Revisiting Crowded Restaurants in the Post-Pandemic Era: Exploring the Social Drivers of Emotion and Behavioral Intentions for Sustainable Dining Culture

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic brought significant changes to dining practices. Using meal kits, restaurant meal replacements (RMRs), and contactless dining became common, accelerating the trend toward personalized and convenient meals. Nevertheless, many people continue to prefer visiting crowded restaurants, willingly accepting the inconvenience associated with crowdedness. This paradoxical phenomenon suggests deeper social and cultural motivations beyond the basic function of eating. This study explores the social and psychological attributes of perceived crowdedness in restaurants—affiliation motivation, social proof, and human ambience—and examines their effects on customers’ emotions and behavioral intentions. A quantitative survey was conducted to assess customers’ emotional and behavioral responses to crowded dining environments, and the proposed relationships were tested using structural equation modeling. The results showed that all three attributes had a positive effect on emotional responses such as pleasure and arousal. However, only pleasure significantly influenced behavioral intentions, including revisit and word-of-mouth intentions, while arousal did not. These findings suggest that emotional pleasure derived from crowded dining environments is a key factor in encouraging continued customer engagement. The study offers theoretical and practical implications for designing emotionally and socially sustainable restaurant environments in the post-pandemic era.

1. Introduction

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic led to significant changes in the way people consume and experience food. Owing to health concerns and social distancing measures, the demand for individualized dining options, including delivery food service, meal kits, and restaurant meal replacements (RMRs), increased substantially. These shifts accelerated the trend toward more personalized and convenient dining practices. However, as societies recover from the pandemic, an intriguing trend has resurfaced: People remain drawn to crowded restaurants, even willingly tolerating not only the inconveniences but also the heightened safety concerns associated with them.

Prior studies have generally conceptualized crowdedness in retail and service environments as a negative factor—associated with discomfort, long waiting times, and limited personal space [1,2]. However, some researchers before the pandemic highlighted that crowdedness may also generate positive responses under certain conditions. For example, Pons et al. [3] found that crowdedness can evoke positive emotions among consumers motivated by hedonic goals, and Tse et al. [4] noted that customers may interpret crowded restaurants as indicators of good food, fair prices, and popularity. These findings suggest that crowdedness is not solely detrimental but can also carry social and psychological value.

In contrast, post-pandemic studies have primarily emphasized safety concerns in dining environments. Hygiene, safety measures, and social distancing have been identified as critical determinants of dining decisions [5,6], reinforcing the view of crowdedness as a source of risk to be avoided. While such research highlights the importance of safety perceptions, it leaves open a key question: why do consumers still choose crowded restaurants despite heightened awareness of health risks?

Taken together, the literature reveals an important gap. Although positive psychosocial aspects of crowdedness were recognized in some pre-pandemic research, little is known about their relevance in the post-pandemic context, where consumers’ dining behaviors have fundamentally shifted. To address this gap, the present study examines the overlooked positive dimensions of perceived crowdedness—affiliation motivation, social proof, and human ambience—and their influence on customer emotions and behavioral intentions, drawing on the stimulus–organism–response (S-O-R) framework [7]. By applying the S-O-R framework, this study provides a comprehensive model that explains how crowded dining environments can foster emotionally and socially sustainable restaurant experiences in the post-pandemic era.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses

2.1. Crowdedness

Crowdedness describes an individual’s perception of how many people are present, how much space is available, and how that space is arranged [8]. Research in the retail and service fields has generally examined crowdedness from two perspectives: the human and the spatial dimensions [9]. Human density is the number of people in a physical place [10], while built density is defined as the density of furniture and facilities in the space [11]. Moreover, since crowdedness is based on customers’ estimates, it is perceived differently according to various external variables, including individual [2], situational [11], and cultural [12] factors. These external variables have different modulating effects depending on the combination of the multiple variables present, and the single variables themselves [13].

