Exploring Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of Transformational Leadership, Innovative Work Behavior, and Organizational Culture in Public Universities of Sierra Leone

Abstract

Sierra Leone possesses distinct educational, economic, and social characteristics. Public universities in the country, funded by the government, are mandated to promote sustainable development, ethical conduct, and social welfare, aligning with national development strategies such as the Midterm National Development Plan and the Education Sector Plan, which emphasize leadership, diversity, and ethical standards to advance sustainable development practices. This study applies Transformational Leadership Theory to investigate the influence of transformational leadership on corporate social responsibility, exploring the mediating role of innovative work behavior and the moderating effect of organizational culture on this relationship. Using a stratified sampling technique, data were collected from 367 employees across six public universities in Sierra Leone and analyzed with SMART PLS software 4.1.1.2. The findings revealed that transformational leadership positively and significantly impacts corporate social responsibility and innovative work behavior, with innovative work behavior partially mediating the relationship between transformational leadership and corporate social responsibility, while organizational culture positively and significantly moderates this relationship. Based on these findings, the study recommends that public universities in Sierra Leone integrate transformational leadership principles into their institutional frameworks to improve organizational outcomes and leadership effectiveness. This can be achieved through leadership development programs emphasizing transformational attributes such as inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and vision-sharing, alongside mentorship programs for leaders at all levels to strengthen leadership skills and foster an organizational culture aligned with institutional goals.

1. Introduction

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) plays a pivotal role in enhancing the reputation, community engagement, and long-term sustainability of public universities [1,2]. As institutions funded by the public, universities are expected to address social concerns, contribute to their communities, and operate ethically. CSR programs, which include efforts in environmental sustainability, social equity, and community involvement, reflect a university’s dedication to these values, cultivating positive perceptions and boosting its standing in the public eye [3]. Such initiatives also promote stronger collaborations with various stakeholders and local communities, demonstrating the university’s commitment to broader societal goals.

Furthermore, CSR initiatives can significantly enhance the attractiveness of universities to prospective students, staff, and partners. Universities involved in sustainability projects, such as renewable energy and waste reduction, display ecological responsibility that resonates with individuals who prioritize these values [4]. CSR also provides opportunities for student engagement in social or environmental projects, offering hands-on experience while contributing to community welfare. Institutions with a strong CSR focus often gain favor with stakeholders who value ethical practices and social progress, positioning these universities as leaders in social responsibility. Also, CSR initiatives pave the way for partnerships with businesses, government entities, and non-profit organizations, all of which value collaborations with socially responsible institutions [5]. Through these efforts, CSR strengthens both the reputation and societal impact of public universities.

Transformational leadership profoundly influences the internal culture and external mission of public organizations, aligning their goals with societal needs [6]. This leadership style fosters a proactive and dynamic environment in educational institutions, inspiring individuals to reach their full potential. Transformational leaders in higher education drive organizational progress, foster innovation, and promote academic excellence through integrity, vision, and adaptability [7]. They create an atmosphere that emphasizes continuous improvement, collaboration, and inclusivity, uniting staff, faculty, and students to achieve common goals, thereby improving engagement and satisfaction [8].

Transformational leaders advocate for academic research, foster an intellectually stimulating environment, and facilitate personal and professional development. They cultivate a culture that values diversity and inclusivity, crucial in the modern educational landscape [9]. By engaging with communities and supporting philanthropic initiatives, these leaders elevate their institutions’ prominence as socially responsible entities [10]. They attract purpose-driven individuals and foster a robust values-based organizational ethos [11]. This leadership style ensures universities remain adaptive and committed to empowering future generations, enhancing their internal development and external influence. Transformational leaders promote CSR by embedding ethical conduct and social accountability within their institutions [12]. By inspiring stakeholders to engage in community service, environmental sustainability, and ethical research, they align institutional missions with societal needs [1].

Transformational leaders emphasize social responsibility through initiatives addressing local and global challenges, including funding social justice programs, adopting sustainable practices, and fostering diversity [13]. They often establish partnerships with community organizations, enabling universities to contribute significantly to social and economic development [14]. By incorporating ethical considerations into curricula and research, transformational leaders shape future leaders who prioritize CSR [15].

Demonstrating socially responsible behavior, they encourage students and faculty to consider the societal implications of their actions, cultivating a socially aware culture that extends beyond campus boundaries [16]. Existing studies have explored the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR [17,18,19,20], primarily in profit-driven organizations. These studies discovered a positive and significant relationship between transformational leadership and CSR. However, research focusing on non-profit institutions, such as public universities, remains limited. This study extends transformational leadership theory by validating its impact on CSR in non-Western, resource-constrained universities—a context neglected in the existing literature [12,21].

Innovative work behavior involves generating and applying new ideas at work [22]. It reflects proactive employee efforts that enhance institutional performance, making it essential for understanding leadership’s role in driving responsibility. Organizational culture reflects shared values and norms shaping behavior [23]. It influences how leadership impacts outcomes by either reinforcing or constraining the translation of values into action. The mediating role of innovative work behavior and the moderating effect of organizational culture in this relationship have also been overlooked.

This study addresses these gaps by examining the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR in public universities, where social impact outweighs profit considerations. The study seeks to answer the following questions: What is the impact of transformational leadership on CSR and innovative work behavior in public universities? How does innovative work behavior mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR? How does organizational culture moderate this relationship? By addressing these questions, the study contributes empirically and practically to the literature. It highlights how CSR, as a driver of social justice, community development, and ethical education, can be integrated into public university operations through transformational leadership. This approach promotes collaboration between universities and communities, fostering a socially conscious student body and enhancing university–community relationships.

The study also investigates how innovative work behavior mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR, revealing how transformational leaders inspire employees to align institutional goals with socially responsible initiatives. Understanding the role of innovative work behavior enriches CSR operationalization by demonstrating the importance of employee-driven creativity in achieving CSR outcomes. Furthermore, the study examines how organizational culture moderates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR, offering insights into how cultural dynamics influence CSR effectiveness. This understanding helps leaders foster a socially responsible atmosphere and optimize conditions for CSR initiatives within diverse organizational settings. By analyzing these dynamics, the study provides practical implications for managers and policymakers aiming to embed CSR in public institutions. It underscores the relevance of aligning leadership practices with CSR goals to build trust, enhance institutional performance, and foster a culture of social responsibility. These findings contribute to the broader discourse on CSR, highlighting its critical role in public universities’ educational and societal missions.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Perspective

Transformational leadership theory, stakeholder theory, and social exchange theory are commonly employed frameworks for exploring the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR. Social exchange theory emphasizes reciprocal advantages in relationships, suggesting that transformational leaders can inspire greater CSR involvement by fostering trust and enthusiasm among employees [24]. It holds moderate importance, framing how universities respond to external expectations and align institutional actions with societal needs, especially in the context of CSR. However, this theory often focuses on individual-level interactions and may overlook broader organizational and contextual factors that influence CSR, particularly in large entities like public universities.

