill development, the values were greater than 0.35, indicating large effects [76,81,89].

Additionally,

Table 14. Effect sizes Q².

	Q2 Predict
Green entrepreneurial intent	0.282
Green skill development	0.457
Mastery of green skills	0.663
Use of green skills	0.544

Source: own elaboration.

presents the predictive relevance of the structural model was established, as estimated using Stone-Geisser’s Q² method, in which the obtained values must be greater than zero. Values greater than 0.35 are considered to be high for establishing the predictive validity of the model, as observed for Green skill development, Mastery of green skills, and Use of green skills, while the value for Green entrepreneurial intent was 0.282, which is considered a medium value [76,81,89].

4. Discussion

Sustainable development has become a fundamental part of all activities due to its significance in determining the future state of the world. Countries prioritizing green economies can gain environmental, social, and economic benefits by fostering awareness regarding the efficient use of natural resources [89]. Sustainable education, through green knowledge and the mastery, use, and development of green skills, plays a relevant role in influencing sustainable entrepreneurial intentions [79].

The results of this research make a valuable contribution to knowledge on the factors that influence green entrepreneurial intentions in the Mexican context, with the proposed model integrating green knowledge, mastery of green skills, use of green skills, green skill development, and green entrepreneurial intent [9,10,11,33,67].

The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values met the minimum required threshold, higher than 0.7 [71,72,73,74,75]. The [AVE] test results explain the variance between a construct and its respective indicators, in which values higher than 0.50 were observed, which is appropriate [69,72,77,78,79]. Regarding the factor loadings, a value of at least 0.70 is suggested, which was satisfied in the present analysis [80,81]. The Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratio matrix values indicated that the predictors are related to their respective constructs, as the quotients were all less than 1; furthermore, the discriminant validity results also reflected acceptable values [82,83]. The calculated R², F², and Q² values allowed us to validate the model, confirming that progressively developed ecological skills are significantly related to the ecological entrepreneurial intentions of business students in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico [76,81,89].

Of the five proposed research hypotheses, all were accepted, indicating the existence of significant relationships between the variables; in particular, Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills, Green knowledge -> Use of green skills, Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills, Use of green skills -> Green skill development, and Green skills development -> Green entrepreneurial intent. According to the literature review, studies have been conducted in different contexts and with various variables associated to ecological entrepreneurial intentions, including knowledge, educational support, attitude, self-efficacy, and norms [90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97].

In the present study, the statistical results allowed us to establish that, with respect to hypothesis 1, ecological knowledge has a significant effect on the mastery of ecological skills and has predictive capacity. This reaffirms the idea that ecological knowledge is a prerequisite for mastery of ecological skills [11,34,61,62,63,64,66]. Regarding hypothesis 2, it was observed that ecological knowledge has a positive effect on the use of ecological skills. In order to use ecological skills, it is first necessary to acquire and assimilate ecological knowledge [11,34,61,62,63,64,66].

Hypothesis 3 states that mastery of ecological skills has a positive effect on their use; i.e., it reaffirms that actions which contribute to environmental protection involve the mastery of ecological skills to use them in activities, thus achieving the adoption of environmental behaviors. If an entrepreneur perceives their mastery of a skill, they will have more confidence in its execution [5,14,33,62,63]. Hypothesis 4 proposes the existence of a relationship between the use and development of ecological skills. For the implementation of a sustainable project, it is essential that the entrepreneur has previously acquired the knowledge, mastery, and use of ecological skills and has completed their development, thus achieving a comprehensive cognitive process that is reflected in their behaviors [5,14,33,62,63].

Finally, hypothesis 5 establishes the existence of a significant relationship between the peak stage of green skills and green entrepreneurial intentions; this is because, in order to achieve green skills, knowledge must first be acquired, followed by mastering green skills, using them and, finally, developing them, thus achieving the synergy that gives rise to green skills, serving as a precursor to green entrepreneurial intentions in a manner which is promoted by sustainable education [5,14,33,62,63].

Therefore, this study establishes a theoretical framework that supports green skills and their relationships with the green entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the business field in the Mexican context. Accepting the five proposed hypotheses, it can be observed that the obtained results were similar to those obtained in the study conducted in Jakarta, Indonesia, involving students from three private university faculties, which examined the factors that drive green entrepreneurial intentions and demonstrated that cognitive knowledge is one of the influential factors. The mastery, use, and development of ecological skills were also associated as factors determining green entrepreneurial intentions [97].

Furthermore, a study conducted in Pakistan which included students from several universities concluded that educational support is an important aspect influencing green entrepreneurial intentions. This study included knowledge, skills, and networks and opportunities, as well as the application of AI tools in simulation exercises. These last three aspects were not taken into account in the present study [98]. On the other hand, research involving university students in China concluded that education in sustainable entrepreneurship improves students’ sustainable entrepreneurial intentions, generating the possibility of identifying opportunities as exposure to education for sustainable entrepreneurship can encourage people to create sustainable businesses, thus enriching the understanding of the relationship between education for sustainable entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial behaviors [99].