Early research on the crowdedness perceived by customers, their emotions, and their behavior in retail and service atmospheres focused on the negative effects of crowdedness. For instance, crowded environments were often associated with discomfort, long waiting times, reduced mobility, and noise, all of which diminished consumer satisfaction [2,14,15]. However, subsequent studies have suggested positive aspects of perceived crowdedness as well. Huang [16] revealed that perceived human crowding can lead to positive emotions and behaviors. Noone and Mattila [13] also found that crowded conditions positively affect perceived service quality when people visit restaurants for hedonistic purposes. More recent studies conducted in the post-pandemic era have emphasized crowdedness as a source of health and safety concerns, indicating that it shapes consumers’ dining choices and strengthens the tendency to avoid crowded environments [5,6]. This is because spaces used by many people are perceived as places with a high risk of infection, and close physical distance to others is regarded as increasing exposure to contagious diseases [17].

Taken together, prior studies suggest that customers’ perceptions of crowdedness involve both negative evaluations—stemming from physical aspects such as the number of people in a space and spatial restrictions—and positive influences, including pleasure and expectations of service quality derived from social and psychological dimensions. Building on this discussion, the present study defines crowdedness as the perceived degree of crowding shaped by both human density and spatial density in service environments, and seeks to examine its positive social and psychological implications.

2.2. Social and Psychological Attributes of Crowdedness

Many researchers who have taken a socio-psychological perspective have argued that human density should be included as a component of the service environment [15,18,19]. Additionally, many hospitality industry studies have suggested various effects of a crowded environment on customers’ experiences and emotional responses [13,20]. However, despite this extensive research, the specific social and psychological properties that allow the crowdedness of the service environment to have a positive effect on customers have not been explored. This study focused on various studies related to social psychology, consumer behavior, and social service environments to find clues about crowdedness’s social and psychological attributes in service locations.

In social psychology and consumer behavior studies, the concept of affiliation motivation has been proposed to explain the psychology of consumers who prefer popular products or imitate other consumers [21,22]. Affiliation motivation refers to a person’s desire to feel a sense of belonging and to form meaningful interpersonal relationships with others [23,24]. Consumers may have this affiliation motivation and identify themselves as a social group member by using similar products to others [21]. Becker [25] explained that the greater the public demand for social consumption of, for example, restaurants and performances, the greater the desire for them because people have a desire to keep up with others. Therefore, it can be inferred that the psychological impetus of customers choosing crowded restaurants is related to affiliation motivation, and the environment of a crowded restaurant has attributes that satisfy these needs.

Furthermore, customers seek to be confident or reassured in their decision-making processes by basing their choices on those made by many people [26,27]. This stems from the concept of social proof, that is, the belief that the products and services that many people choose will be good. The concept of social proof refers to the tendency to make decisions based on the belief that the majority’s choices are the correct ones, which helps individuals feel confident and satisfied with their decisions and actions. In related studies, Ha et al. [28] and Herpen et al. [29] reported that the crowdedness of a restaurant is an important visual cue for customers to perceive its high value and quality, respectively. As such, the crowdedness of a restaurant can be understood as a visual representation of the choices (or purchases) of many customers and will influence other customers’ perceptions and behaviors as a form of social proof.

Lastly, surveys on the social servicescape have suggested that other customers are an important component of the service environment [30,31]. In the hospitality industry, such as in hotels, restaurants, and tourism locations where co-experience is inevitable, the number of other customers, other customers’ emotional states, customer interactions, and other customers’ appearances have been found to have a significant impact on customer experience [15,32]. In particular, in environments where a large number of people are gathered, for example, sports games, festivals, and concert tours, the vivid scenery and exciting atmospheres created by the multitudes of people have been noted to have a positive effect on attendees’ emotions [31,33,34]. Therefore, this study defined the characteristics of a unique servicescape, such as liveliness and bustling energy, that are created by many people as “human ambience”, and investigated the effect of this crowded restaurant attribute on customers’ emotional responses.