Transformational leadership theory directly links leadership behavior to CSR by demonstrating how leaders motivate employees to align with organizational goals [25]. While this theory aligns well with the study’s objectives, the roles of organizational factors such as culture and innovation in driving CSR activities remain underexplored. Stakeholder theory, which emphasizes balancing the interests of various stakeholders [26], provides a strong framework for understanding CSR. It is relatively supportive, helping to explain the interpersonal mechanisms—such as trust and reciprocity—that underlie the relationship between leadership practices and employee responses like innovation. However, it tends to neglect the internal leadership dynamics that underpin and propel CSR initiatives. Transformational leadership theory bridges this gap by explaining how leaders’ motivations, behaviors, and impacts on subordinates can drive CSR, particularly when innovation and organizational culture are considered.

Transformational leaders align their principles with organizational objectives, inspiring employees to exceed expectations and fostering responsible behaviors such as creative thinking, ethical conduct, and community engagement, all of which enhance commitment to CSR initiatives [27]. This leadership style emphasizes intellectual stimulation and personalized attention to encourage employees to actively participate in CSR projects, thereby shaping both individual behaviors and organizational success [28]. Leaders’ vision and motivational abilities influence the perception and execution of CSR within the organization, integrating social responsibility into its core operations and culture [1].

By embedding CSR into the organization’s values and activities, transformational leaders create a supportive and empowering environment that strengthens employees’ dedication to social responsibility goals [29]. This culture not only ensures the organization’s CSR objectives are achieved but also fosters widespread acceptance among stakeholders. Transformational leaders also drive corporate innovation by enabling employees to spearhead CSR initiatives and engage in creative problem-solving [30]. By cultivating an innovative culture, leaders integrate CSR into product development, sustainability efforts, and community outreach, producing tangible benefits for both the organization and its stakeholders. Innovative work behavior plays a critical role in mediating the relationship between leadership and CSR by enabling employees to make meaningful contributions [31].

Transformational leadership thus, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding ways that leaders influence CSR practices through innovation, organizational culture, and motivation [21]. By fostering commitment to CSR principles, creating an environment conducive to these initiatives, and recognizing innovative contributions, transformational leadership effectively enhances CSR in organizations. This leadership approach ensures that CSR is not only an operational priority but also a fundamental aspect of organizational identity and strategy.

2.2. Hypothesis Development

The conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 1.

2.2.1. The Influence of Transformational Leadership on CSR

Transformational leadership significantly influences CSR by shaping organizational culture and employee behavior to align with socially responsible objectives [21]. Transformational leaders foster a shared vision of ethical responsibility and community engagement, inspiring employees to prioritize societal needs over personal interests. These leaders emphasize the importance of CSR programs, creating a culture where employees feel motivated to contribute to broader social and environmental goals. Veríssimo and Lacerda [32] found that transformational leaders who prioritize ethics, sustainability, and integrity are more likely to integrate CSR into an organization’s core operations. Furthermore, transformational leadership has been associated with implementing practices that promote environmental sustainability and social justice [33]. By embedding CSR into the strategic vision and aligning individual and corporate goals, transformational leadership strengthens long-term organizational commitment to social and environmental concerns.

Transformational leaders play a pivotal role in enhancing CSR efforts, particularly in areas such as community involvement, sustainability, and product innovation [1]. Research by Jacobs et al. [34] and Mitchell and Walinga [35] highlights that transformational leadership encourages the development of innovative solutions to advance CSR objectives. By fostering a culture of creative thinking and challenging conventional practices, transformational leaders inspire employees to develop products and services that address societal needs, benefiting both the organization and the broader community [13]. A study by Sobaih et al. [36] discovered that green transformational leadership had a positive and significant impact on CSR.

The effectiveness of transformational leadership in advancing CSR is closely linked to its ability to cultivate a positive business culture rooted in ethical decision-making and moral conduct [37]. Transformational leaders set ethical standards and model appropriate behavior, emphasizing the significance of CSR initiatives. Roache [38] demonstrated that transformational leaders create an environment that not only supports CSR initiatives but also builds trust and respect among employees.

Motivating and inspiring employees to participate in socially responsible activities within and beyond the workplace is another critical aspect of transformational leadership [31]. Leaders who promote autonomy, empowerment, and personal growth foster an environment where employees are more inclined to engage in CSR efforts. Research by Huda et al. [39] shows that when employees feel valued and empowered by their supervisors, their involvement in CSR initiatives increases, enhancing the organization’s overall social impact.

Transformational leadership has also been shown to enhance employee loyalty and satisfaction, which in turn improves business performance through CSR initiatives [40]. Khan et al. [21] revealed that transformational leaders who support CSR activities boost organizational performance by fostering higher employee morale, collaboration, and job satisfaction. This positive outcome is often attributed to the alignment of organizational CSR objectives with employees’ values and beliefs. Based on these discussions, the study hypothesized that:

H1: 

Transformational leadership has a positive and significant impact on CSR activities.

2.2.2. The Influence of Transformational Leadership on Innovative Work Behavior

Transformational leadership significantly influences creative work behavior by inspiring individuals to transcend personal interests and adopt innovative problem-solving and cognitive approaches [41]. These leaders create a creative atmosphere by encouraging employees to explore new ideas and embrace innovation. Research has shown that transformational leadership enhances innovative behaviors by stimulating employees’ intrinsic motivation through the articulation of a compelling vision and the establishment of high expectations [42,43]. This leadership style motivates employees to go beyond their regular responsibilities, take calculated risks, and engage in innovative thinking.

An empirical study by Masood and Afsar [44] demonstrated that transformational leadership positively influences innovative work behaviors such as idea generation, concept promotion, and implementation. Transformational leadership is characterized by intellectual stimulation, which fosters creativity and innovation within organizations [45]. Leaders employing this style encourage employees to challenge conventional knowledge and explore innovative methods to enhance operations, products, or services.

By offering individualized attention, coaching, and recognizing employees’ unique needs, transformational leaders build confidence in their ability to innovate [46]. They inspire employees to adopt novel work practices by providing intellectual stimulation and targeted support. Employees who perceive their supervisors as supportive and invested in their personal development are more likely to take initiative and contribute fresh ideas, thereby boosting the organization’s competitiveness and innovation [47].

Transformational leaders also cultivate a collective sense of purpose, aligning organizational goals with employee aspirations [48]. Studies indicate that employees are more inclined to innovate when they believe their work serves a greater, meaningful purpose [49,50]. By fostering a sense of shared responsibility for innovation, transformational leaders create an environment where employees view creativity as a collective endeavor, enhancing the organization’s overall innovative work behavior. Based on these discussions, the study assumed that:

H2: 

Transformational leadership has a positive and significant impact on innovative work behavior.