Another study involving students in Romania concluded that there exists a relationship between students’ green entrepreneurship training and their interest in implementing business ideas in this field, which arises from knowledge of opportunities to create green businesses and the level of development of entrepreneurial competencies, i.e., the mastery, use, and development of skills [100]. Furthermore, a study conducted in Africa with Tanzanian students confirmed that entrepreneurship education is an aspect that represents a proactive approach to promoting self-employment opportunities among young people. It was established that green entrepreneurship education that takes into account knowledge and skills is associated with green entrepreneurial intentions, although entrepreneurial self-efficacy acts as a moderating variable [101].

The results of previous studies indicate that, in order to ensure the effectiveness of education for sustainability in educational programs, it is essential to evaluate learning outcomes and the impacts of these initiatives using instruments to validate knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward sustainability [90,91]. Similarly, the results reflect the consistency between cognitive or knowledge aspects and tangible actions; for example, ecological knowledge and ecological entrepreneurial intentions are associated with the mastery, use, and development of ecological entrepreneurial skills and, consequently, ecological intentions [92]. Studies have shown that knowledge is not directly associated with behaviors, with practice also being an essential factor, as reflected in the four dimensions considered in this study [93,94,95].

5. Conclusions

Young people are catalysts for sustainable development and are expected to contribute to actions that promote a greener and more prosperous future. Green skills have the potential to enable students—as future organizational employees or entrepreneurs—to tackle challenges more effectively and develop creative solutions through sustainable approaches, thus proving to be a relevant precondition for the transition to a green economy.

Through the development of this study, knowledge was generated on the considered subject in the Mexican context; namely, environmental education can empower people to cultivate a sense of equal opportunities for the environment, allowing them to take advantage of their knowledge and skills in business activities. Entrepreneurial intentions increase from the moment a career is chosen, upon completion of studies, and five years later, and a high percentage of respondents expressed interest in sustainable entrepreneurship.

In this work, the construct and content validity of the proposed model was established in two phases: first through a measurement model that considers the psychometric properties of the scales used to measure the variables, and second through the estimation of a structural model that implies the strength and direction of the relationships. Through empirical research, a model of the relationships between the green skills and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions of students in the business area of higher education institutions in Hidalgo, Mexico was developed and assessed. These findings are relevant for both the educational and business sectors. As a result, it can be concluded that the following positive and significant relationships exist: Green knowledge -> Mastery of green skills, Green knowledge -> Use of green skills, Mastery of green skills -> Use of green skills, Use of green skills -> Green skill development, and Green skill development -> Green entrepreneurial intent.

It is essential that students acquire and assimilate this knowledge in order to achieve a deep understanding. This requires practical activities to strengthen their mastery of green skills and, consequently, their use and development in environmentally conscious projects, thereby equipping human talent with the ecological skills that society demands. This study recommends that, in order to integrate green skills into higher education curricula, it is essential to train teaching staff in topics such as the circular economy, environmental management, sustainable innovation and environmental responsibility, while also incorporating this content into curricula and establishing strategic partnerships with companies that are leaders in sustainable practices so that they can collaborate in curriculum design, contributing knowledge about the green skills that students should acquire in their professional training. In addition to linking companies and universities, this will allow for the efficient implementation of the five-pronged Helix model, which brings together government, universities and/or research centres, industry, society and, of course, the environmental aspect, with theoretical elements that can be put into practice. This will lead to working with multidisciplinary project-based learning that seeks sustainability in the environment in which universities are embedded and aligned with sustainability, projects that are not unique but can be replicated in more companies, solving real problems. On the other hand, education in sustainable entrepreneurship improves students’ sustainable entrepreneurial intentions by encouraging them to identify opportunities and develop their attitude. This improvement effect is greater the higher their level of empathy is. In addition, approaching sustainability issues can encourage motivation for the development of sustainable businesses. Finally, it is essential that the government promotes and drives an entrepreneurial ecosystem with a sustainable focus in such a way that it impacts social development while mitigating negative effects on the environment.

The significance of this work’s findings lies in identifying key areas within higher education institutions that need strengthening to foster sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. In particular, the progressive development of green skills is essential for consolidating business initiatives. The significance of this work’s findings lies in identifying key areas that need strengthening within Higher Education Institutions to foster sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. Grounded in the progressive development of Green Skills, essential for consolidating business initiatives.

The main limitation is that this study only considered students from two institutions that offer educational programs in the business area. It did not consider certain elements regarding personal attitudes towards entrepreneurship, subjective norms, or planned behaviors, which may act as variables moderating entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, a model with more variables could be developed, with the aim of further identifying the significant relationship between the use of green skills and green skill development. It would be relevant to continue the project to study the process and capacity of green knowledge absorption by students, to strengthen their sustainable skills.