2.2.1. Affiliation Motivation

People desire to be recognized as members of society and to have meaningful relationships with others [35]. Shipley and Veroff [24] introduced this human need as the concept of “affiliation motivation”, which is necessary for developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships [23]. As people want to be loved and to belong, affiliation motivation influences individual goals and behaviors [36]. For example, individuals often align with dominant beliefs or widely accepted opinions to foster a sense of belonging and interpersonal connections; this tendency is manifested in behaviors that reflect social behavior [37]. This can be understood as people following social norms and standards to feel a sense of belonging and maintain positive emotions and self-esteem [38].

In the study of consumer behavior, the preference for popular products and consumption behaviors aimed at imitating others have been explained as motivated by the desire for belonging. Consumers tend to align their product choices with the choices of others in addition to their own views and believe that buying popular products puts them in the majority (“fitting in”; [29]). Therefore, they tend to confirm their belonging to society by using similar products to other people, and this need for affiliation has significantly impacted consumption behavior [39]. For example, when people flock to a restaurant, others want to eat there [40]. Consumers may not even check the product’s properties and may make their own purchase decisions based on the choices of others [41]. Moreover, it has been shown that conformity and imitated consumption as a consequence of affiliation motivation affect individuals’ perception of, and satisfaction with, purchased products or experienced services [42]. From this perspective, a crowded restaurant can be understood as providing a service environment that satisfies customers’ need for affiliation: Choosing a crowded restaurant with many people reflects social behavior since this choice will also affect a customer’s experience and emotions.

2.2.2. Social Proof

People desire confirmation from others that they have made the right choice in their decision-making process [29]. Cialdini [43] introduced the concept of social proof to describe the tendency to use the behaviors and judgments of many others when decision-making to determine whether one’s own judgments and actions are right in a particular situation. Social proof can be understood as a universal human tendency as people generally believe that the majority behaviors or opinions are right and that the risk of mistakes can be reduced by following them [44].

Studies on social psychology and consumer behavior that have used the theory of social proof’s framework have reported that people explore others’ behavior when making purchase decisions and follow the opinions of the majority [26,29]. Social proof is a mechanism of social verification that indicates social fit, good quality, and high value and has a significant impact on consumers’ purchase intentions [45,46]. Additionally, the higher the uncertainty, the stronger the impact of social evidence on these purchase decisions. The uncertainty of the consumption situation is determined by the type of purchase object; for example, uncertainty is greater in the selection of experience goods such as hotels, restaurants, and tourist experiences than for search goods, where the quality of products can be confirmed in advance [47]. Grafe et al. [48] reported a consumer tendency to believe that the more people gather, the better the place when choosing an outdoor resort, as per the theory of social proof. As mentioned above, in an empirical study of crowded restaurants and customers’ perceptions, Tse et al. [4] also observed that when customers perceive a restaurant’s crowdedness to be high, they believe that the restaurant’s food will be excellent, its prices will be low, and that it has a good image. Conversely, they found that customers assumed that the food’s quality of the food in quiet restaurants would be low, that its prices would be high, and that it had a bad image. Based on this previous research, the present study proposes that the crowdedness of a restaurant should be understood as an important means of presenting social proof to customers.

2.2.3. Human Ambience

In restaurants, other customers influence an individual’s emotional responses and overall experience [49,50]. The influence of other customers should be understood as a stimulus of the social environment that is affected by the presence or absence of others, even if no interaction occurs among them [31,49,51]. Turley and Milliman [52] suggested that human variables such as other customers’ characteristics, crowding, and human density should be considered factors that influence perceptions of service atmospheres. Further, Tombs and McColl-Kennedy [19] presented the concept of a “social servicescape” and explained that social density, context, and the emotions displayed by other customers are parts of the service environment that influence customers’ emotional responses. Therefore, it can be inferred that the atmosphere or sensory stimuli created by large numbers of people in a crowded restaurant can act as an attribute that influences customers’ restaurant choices.