2.2.3. The Influence of Innovative Work Behavior on CSR

Innovative work behavior enhances CSR by encouraging employees to apply new ideas and engage in creative thinking during socially responsible initiatives within their organizations [20]. Employees who exhibit creative behavior contribute to generating innovative ideas that improve ethical corporate practices, strengthen environmental initiatives, and revitalize community service programs. The proactive nature of innovative work behavior enables firms to develop novel approaches to addressing environmental, social, and governance (ESG) challenges, thereby improving CSR outcomes [51].

Empirical studies by Chaudhary and Akhouri [52] and Hur et al. [53] found that employees demonstrating innovative work practices are more likely to support and promote CSR efforts within their organizations. Innovative behaviors, including the generation and implementation of ideas, are closely linked to developing new products, services, and processes that align with an organization’s sustainability goals [54]. These behaviors directly connect CSR initiatives with innovation by enabling organizations to reduce their carbon footprint, enhance resource efficiency, and increase their positive impact on communities.

The motivation of employees exhibiting high levels of innovative work behavior often leads to improved CSR outcomes by addressing societal challenges within the workplace [20]. Research by Allal-Chérif et al. [55] revealed that employees are more likely to demonstrate social consciousness when they feel empowered to make innovative contributions to their organization. This empowerment encourages employees to propose ecologically sustainable practices, design new community engagement programs, and suggest ethical business models aligned with the organization’s CSR objectives.

The successful implementation of CSR strategies is also influenced by leadership and corporate culture, which play a pivotal role in fostering innovation [56]. Organizations that promote environments supportive of innovative work behavior ensure employees integrate CSR themes into their creative processes. Fedotova et al. [57] observed that strengthening a company’s CSR policies often leads to the emergence of innovative concepts and heightened creativity. Consequently, innovative work behavior enhances CSR program effectiveness by providing novel insights and solutions to critical social and environmental challenges. Based on these discussions, the study hypothesized that:

H3: 

Innovative work behavior has a positive and significant impact on CSR.

2.2.4. The Influence of Organizational Culture on CSR

The validity and execution of CSR are heavily influenced by organizational culture, which shapes employees’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors toward socially responsible initiatives [58]. A strong organizational culture that emphasizes sustainability, community engagement, and ethical behavior encourages employees to integrate CSR into their daily tasks, affecting organizational processes and decision-making. Research by Rodrigo et al. [59] demonstrated that a robust company culture that prioritizes social and environmental concerns enhances employee commitment to CSR programs and strengthens the overall CSR strategy. A study by González-Rodríguez et al. [60] discovered that organizational culture positively influences CSR. CSR initiatives are more impactful and sustainable when they align with the organization’s culture.

Studies show that CSR becomes central to an organization’s operations when its culture fosters responsibility, fairness, and transparency [61]. Yin and Zhang [62] found that companies with ethical cultures are more likely to adopt CSR programs because employees are motivated to align with the organization’s moral framework. Similarly, organizations that prioritize transparency and communication encourage employee participation in CSR efforts, fostering collaboration on projects that benefit society [39].

Organizational culture also influences employee engagement with CSR initiatives, shaping their sense of involvement in these activities [63]. A culture that values social responsibility and innovation can inspire behaviors that benefit both society and the environment, motivating the firm to create more extensive and innovative CSR programs. In contrast, organizations with a more traditional or profit-focused culture may view CSR as a mere obligation, which can undermine the effectiveness of CSR programs [64].

The cultural context in which an organization operates also affects the emphasis placed on CSR initiatives. In some cultures, social welfare and community development are prioritized, while in others, environmental sustainability is the main focus [65]. Therefore, organizational culture shapes how a company responds to societal demands and nurtures internal motivation for CSR.

For CSR programs to be effectively integrated and sustained within an organization, it is essential to cultivate a strong, supportive organizational culture [66]. Companies that emphasize CSR are better equipped to address societal issues, build stronger stakeholder relationships, and promote sustainable environmental and social welfare. Based on these discussions, the study hypothesized that:

H4: 

Organizational culture has a positive and significant impact on CSR.

2.2.5. The Mediation Role of Innovative Work Behavior in the Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and CSR

Mediation explains how or why one variable affects another—through a third variable that carries the effect. Transformational leaders create an environment that encourages creativity, problem-solving, and the generation of new ideas by inspiring and motivating colleagues to pursue a common goal [67]. This leadership style fosters the development of new products and processes to achieve CSR goals and promotes innovative solutions to existing challenges. Innovative behaviors are essential for successfully implementing CSR projects, enabling firms to more effectively and efficiently meet their social and environmental commitments [68].

Research by Abbas [1] found that transformational leadership enhances innovative thinking among employees, which positively influences their participation in CSR projects. Leaders cultivate a creative environment by providing intellectual stimulation, individualized attention, and inspirational motivation. This environment allows firms to adopt socially responsible strategies that address environmental and socioeconomic issues [69]. Within this framework, innovative work behavior is crucial for transformational leadership to effectively promote CSR. When encouraged to think creatively, employees are more likely to propose and implement CSR activities that advance the organization’s ethical goals.

Bin Saeed et al. [70] discovered that transformational leadership boosts business creativity and fosters innovative work behaviors. This creativity enhances CSR efforts by enabling firms to explore new ways of integrating ethical conduct into their operations. Employees may promote socially responsible community engagement activities or develop more environmentally sustainable production techniques [71]. Without the creativity fostered by transformational leadership, CSR programs might resort to conventional, less effective methods. Based on these discussions, the study hypothesized that:

H5: 

Innovative work behavior positively and significantly mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR.

2.2.6. The Moderating Role of Organizational Culture in the Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and CSR

Moderation explains when or under what conditions the relationship between two variables becomes stronger or weaker, based on a third variable. The relationship between transformational leadership and CSR is influenced by organizational culture. Transformational leadership, characterized by a focus on innovation, vision, and inspiration, typically creates a suitable and motivating environment within the organization [72]. However, the effectiveness of this leadership style in promoting CSR is contingent upon the underlying business culture. A culture that is indifferent to or resistant to these values may hinder the success of CSR initiatives [73]. In contrast, a culture that fosters sustainability, social responsibility, and ethical behavior can enhance the positive effects of transformational leadership on CSR activities.

Empirical research supports the significant role of organizational culture in shaping leadership outcomes. For instance, Pasricha [74] found that CSR and transformational leadership are more closely aligned in firms with a strong ethical culture. In such organizations, employees are more likely to support CSR programs and advocate for the environmental and social goals set by transformational leaders. This alignment of culture and leadership cultivates an environment where CSR is seamlessly integrated into the organization’s identity and daily operations.

Transformational leadership has a limited impact on CSR in organizations that do not prioritize sustainability or ethical practices [28]. In such firms, leaders can only successfully implement CSR strategies if their employees share the same values. Muralidhar et al. [75] found that organizational culture can either promote or hinder leadership behaviors, particularly those related to social responsibility. Transformational leaders may struggle to fully realize their CSR vision if their efforts are obstructed by a culture that does not prioritize CSR. Based on these discussions, the study assumed that:

H6: 

Organizational culture positively and significantly moderates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR.

3. Methodology

3.1. Sample and Data

This research focused on Sierra Leone due to its unique educational, economic, and social characteristics [76]. CSR plays a significant role in Sierra Leone, a developing nation that is rebuilding its infrastructure, educational system, and economy following a period of conflict. Public universities in Sierra Leone are well-positioned to lead CSR initiatives, with transformational leadership being essential for fostering a commitment to positive social change.

The study specifically targeted all public universities in Sierra Leone because they are mandated to promote sustainable development, ethical conduct, and social welfare due to their government funding [77]. This aligns with the nation’s broader development strategies, which emphasize leadership, diversity, and ethical standards to promote sustainable activities. These strategies include the Midterm National Development Plan and the Education Sector Plan. Transformational leadership enables university administrators to inspire faculty, staff, and students to embrace CSR principles and integrate them into the university’s culture [78]. Public universities, as influential societal institutions, served as ideal settings for this study, offering a model for other sectors across the country.

To determine a suitable sample size for this study, the Yamane formula was applied, based on the known number of staff at public universities in Sierra Leone. The Yamane technique is particularly effective for selecting a representative sample from finite populations, ensuring statistical significance within a defined margin of error. This approach is especially useful when surveying the entire population is impractical, as it allows for the collection of reliable data from a representative sample. The application of the Yamane formula in this study ensured precise and generalizable results while minimizing sampling errors and optimizing resource usage. The formula is provided below:

$$“n”= {\displaystyle \frac{Po}{1+P\left(e^2\right)}}$$

(1)

where “n” is the sample size;

“Po” is the population size (4388);

“e” is the margin of error (5%).

$$“n”={\displaystyle \frac{4388}{1+4388\left({0.05}^2\right)}}$$

(2)

$$“n”=367$$

(3)

3.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The study’s inclusion criteria were designed to ensure that participants are actively engaged in the governance of Sierra Leone’s public universities and possess relevant expertise. Only individuals with at least one year of tenure were selected, as they have a deeper understanding of institutional processes. To ensure the applicability of their insights, participants were required to hold a position integral to the university’s core operations, decision-making, or student services. Additionally, participants needed to be willing to provide informed consent to ensure ethical involvement and accurate data collection.

The exclusion criteria were set to eliminate participants whose activities are not directly linked to the institution’s current CSR initiatives. This study excluded individuals with less than one year of tenure, as they would have limited exposure to university processes. Contract and part-time employees were excluded due to their limited involvement in core tasks. Employees on extended leave were also excluded to prevent reliance on outdated information. Those who were unable or unwilling to provide informed consent were excluded to ensure ethical compliance and data integrity.

3.3. Sampling Technique

Table 1. Population and sample.

S/N	Names of Universities	Number of Staff	Sample Selected
1	University of Sierra Leone	1500	125
2	Njala University	1380	115
3	Ernest Bai Koroma University of Science and Technology	700	59
4	Milton Margai Technical University	450	38
5	Eastern Technical University	258	22
6	Kono University of Science and Technology	100	8
	Total	4388	367

presents the names and number of employees from the six public universities in Sierra Leone included in the study. A stratified sampling technique was employed to ensure that all public universities in Sierra Leone were adequately represented. This technique divides the population into distinct strata, with each university forming a separate group. Stratified sampling was the most effective method for this study due to significant disparities in staff distribution across the universities, ensuring proportional representation of each university’s staff population.

The selection of the sample size for each university was determined using the outcome of the Yamane formula, which allows for an equal selection of employees from public universities. For the University of Sierra Leone, with 1500 employees, the sample consisted of 125 participants. Njala University, with 1380 employees, had a sample of 115, while Ernest Bai Koroma University of Science and Technology, with 700 employees, had a sample of 59. Kono University of Science and Technology, Eastern Technical University, and Milton Margai Technical University had sample sizes of 8, 22, and 38, respectively. Proportional sampling enhances the validity and reliability of the results by ensuring each university’s representation in the study aligns with its proportion of the total staff.

3.4. Procedures for Data Collection

Questionnaires were distributed to university administrators, who then passed them on to staff members for data collection. The questionnaires were distributed according to the designated sample size for each institution, ensuring that the number of questionnaires sent to each university aligned with the expected staff distribution. This approach facilitated the systematic collection of data, ensuring that a representative sample from each university was effectively included in the study. The data collection took 6 months, starting in July 2024 and concluding in December 2024. This duration was necessary to ensure thorough engagement with multiple public universities, ensure accurate responses, accommodate institutional schedules, and overcome logistical challenges. This duration ensured data reliability and captured diverse perspectives essential for the study.

3.5. Measurement and Scale

This study used validated questionnaires to ensure the reliability and accuracy of the data collected. The details of these instruments are presented in

Table A2. Constructs.