For example, it has been reported that the exciting mood created by the presence of many other customers in crowded places, such as theme parks or festivals, leads customers to experience positive emotions and satisfaction [53,54]. Zheng et al. [31] proposed the concept of the “extended tourist gaze”, explaining that theme park visitors not only enjoy the rides and facilities but also develop feelings of pleasure and curiosity by observing how other tourists enjoy the park. From these findings, the unique servicescape characteristics of a crowded restaurant, such as its liveliness, vitality, and bustling energy, can be understood as environmental attributes that drive customers to visit. Empirical studies exploring human density in restaurants have revealed that when people visit a restaurant for hedonic purposes, the crowded environment has a positive effect on their emotional responses [3]. These results suggest that crowded environments have attributes that positively affect customers. In the present study, the unique environment created by many people in a restaurant is defined as “human ambience” and is presented as an attribute of a crowded restaurant.

2.3. Crowdedness, Emotion, and Behavioral Intention

Mehrabian and Russell [7] proposed a stimulus–organism–response (S-O-R) model to explain the flows of the external environment (stimulus), emotional states (organism), and individuals’ ultimate actions or responses. This model assumes that the effect of the physical and social atmosphere on customer behavior is mediated by a customer’s emotional state [55]. The S-O-R model has been employed in various studies related to both service and retail [56] and has been established as a theoretical basis for investigating customer’s behavior. In the restaurant industry, the S-O-R model has been used to demonstrate that customers’ emotions are formed in response to a specific assessment, which further determines their behaviors [57]. Jang and Namkung [58] reported that the perceived quality of restaurant attributes significantly influences customers’ behavioral intentions through their emotional state. Another study by Ryu [59] revealed that DINESCAPE factors, which encompass the environmental attributes of restaurants, explained customers’ emotions and behavioral intentions toward a restaurant. These studies show that the S-O-R model can be used to explore the relationship between attributes of crowded restaurants and emotional states and ultimately predict customers’ behavioral intentions. Building on prior research, the present study adopts the S-O-R framework. Specifically, the Stimulus is defined as the social and psychological attributes of crowdedness (affiliation motivation, social proof, and human ambience), which influence customers’ emotional responses as the Organism (pleasure and arousal). These emotional states, in turn, mediate the formation of customers’ Response, namely their behavioral intentions (revisit and word-of-mouth intentions).

2.3.1. Customer Emotions

Mehrabian and Russell [7] suggested that pleasure, arousal, and dominance are emotional states that mediate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. However, later research concluded that the dominant dimension has non-significant effects on behavior [60,61,62]. Many empirical studies have proven the robust relevance of the pleasure and arousal dimensions across a wide range of situations, while the dominance dimension failed. In this respect, Donovan and Rossiter [61] argued that dominance requires an individual’s cognitive interpretation, and it is difficult to apply it to situations that require an emotional response. In previous studies on the relationship between crowdedness and customers’ emotions, Mehta et al. [14] reported that an optimal level of perceived crowding positively affects customers’ emotions, pleasure, and arousal, while Eroglu et al. [63] reported that perceived human and spatial crowding affects various customer emotions differently. Drawing on these findings, this current study examined the relationship between the social and psychological attributes of crowdedness and customers’ emotions, proposing the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1.

Affiliation motivation related to crowded restaurants has a positive effect on the emotions of pleasure (H1a) and arousal (H1b).

Hypothesis 2.

The social proof of crowded restaurants has a positive effect on the emotions of pleasure (H2a) and arousal (H2b).

Hypothesis 3.

The human ambience of crowded restaurants has a positive effect on the emotions of pleasure (H3a) and arousal (H3b).

2.3.2. Behavioral Intentions

In studies set in restaurants, behavioral intention has been suggested as one of the representative response variables of customers’ emotions. Behavioral intentions have been examined in terms of word-of-mouth (WOM) practices and revisit intentions [14,58]. Positive WOM is defined as the degree to which customers convey their satisfaction or positive emotions about an event to friends, relatives, and colleagues [64]. Revisit intention, meanwhile, is defined as customers’ inclinations to prefer the same product, brand, or destination in the future [65]. Both WOM and revisit intention are generated when customers experience positive emotions and satisfaction as a result of a service, product, brand, or place. Li et al. [66] reported that perceived human crowding positively affects customer behaviors through emotions, and Mehta et al. [14] suggested that the effects of perceived crowding on patronage intention are mediated by customer emotion. This research expected that positive emotions stimulated by the social and psychological attributes of crowdedness may affect behavioral intention (Figure 1). Hence, the following hypotheses were developed:

Hypothesis 4.