Constructs	Dimension/Items	Source
Transformational Leadership	Idealized Attributes	Avolio et al. [79]
	I instill pride in others for being associated with me.
	I go beyond self-interest for the good of the group
	I act in ways that build others’ respect for me.
	I display a sense of power and confidence
	Idealized Behaviors
	I talk about my most important values and beliefs...
	I specify the importance of having a strong sense of purpose
	I consider the moral and ethical consequences of decisions
	I emphasize the importance of having a collective sense of mission.
	Individual Consideration
	I spend time teaching and coaching.
	I treat others as individuals rather than just as a member of a group.
	I consider an individual as having different needs, abilities, and aspirations from others
	I help others to develop their strengths
	Inspirational motivation
	I talk optimistically about the future
	I talk enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished
	I articulate a compelling vision of the future.
	I express confidence that goals will be achieved.
	Intellectual stimulation
	I re-examine critical assumptions to question whether they are appropriate
	I seek differing perspectives when solving problems.
	I get others to look at problems from many different angles
	I suggest new ways of looking at how to complete assignments
Corporate social responsibility	Operational responsibilities	Latif [80]
	The University has continuously improved the level of its service/education
	Long term strategies are established for the institution that guides the routine operations
	The University believes in efficient and reasonable resource distribution for effective working
	University is committed to embedding equality and diversity into all its operations
	University promotes freedom of expression, it encourages debate and discussion, and supports peaceful protest that does not endanger the health and safety of others
	The university has a clear whistle blowing procedures
	The university operates in a way that safeguards against unfair practices
	Internal stakeholder responsibilities
	The university encourages to engage in activities that would help in developing Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes
	The university provides equal opportunities for all its members
	The university undertakes a number of initiative to improve the quality of life at campus
	University makes sure that work of students and staff is fully supported, and they have a decent working environment
	The University Respects the rights and dignity of its students and staff and treats everyone fairly and without discrimination
	The University provides full, accurate, and all required information when required
	Legal responsibilities
	The university is performing in consistence with the expectations of the regulatory bodies for higher education
	The university complies with the standards, rules, and regulations as well as with federal, state, and local laws
	The university is fulfilling it legal obligations towards its stakeholders
	The university respects the highest standards of academic integrity and reports any violations of those standards to the concerned authorities for appropriate investigation and disposition
	The university is committed in eliminating any form of unlawful discrimination and promotion of equal opportunities
	University ensures and encourages workforce diversity (in terms of age, gender, or race)
	The university keeps its procedures and policies under regular review to ensure compliance with current legislation
	Ethical responsibilities
	University has comprehensive code of conduct
	University tries to perform in a manner consistent with expectations of societal and ethical norms
	University recognizes that corporate integrity and ethical behavior go beyond mere compliance with laws and regulations
	University has reduced consumption of scarce resource, such as Water and Electricity
	University encourages it students/Staff initiatives towards good environmental performance
	University encourages its members to follow professional standards
	The university promotes education and knowledge, and provides an institution open to all, irrespective of race, creed or political belief
	The University provides clear information where required to organization’s with whom it engages financially
	The University is committed to prevention of pollution on all major environmental aspects
	The University Behaves with honesty, transparency and fairness in all its activities and relationships with others
	Research/development responsibilities
	The University is involved in funding ‘relevant’ research
	Students and Teachers are educated regarding their social responsibility in their area of specialization
	University arranges for linkage with the industry in order to develop required skills in the students
	The University encourages and empowers staff to undertake research that creates social and economic impact and is engaged with the public, and expressing its strategic commitment to public engagement
	The University engages the public in, and communicating the outcomes of, academic research through knowledge transfer partnerships and events
	Philanthropic responsibilities
	The University is performing in a manner consistent with the philanthropic and charitable expectations of society
	University consistently offers scholarships to the needy
	University offers free of cost education service to the lower-level support staff
	University understands and offers time in submission of fee to students
	University offers financial support to employees/students for extra-curricular activities
	University regularly reports on development activity and communicate on an ongoing basis with its donors and supporters
	University participates in voluntary and charitable activities within their local community
	Community engagement
	The University Promotes opportunities for student volunteering (and associated fundraising), in support of community projects, thereby broadening the student experience
	The University Engages with community groups, including supporting social events which are relevant to achievement of the university’s mission
	The university promotes within local communities the opportunities for employment within the University
	The university understands and respects the needs of community and endeavors to work in consultation whenever appropriate
Organizational culture	The organization is a personal place. It is like an extended family. People share a lot of themselves with others.	Lee et al. [68]
	The management style of my organization is characterized by teamwork, consensus and participation.
	The glue the holds the organization together is loyalty and mutual trust. Commitment to the organization runs high.
	The organization is a very controlled and structured place. Formal procedures generally govern what people do.
	The management style of the organization is characterized by security of employment, conformity, predictability and stability in relationships.
	The organization emphasizes permanence and stability. Efficiency, control and smooth operations are important.
Innovative work behavior	Employee pay attention to issues that are no part of his daily work?	De Jong and Den Hartog et al. [81]
	Employee wonder how things can be improved.
	Employee search out new working methods, techniques or instruments.
	Employee generate original solutions for problems.
	Employee find new approaches to execute tasks.
	Employee make important organizational members enthusiastic for innovative ideas.
	Employee attempt to convince people to support an innovative idea.
	Employee systematically introduce innovative ideas into work practices.
	Employee contribute to the implementation of new ideas
	Employee put effort in the development of new thing.
	Employee

. This study utilized 20 questions from Avolio et al. [79] to measure transformational leadership across five dimensions: idealized, idealized behaviors, inspiring motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. These questions were specifically relevant to Sierra Leone’s public universities, where transformational leadership plays a key role in advancing academic personnel and fostering innovation by influencing faculty motivation, organizational culture, and performance.

For measuring CSR, 47 questions from Latif [80] were used, covering seven dimensions: operational responsibilities, internal stakeholder responsibilities, legal responsibility, ethical responsibility, research/development responsibilities, philanthropic responsibilities, and community engagement. These dimensions are relevant to public universities in Sierra Leone, given their significant organizational responsibilities. Operational responsibilities focus on resource management, internal stakeholder roles emphasize employee welfare, research and development drive innovation, philanthropic activities contribute socially, community engagement advances local development, and legal and ethical standards ensure compliance. These questions provide a comprehensive understanding of a university’s impact on its stakeholders and society.

Organizational culture was assessed using seven questions from Lee et al. [68]. These questions examine the attitudes, actions, and beliefs shaping an organization’s environment. They address communication patterns, leadership style, work atmosphere, and organizational principles, all of which influence motivation, decision-making, collaboration, and employee productivity. This set of questions helps measure performance and promotes a healthy, collaborative work environment aligned with common goals.

Innovative work behavior was measured using 10 questions from De Jong and Den Hartog et al. [81], focusing on employees’ processes for generating and implementing innovative ideas, techniques, or products. These questions assess readiness, analytical ability, proactivity, and ingenuity. Proactive action drives change, while implementation turns ideas into tangible results, fostering organizational growth and competitive advantage.

Each question was rated on a five-point Likert scale, adapted from Edonomokumor et al. [82], with the following responses: strongly agree (5), agree (4), undecided (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1). This scale allowed employees at the selected universities to assess the institution’s CSR, transformational leadership, organizational culture, and innovative work behavior.

3.6. Statistical Tools for Data Analysis

The analytical tool used for data analysis in this study was SmartPLS software 4.1.1.2, a powerful tool for Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). PLS-SEM is particularly effective for analyzing variable correlations in research with small to medium sample sizes [83,84]. This method was ideal for the study as it allows for the assessment of both direct and indirect relationships among latent variables. The software uses a routing modeling technique to estimate complex causal models, providing reliable results even when data do not conform to normality assumptions. SmartPLS was chosen for its ability to evaluate both measurement and structural models, as well as its flexibility in handling formative and reflective constructs [85].

4. Results and Data Interpretation

4.1. Demographic Analysis

Table 2. The sociodemographic features of the employees at the public universities in Sierra Leone.

		Stratified Sampling = 367	Percentages (%)
Gender	Females	209	56.95
	Males	158	43.05
Educational qualification	Diploma	43	11.72
	Undergraduate degree holders	37	10.08
	Master’s degree holders	102	27.79
	Doctoral degree holders	167	45.50
	Professional	18	4.90
Age distribution	18–30 years	67	18.26
	31–45 years	149	40.60
	46–60 years	106	28.88
	60 years and beyond	45	12.26
Role	Senior Management	45	12.26
	Academic Staff	178	48.50
	Administrative Staff	75	20.44
	Support Staff	34	9.26
	Technical Staff	35	9.54
Tenure	1–5 years	56	15.26
	6–15 years	243	66.21
	16 years and beyond	68	18.53

presents the demographic information of employees at public universities in Sierra Leone. The demographic distribution of 367 employees provides valuable insights into workforce composition and its impact on leadership, organizational culture, and CSR implementation. The higher percentage of females (56.95%, n = 209) reflects a gender-diverse workforce, underscoring the need for inclusive leadership and CSR programs. Public universities can ensure gender representation in CSR activities and decision-making by tailoring leadership programs to attract both male and female personnel, thus fostering diversity.