Pleasurable emotions felt about crowded restaurants have a positive effect on word of mouth (H4a) and revisit intentions (H4b).

Hypothesis 5.

Arousal emotions felt about crowded restaurants have a positive effect on word of mouth (H5a) and revisit intention (H5b).

3. Materials and Methods

The data were analyzed using the two-step approach of a measurement model and a subsequent structural model. First, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the multiple-item scales of seven constructs to test whether the manifest variables appropriated the hypothesized latent variables. The adequacy of the individual items was assessed through composite reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Second, seven constructs, the measures of which were validated, were subjected to structural equation modeling (SEM) to verify the validity of the proposed model and the hypotheses.

3.1. Data Collection and Sampling

A preliminary test was conducted with 42 participants who had visited a crowded restaurant within the past three months to enhance clarity and verify the reliability of the measurement scales. Based on the feedback obtained from this pilot test, minor revisions were implemented to improve the clarity and wording. Prior to finalizing the questionnaire, three experts—two academic faculty members specializing in foodservice management and one restaurant franchisor with extensive operational experience—further reviewed the instrument. Additional refinements in phrasing and formatting were made according to their recommendations. For the main survey, this study suggested a specific situation of a crowded restaurant to the participants. The specific conditions included almost all tables being occupied, waiting for staff’s attention, and some waiting for a table during peak time. The present study also used a screening question to exclude any individuals who had not visited a crowded restaurant within the last three months for a hedonic purpose such as dining with friends or family. This ensured that our respondents met the criteria of this survey according to its specific research purpose. The sample was randomly recruited from the pool of restaurant visitors by the biggest online research panel group in South Korea, over a two-week period. The respondents that completed the online survey faithfully received a monetary reward as compensation for their participation. To avoid overlapping participation, the online survey link was made accessible for each participant just once.

A total of 397 valid responses were collected. The study’s sample included a nearly identical ratio of genders (female 50.1% vs. male 49.9%) and was primarily aged between 30 and 39 years old (34.8%) and 20 and 29 years old (29.0%). There were slightly more single (51.6%) than married individuals (48.4%). The respondents were mostly salaried workers (56.2%) and college students (12.1%), and most had attended a college or had a college degree (63.5%); 36.3% of respondents visited restaurants to dine once a week and 29.2% visited twice a week (Appendix A).

3.2. Measures

To empirically test the hypotheses, the study’s survey instrument was developed from multi-item scales validated in previous studies and modified to fit the study setting. The instruments surveyed crowded restaurant attributes (affiliation motivation, social proof, human ambience), customers’ emotions (pleasure, arousal), and behavioral intention (word of mouth, revisit intention). To measure affiliation motivation, this current study operationalized three items developed by Malone et al. [37] and Makki et al. [36]. One representative description read, “Visiting crowded restaurants means keeping up with trends”. To measure social proof, this study used three items based on Van et al. [29] and Tse et al. [4]. One description read, “I can avoid bad choices by visiting crowded restaurants”. Further, the human ambience attribute was measured via three items from Lin et al. [49] and Zheng et al. [31]. One description read, “Other customers’ conversations and movement make me feel like eating out”. For the two dimensions of customer emotion (pleasure, arousal), six items were adapted from Li et al. [66] and Mehta et al. [14]. Another six items were used to assess behavioral intention (word of mouth, revisit intention) based on Jang and Namkung [58] and Mehta et al. [14]. All items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1, strongly agree = 5; Appendix B).