A notable portion of employees hold advanced degrees, particularly doctorates (45.50%, n = 167), indicating a highly educated workforce capable of making decisions and taking leadership roles. By involving highly educated personnel in CSR and leadership initiatives, the university can ensure it fosters a culture of sustainability and innovation. Additionally, providing professional development opportunities for employees with lower educational qualifications—such as diploma holders (11.72%, n = 43) and undergraduate degree holders (10.08%, n = 37)—can enhance their participation in CSR activities and help integrate them into leadership roles.

A significant proportion of employees (40.60%, n = 149) fall within the 31–45 age range, demonstrating a greater openness to innovation and change. This demographic plays a key role in driving the university’s shift toward more sustainable operations and CSR initiatives. Tailoring leadership development programs to this age group will ensure that they possess the necessary skills to manage CSR effectively. The leadership team also benefits from the experience and mentorship of older employees (46–60 years, 28.89%, n = 106) as well as the energy and perspectives of younger employees (18–30 years, 18.26%, n = 67).

Universities can leverage the knowledge of academic personnel, who make up over half of the workforce (48.50%, n = 178), to develop CSR initiatives aligned with the university’s core goals. Involving academic staff in CSR projects ensures that the programs reflect the university’s values and objectives. For successful CSR integration across all departments, the involvement of administrative staff (20.44%, n = 75) and support personnel (9.26%, n = 34) is also crucial.

The long tenure of many employees indicates the university’s competence and stability, enabling the effective execution of long-term CSR policies. This is particularly evident among employees with 6–15 years of experience (66.21%, n = 243). Less experienced employees (1–5 years, 15.26%, n = 56) can be mentored by their more seasoned colleagues, facilitating their understanding of the university’s CSR vision. Onboarding training that highlights the importance of leadership and CSR can help new employees align quickly with the university’s values.

4.2. Common Method Bias (CMB)

Harman’s single-factor analysis utilizing Principal Axis Factoring was employed to assess common method bias (CMB), and the results are presented in Appendix A (

Table A1. Common method bias (CMB).

Factor	Initial Eigenvalues			Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %
1	32.534	38.275	38.275	32.166	37.843	37.843
2	11.454	13.475	51.750
3	8.400	9.883	61.633
4	5.507	6.479	68.112
5	3.152	3.708	71.820
6	2.475	2.911	74.731
7	1.973	2.322	77.053
8	1.651	1.942	78.995
9	1.341	1.578	80.573
10	1.302	1.532	82.105
11	1.039	1.222	83.327
12	0.901	1.060	84.387
13	0.768	0.903	85.290
14	0.704	0.828	86.119
15	0.679	0.798	86.917
16	0.631	0.743	87.660
17	0.554	0.652	88.312
18	0.519	0.611	88.923
19	0.493	0.580	89.503
20	0.468	0.550	90.054
21	0.447	0.525	90.579
22	0.444	0.523	91.102
23	0.431	0.507	91.609
24	0.395	0.465	92.074
25	0.376	0.443	92.517
26	0.365	0.429	92.946
27	0.348	0.410	93.355
28	0.339	0.399	93.755
29	0.321	0.378	94.132
30	0.303	0.357	94.489
31	0.287	0.338	94.827
32	0.279	0.328	95.155
33	0.273	0.321	95.477
34	0.250	0.294	95.770
35	0.236	0.278	96.048
36	0.227	0.267	96.315
37	0.212	0.250	96.565
38	0.199	0.234	96.799
39	0.191	0.225	97.024
40	0.183	0.215	97.239
41	0.173	0.203	97.442
42	0.156	0.184	97.626
43	0.153	0.180	97.806
44	0.149	0.175	97.982
45	0.140	0.165	98.147
46	0.130	0.153	98.300
47	0.112	0.131	98.432
48	0.105	0.124	98.555
49	0.101	0.118	98.674
50	0.093	0.110	98.784
51	0.089	0.104	98.888
52	0.081	0.095	98.983
53	0.075	0.089	99.072
54	0.069	0.082	99.154
55	0.062	0.073	99.227
56	0.060	0.071	99.298
57	0.058	0.068	99.366
58	0.053	0.062	99.428
59	0.051	0.060	99.488
60	0.048	0.056	99.544
61	0.043	0.051	99.595
62	0.041	0.048	99.643
63	0.037	0.043	99.687
64	0.033	0.039	99.725
65	0.030	0.035	99.760
66	0.029	0.034	99.794
67	0.024	0.028	99.822
68	0.022	0.026	99.848
69	0.019	0.022	99.871
70	0.017	0.020	99.891
71	0.015	0.018	99.909
72	0.013	0.015	99.924
73	0.011	0.013	99.937
74	0.010	0.011	99.949
75	0.008	0.010	99.958
76	0.007	0.009	99.967
77	0.007	0.008	99.975
78	0.005	0.005	99.980
79	0.004	0.005	99.985
80	0.004	0.005	99.990
81	0.003	0.004	99.994
82	0.002	0.002	99.996
83	0.002	0.002	99.998
84	0.001	0.001	99.999
85	0.001	0.001	100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.

). The test determines if a single component accounts for most variance, suggesting bias. The first unrotated component represented 38.275% of the total variance, falling below the 50% threshold [82], indicating that CMB is not a significant concern in this study. The presence of multiple components with eigenvalues exceeding one further reinforces the absence of significant bias attributable to CMB.

4.3. Descriptive Statistics

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and summary of the study’s variables.

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Std. Deviation
Transformational leadership	367	1.00	5.00	4.327	0.4534
Corporate Social responsibility	367	1.00	5.00	4.047	0.3568
Innovative Work Behavior	367	1.00	5.00	4.421	0.4630
Organizational Culture	367	1.00	5.00	4.033	0.3524

presents the descriptive statistics and a summary of respondents’ answers to the study’s variables. The public universities in Sierra Leone demonstrate characteristics of transformational leadership, as indicated by the average score. This suggests that leaders in these universities engage in actions that inspire and motivate their staff, such as driving positive change and emphasizing a long-term vision. While the high score reflects the effective implementation of transformational leadership, there is still room for improvement in fostering innovation and aligning institutional objectives with broader social goals. Management should focus on adopting these leadership principles to empower and engage staff, helping them excel and more effectively support CSR initiatives.

The mean score for CSR indicates a strong commitment to ethical conduct and the potential for broader involvement in CSR activities. Although the score suggests that universities are integrating CSR into their operations, further efforts are needed. Practical implementations should include embedding sustainability into research, education, and community engagement. Raising awareness of CSR programs and ensuring they remain aligned with institutional values will enhance their impact.

The mean score for innovative work behavior highlights a significant level of employee innovation. Employees are capable of generating creative ideas, solving problems, and thinking innovatively. This suggests that innovation is present within universities, though there is still room for growth. To further these efforts, university management should provide staff with more opportunities for collaborative, interdisciplinary work that fosters innovation.