4. Results

4.1. Construct Reliability and Validity Assessment

CFA was carried out to estimate the quality of the measurement model. The seven-factor confirmatory measurement model demonstrated an appropriate fit of its measurement properties. The χ² value with 168 degrees of freedom was 323.707 (p < 0.001). Given the known sensitivity of the χ² statistics test to sample size, several widely used goodness-of-fit indices demonstrated that the confirmatory factor model fit the data well (χ²/df = 1.927, GFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.937, IFI = 0.969, RMSEA = 0.048). As presented in

Table 1. Validity and reliability of the measures.

Construct	Standard Estimate	t-Value	AVE	CCR	Cronbach’s α
Affiliation Motivation	0.627	-	0.524	0.767	0.728
	0.720	10.311 ***
	0.730	10.371 ***
Social Proof	0.657	-	0.652	0.847	0.812
	0.858	13.250 ***
	0.809	12.982 ***
Human Ambience	0.802	-	0.663	0.855	0.842
	0.855	16.739 ***
	0.745	14.986 ***
Pleasure	0.853	-	0.798	0.922	0.874
	0.783	18.285 ***
	0.874	21.494 ***
Arousal	0.835	-	0.704	0.877	0.831
	0.700	14.871 ***
	0.834	18.525 ***
Word of Mouth	0.889	-	0.805	0.925	0.878
	0.843	22.202 ***
	0.802	20.322 ***
Revisit Intention	0.873	-	0.782	0.915	0.879
	0.839	20.999 ***
	0.808	19.773 ***

χ²/df = 1.927, GFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.937, IFI = 0.969, and RMSEA = 0.048; CCR denotes composite construct reliability, and AVE denotes average variance extracted; *** p < 0.001.

, the level of internal consistency in each construct was acceptable on account of Cronbach’s alpha estimates between 0.728 and 0.879, greater than the suggested threshold of 0.70 [67,68]. All of the composite construct reliabilities were over the recommended threshold (0.70), ensuring the adequate internal consistency of multiple items for each construct [69]. All standardized factor loadings ranged from 0.627 to 0.874, above the minimum criterion of 0.50, and were significant (p < 0.001; [70]). Additionally, the average variance extracted (AVE) of all constructs exceeded the recommended cutoff of 0.50, indicating that a large part of the variance was explained by the constructs [69,71]. Thus, convergent validity was assured.

Discriminant validity was tested by comparing the greatest squared correlation between constructs with the AVE [71]. As presented in

Table 2. Correlations and discriminant validity.

Constructs	M ± SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Affiliation Motivation	3.22 ± 0.94	0.524 a
2. Social Proof	3.38 ± 0.91	0.283	0.652
3. Human Ambience	2.74 ± 0.96	0.248	0.236	0.663
4. Pleasure	3.22 ± 0.78	0.255	0.239	0.257	0.798
5. Arousal	3.15 ± 0.85	0.342	0.194	0.323	0.689	0.704
6. Word of Mouth	3.45 ± 0.78	0.284	0.316	0.151	0.513	0.394	0.805
7 Revisit Intention	3.32 ± 0.83	0.152	0.266	0.170	0.446	0.308	0.774	0.782

M ± SD denotes mean ± standard deviation; ^a Diagonals: square root of AVE from the observed variables by the latent variables.

, all the AVE values were greater than the squared correlations between the constructs, which verified the discriminant validity of the latent variables in the research model [72]: Discriminant validity signifies that a construct does not significantly share information with another construct. To examine whether this survey instrument generated similar answers across all measurement items, Harman’s single factor test with an unrotated factor solution was used [73]. The results of this test showed that less than 50% (42.6%) of the total variance was explained by all observable items as a single factor, indicating that serious common method bias did not occur [72].

4.2. Results of Testing Hypotheses 1–5

Hypotheses 1–5, which predicted the significant relationships between crowded restaurant attributes, emotional responses, and behavioral intentions, were tested using SEM (Figure 2). The χ² value with 228 degrees of freedom was 471.472 (p < 0.001; Figure 2), indicating an appropriate model fit to the data (χ²/df = 2.068, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.952, NFI = 0.911, RMSEA = 0.052; [71]). Thus, the model’s fit was deemed satisfactory and appropriate for testing the hypothesized paths.