The organizational culture score reveals a strong connection between organizational values and the behaviors required to implement them. While the results suggest a positive alignment overall, universities must strengthen the consistency between their strategic goals and organizational culture. To achieve this, cultural elements that encourage collaboration, adaptability, and commitment to shared values should be prioritized.

4.4. Convergent Validity and Reliability

Table 4. Confirmatory factor analysis (convergent validity and reliability).

Construct (Dimension)	Item	Standardized Loading	AVE	CA	CR
Transformational Leadership	IDEATT1	0.951	0.905	0.965	0.965
	IDEATT2	0.969
	IDEATT3	0.917
	IDEATT4	0.966
	IDEBEH1	0.970	0.908	0.966	0.966
	IDEBEH2	0.938
	IDEBEH3	0.941
	IDEBEH4	0.961
	INDCON1	0.949	0.881	0.955	0.955
	INDCON2	0.944
	INDCON3	0.918
	INDCON4	0.944
	INSMOT1	0.921	0.845	0.939	0.940
	INSMOT2	0.912
	INSMOT3	0.921
	INSMOT4	0.923
	INTSTI1	0.950	0.878	0.954	0.955
	INTSTI2	0.951
	INTSTI3	0.936
	INTSTI4	0.910
Corporate Social Responsibility	OPERAT1	0.841	0.644	0.935	0.906
	OPERAT2	0.827
	OPERAT3	0.797
	OPERAT4	0.820
	OPERAT5	0.740
	OPERAT6	0.798
	OPERAT7	0.771
	OPERAT8	0.852
	OPERAT9	0.770
	INTERN1	0.949	0.924	0.984	0.984
	INTERN2	0.979
	INTERN3	0.941
	INTERN4	0.966
	INTERN5	0.969
	INTERN6	0.964
	LEGAL1	0.945	0.894	0.980	0.981
	LEGAL2	0.965
	LEGAL3	0.895
	LEGAL4	0.956
	LEGAL5	0.960
	LEGAL6	0.938
	LEGAL7	0.959
	ETHIC1	0.829	0.639	0.938	0.961
	ETHIC2	0.840
	ETHIC3	0.814
	ETHIC4	0.820
	ETHIC5	0.847
	ETHIC6	0.776
	ETHIC7	0.800
	ETHIC8	0.695
	ETHIC9	0.769
	ETHIC10	0.792
	RESDEV2	0.988	0.962	0.987	0.987
	RESDEV3	0.983
	RESDEV4	0.967
	RESDEV5	0.986
	PHILO1	0.960	0.856	0.971	0.972
	PHILO2	0.936
	PHILO3	0.952
	PHILO4	0.954
	PHILO5	0.945
	PHILO6	0.780
	PHILO7	0.856
	COMMUN1	0.975	0.949	0.982	0.982
	COMMUN2	0.960
	COMMUN3	0.977
	COMMUN4	0.984
Innovative Work Behavior	WRKIIN1	0.856	0.648	0.939	0.947
	WRKIIN2	0.873
	WRKIIN3	0.863
	WRKIIN4	0.847
	WRKIIN4	0.775
	WRKIIN5	0.809
	WRKIIN6	0.773
	WRKIIN7	0.813
	WRKIIN8	0.753
	WRKIIN9	0.873
	WRKIIN10	0.664
Organizational Culture	ORGCUL1	0.901	0.816	0.962	0.965
	ORGCUL2	0.899
	ORGCUL3	0.926
	ORGCUL4	0.931
	ORGCUL5	0.882
	ORGCUL6	0.892
	ORGCUL7	0.890

Normed Fit Index (NFI) (0.934), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) (0.016). Composite Reliability (CR), Cronbach alpha (CA), Average variance Extracted (AVE).

presents the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The purpose of the CFA was to obtain standardized loadings (Figure 2) for the items within the four constructs, which allowed for the calculation of composite reliability, Cronbach’s alpha (to assess construct validity), and average variance extracted (AVE) (to assess convergent validity). Conducting these assessments requires evaluating the fitness of the CFA model.

The fitness of the CFA model was evaluated using the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) and the Normed Fit Index (NFI). The model accounted for 93.4% of the observed variance, as evidenced by an NFI score of 0.934, which is considered an excellent fit. Typically, a model fit is considered excellent when the NFI score is 0.90 or higher [86]. An SRMR score of 0.016 indicates minimal discrepancy between the observed and expected correlations. SRMR values below 0.08 are regarded as indicating a good fit, as they demonstrate precise data representation with minimal residuals [87,88]. These results indicate that the CFA model is reliable and applicable for analysis. The data sufficiently support the theoretical framework and the constructs being tested, as shown by the acceptable model fit.

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a construct’s measurement. Composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha are the primary measures of reliability. A value of 0.70 or greater for both metrics is deemed acceptable [89,90,91], confirming the reliability of the constructs.

The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values for all constructs in the table exceed 0.70, indicating strong reliability. For instance, the composite reliability of 0.939 and Cronbach’s alpha of 0.947 for innovative work behavior reflect high dependability. These values are consistent across all constructs, with both composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha surpassing 0.70. The results in Table 4 show that each construct exhibits high internal consistency and accurate measurement.

The study used AVE and the standardized loadings of each item to assess convergent validity. For convergent validity to be established, each construct’s AVE must exceed 0.50, and each standardized loading must be greater than 0.60 [89]. Items with standardized loadings below 0.60 were excluded. For example, RESDEV2 had a standardized loading below the acceptable threshold and was removed from the analysis, ensuring that only constructs with higher loadings were considered.

For example, all items in the innovative work behavior (WRKIIN) construct met the convergent validity criteria, with standardized loadings greater than 0.60. The WRKIIN items had high loadings, with WRKIIN at 0.856, WRKIIN2 at 0.873, and WRKIIN10 at 0.873. Additionally, the AVE for innovative work behavior was 0.648, which exceeds the 0.50 threshold, implying that this construct explains more than half of the variance in its items. These findings were consistent across all constructs, demonstrating the presence of convergent validity.

4.5. Discriminant Validity

Table 5. Assessment of discriminant validity (Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio (HTMT) and Fornell and Larcker criteria).