As shown in

Table 3. Results of testing hypotheses: Structural parameter estimates.

Hypothesized Path	Standardized Path Coefficient	t-Value	Results
H1a: Affiliation Motivation → Pleasure	0.223	3.160 **	Supported
H1b: Affiliation Motivation → Arousal	0.317	4.385 ***	Supported
H2a: Social Proof → Pleasure	0.270	4.081 ***	Supported
H2b: Social Proof → Arousal	0.129	2.002 *	Supported
H3a: Human Ambience → Pleasure	0.277	4.427 ***	Supported
H3b: Human Ambience → Arousal	0.368	5.779 ***	Supported
H4a: Pleasure → Word of Mouth	0.624	6.020 ***	Supported
H4b: Pleasure → Revisit Intention	0.646	5.900 ***	Supported
H5a: Arousal → Word of Mouth	0.124	1.204	Not supported
H5b: Arousal → Revisit Intention	0.034	0.310	Not supported

Baseline model fit: χ²/df = 2.068, CFI = 0.952, NFI = 0.911; RMSEA = 0.052, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

, Hypothesis 1a, which hypothesized a positive relationship between affiliation motivation and pleasure, was supported (β = 0.223, p < 0.01). Hypothesis 1b, which predicted a positive relationship between affiliation motivation and arousal, was also supported (β = 0.317, p < 0.001). The results of testing the first two hypotheses confirmed that as one attribute of crowded restaurants, affiliation motivation positively affected the customers’ emotional reactions of pleasure and arousal. Moreover, as predicted by Hypothesis 2a, social proof significantly influenced pleasure (β = 0.270, p < 0.001). Hypothesis 2b, which predicted a positive relationship between social proof and arousal, was also supported (β = 0.129, p < 0.05). However, in terms of the relationship between social proof and arousal predicted by Hypothesis 2b, a relatively low influence (β = 0.129) was discovered with 95% confidence compared with the other hypotheses. The results of testing the second two hypotheses showed that social proof had a generally positive effect on the customers’ emotional responses. As expected in Hypothesis 3a, human ambience had a significantly positive relationship with pleasure (β = 0.277, p < 0.001), and Hypothesis 3b, which predicted a positive relationship between human ambience and arousal, was also statistically supported (β = 0.368, p < 0.001). These results suggest that human ambience is a significant predictor of the emotional reactions of both pleasure and arousal. By synthesizing the results of testing Hypotheses 1–3, it was confirmed that all three social and psychological attributes of crowdedness in restaurants are significant factors affecting customers’ emotions of pleasure and arousal.

Hypothesis 4a, which linked pleasure and word of mouth, was supported (β = 0.624, p < 0.001), as was Hypothesis 4b, which concerned the relationship between pleasure and revisit intention (β = 0.646, p < 0.001). Conversely, both Hypothesis 5a, which expected a relationship between arousal and word of mouth, and Hypothesis 5b, which expected a similar relationship between arousal and revisit intention, were not statistically significant. The results of testing Hypotheses 4 and 5 showed that customers’ emotional reactions to crowded restaurants affect behavioral intentions differently according to the type of emotion experienced. Customers’ pleasure positively affected behavioral intentions in the form of word-of-mouth practices and revisit intention. On the other hand, the arousal emotion did not affect the respondents’ behavioral intentions. These findings suggest the possibility that pleasure may be a greater predictor of customers’ behavior than arousal in crowded restaurants, which is not a key determinant of behavioral intention.

5. Discussion and Implications

As restaurants are public venues where customers influence each other’s experiences, the dynamics among patrons should be considered as key elements of the service environment. Building on this understanding, this study examined how the social and psychological attributes of crowded restaurant environments—namely, affiliation motivation, social proof, and human ambience—affect customers’ emotions and behavioral intentions. While prior research in retail and service settings primarily focused on crowdedness as a physical constraint resulting in discomfort and diminished satisfaction, this study elucidated the positive, underexplored aspects of crowdedness that stem from psychosocial drivers. This perspective is especially timely, given the cultural transition in the post-pandemic era: despite the increase in personalized and convenient dining options such as meal kits and RMRs, many consumers still seek communal, emotionally fulfilling experiences offered by crowded dining spaces. Therefore, this study provides new insights by identifying the mechanisms through which crowdedness can promote culturally sustainable dining practices, with broader implications for emotional wellbeing and communal identity.

5.1. Discussion

Affiliation motivation is the need to be part of a group and maintain interpersonal relationships [39]. Humans may pursue belonging, empathy, and stability by aligning with the opinions and behaviors of the majority. This study confirmed that customers visiting crowded restaurants were motivated by affiliation and responded positively with feelings of pleasure and arousal, suggesting they value social trends, shared experiences, and mutual tastes. Social proof similarly plays a role in reducing choice uncertainty by validating individual decisions through group consensus. Accordingly, customers may derive emotional satisfaction from the presence of others, interpreting it as confirmation of their choice. This supports prior findings that crowded restaurants are often perceived as indicators of quality, value, and popularity [4]. However, the study also found that social proof exerted a weaker effect on arousal than on pleasure, suggesting that certainty and reassurance are more closely linked to stable emotions. This echoes findings by Li et al. [66], who reported that perceived crowdedness enhanced pleasure but not arousal. Further investigation is warranted to clarify the nuanced relationship between social proof and emotional arousal.

Human ambience refers to the lively atmosphere shaped by customer and staff interaction. This study found that such ambience positively affected emotional responses, especially pleasure, among diners in crowded settings. This aligns with previous studies noting that human crowding enhances satisfaction during hedonistic consumption [63,66].

Finally, the emotional outcomes triggered by these social and psychological attributes influenced behavioral intentions differently: while pleasure significantly affected intentions to revisit and share experiences, arousal did not. This suggested that sustained customer engagement is more dependent on steady positive emotions such as happiness and contentment than on transient excitement. These findings underscore the importance of exploring how pleasure-driven emotional responses support sustainable customer behavior in dining settings.

5.2. Implications

This study offers several practical suggestions for enhancing sustainability in restaurant environments:

First, operators should design service settings that promote positive psychosocial responses to crowdedness while minimizing physical discomfort. Strategies may include efficient staff deployment, thoughtful spatial layout, and ambiance-enhancing elements, including lighting and acoustics. These efforts contribute to emotionally inclusive environments where customers feel socially connected without being physically overwhelmed. Such a balance is essential in fostering sustainable customer satisfaction in the post-pandemic era.

Second, external tools that amplify affiliation motivation and social proof can enhance the perceived value of crowdedness. Marketing campaigns using social media, influencer promotions, or visible ratings and reviews can validate customer choices and foster communal experiences. Creating a brand image that resonates with cultural popularity not only fulfills social needs but also positions the restaurant as a space of shared identity, reinforcing sustainable patronage.

Third, the findings emphasize that pleasure—not arousal—is the emotional key to driving behavioral intentions. Thus, restaurant experiences should focus on delivering consistent emotional satisfaction rather than momentary excitement. Managers can design service flows and brand touchpoints that evoke joy, comfort, and contentment, all of which promote revisit and word-of-mouth intentions. Such design considerations support the creation of emotionally and socially sustainable dining spaces.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

Despite its contributions, this study has limitations that pave the way for future research directions.

First, the sample consisted solely of Korean participants, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. As prior research has shown that perceptions of crowdedness vary between cultures [3,18], future studies should collect data across diverse cultural, regional, and demographic backgrounds to enhance the universality of our insights.

Second, emotional responses were measured based on participants’ recollections, which may not accurately reflect in-the-moment experiences. Although recall-based methods are widely used in emotion research, future studies could integrate observational or experimental designs to better capture real-time emotional reactions in crowded environments.

Third, this study focused on hedonic dining situations and customers who returned to crowded restaurants after the pandemic. Future research should examine varied situational contexts and also consider the perspectives of consumers who remain highly sensitive to safety concerns.