	COMMUN	ETHIC	IDEATT	IDEBEH	INDCON	INSMOT	INTERN	INTSTI	LEGAL	OPERAT	Organizational culture	PHILO	RESDEV
Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio (HTMT)
COMMUN
ETHIC	0.038
IDEATT	0.291	0.07
IDEBEH	0.303	0.064	0.019
INDCON	0.292	0.068	0.208	0.416
INSMOT	0.165	0.055	0.582	0.579	0.575
INTERN	0.387	0.09	0.819	0.808	0.803	0.497
INTSTI	0.303	0.066	0.018	0.028	0.028	0.575	0.808
LEGAL	0.395	0.089	0.81	0.809	0.799	0.504	0.008	0.810
OPERAT	0.052	0.781	0.055	0.052	0.056	0.055	0.053	0.054	0.056
Organizational culture	0.539	0.143	0.189	0.203	0.199	0.597	0.197	0.192	0.205	0.164
PHILO	0.297	0.067	0.791	0.78	0.769	0.633	0.779	0.778	0.778	0.055	0.362
RESDEV	0.333	0.052	0.197	0.198	0.181	0.059	0.219	0.187	0.216	0.061	0.112	0.099
innovative work behavior	0.133	0.061	0.523	0.527	0.532	0.815	0.419	0.521	0.422	0.077	0.602	0.635	0.048
Fornell and Larcker criteria
COMMUN	0.974
ETHIC	0.035	0.799
IDEATT	0.284	0.076	0.951
IDEBEH	0.296	0.068	0.584	0.953
INDCON	0.283	0.073	0.468	0.677	0.939
INSMOT	0.160	0.032	0.555	0.553	0.546	0.919
INTERN	0.381	0.097	0.798	0.788	0.779	0.479	0.961
INTSTI	0.294	0.069	0.478	0.588	0.781	0.546	0.784	0.937
LEGAL	0.388	0.096	0.789	0.787	0.773	0.484	0.690	0.784	0.946
OPERAT	0.004	0.720	0.043	0.045	0.052	−0.016	0.058	0.043	0.063	0.803
Organizational culture	0.526	0.134	0.183	0.197	0.191	0.568	0.195	0.185	0.202	0.165	0.903
PHILO	0.29	0.071	0.764	0.754	0.741	0.604	0.761	0.748	0.758	0.055	0.348	0.925
RESDEV	0.328	−0.032	0.193	0.193	0.176	0.057	0.216	0.182	0.213	−0.044	0.111	0.097	0.981
innovative work behavior	0.135	0.017	0.510	0.512	0.513	0.762	0.412	0.503	0.413	−0.018	0.566	0.61	0.047

presents the assessment of discriminant validity using the Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) and the Fornell and Larcker criterion. The HTMT measures the consistency of correlations within a single construct and between multiple constructs (homotraits). An HTMT ratio below 0.85 indicates that the constructs are distinct and that discriminant validity is achieved. The discriminant validity criterion was satisfied with the HTMT score below 0.85 [92]. For example, the HTMT ratio between “IDEATT” and “INtern” is 0.819, which is below the 0.85 threshold, confirming that these two constructs are distinct and meet the discriminant validity requirement. The HTMT ratios for all constructs in the analysis are below 0.85, indicating the presence of discriminant validity.

According to the Fornell and Larcker criterion, discriminant validity is assessed by comparing the square root of a construct’s AVE with its correlations with other constructs [93]. Discriminant validity is established when the square root of a construct’s AVE exceeds its correlations with other constructs, suggesting a stronger association with its own indicators than with other constructs. For example, the AVE for “COMMUN” is 0.974, which is substantially greater than its correlation with “ETHIC” (0.035), confirming the presence of discriminant validity.

The results demonstrate that the model exhibits excellent discriminant validity, with constructs being accurately measured and distinct, as evidenced by the HTMT values and the Fornell and Larcker correlations.

4.6. Structural Model Assessment

The reliability and robustness of the structural model were evaluated using several metrics, including R², Q², f², and VIF values. The results are summarized in

Table 6. R-square and Q² predict.

Variable	R-Square	Q2 Predict
CSR	0.720	0.688
Innovative Work Behavior	0.340	0.332

and

Table 7. F-square and VIF.

Constructs	f-Square	VIF
Organizational Culture -> CSR	0.064	1.489
Transformational Leadership -> Innovative Work Behavior	0.514	1.000
Innovative Work Behavior -> CSR	0.329	2.166

. The model’s predictors demonstrated strong explanatory power, accounting for 72% of the variance in CSR, as indicated by an R² value of 0.720. Transformational leadership explained 34% of the variance in innovative work behavior, with an R² of 0.340. The model’s predictive relevance was confirmed by the Q² values: 0.688 for CSR and 0.332 for innovative work behavior. Positive Q² values suggest that the endogenous constructs are well-predicted by the exogenous variables.

The f² values reflect the effect sizes of the predictors. Transformational leadership had a large effect on innovative work behavior (f² = 0.514), while organizational culture had a small effect on CSR (f² = 0.064). Innovative work behavior had a substantial influence on CSR, with a medium-to-large effect size of 0.329. Multicollinearity among the predictors was absent, as evidenced by VIF values below 5 [94,95,96]. Specifically, transformational leadership (VIF = 1.000), organizational culture (VIF = 1.489), and innovative work practices (VIF = 2.166) each contributed uniquely to the model’s outcomes. The model is reliable and yields unbiased results, meeting all necessary criteria: the absence of multicollinearity (as confirmed by VIF), strong explanatory power (R²), predictive relevance (Q²), and significant effect sizes (f²).

4.7. Hypothesis Testing

The study’s empirical findings (direct, indirect, and moderating relationship) are presented in

Table 8. Empirical results and hypothesis testing.

	Hypothesis	Β	Standard Error	t-Statistics	p Values	Hypothesis Decision
Direct relationship
Transformational Leadership -> CSR	H1	0.904 ***	0.041	22.076	0.000	Accept
Transformational Leadership -> Innovative Work Behavior	H2	0.599 ***	0.044	13.579	0.000	Accept
Innovative work Behavior -> CSR	H3	−0.116 ***	0.056	2.069	0.039	Accept
Organizational Culture -> CSR	H4	0.140 ***	0.044	3.168	0.002	Accept
Mediation relationship
Transformational Leadership -> Innovative Work Behavior -> CSR	H5	0.069 *	0.036	1.937	0.053	Accept
Moderating relationship
Organizational Culture x Transformational Leadership -> CSR	H6	0.188 ***	0.068	2.758	0.006	Accept

*** p < 0.01, * p < 0.10.

and graphically in Figure 3.

Direct relationship

The research found that transformational leadership had a positive and significant relationship with CSR (β = 0.904, t = 22.076, p < 0.01), supporting the study’s hypothesis (H1). Additionally, transformational leadership had a positive and significant influence on innovative work behavior (β = 0.599, t = 13.579, p < 0.01), confirming the support for the study’s hypothesis (H2). Innovative work behavior, however, had a negative and significant impact on CSR (β = −0.116, t = −2.069, p < 0.05), with the significant effect supporting the study’s hypothesis (H3). Organizational culture demonstrated a positive and significant impact on CSR (β = 0.140, t = 3.168, p < 0.01), validating the acceptance of the study’s hypothesis (H4).

Indirect relationship (Mediation analysis)

The mediation analysis was conducted using the bootstrapping method, with 5000 iterations and a 95% confidence level, following the approach of Obeng et al. [91]. The analysis revealed that innovative work behavior partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR (β = 0.069, t = 1.937, p < 0.10), supporting the study’s hypothesis (H5). This partial mediation was observed due to the direct effect of the significant relationship between transformational leadership and CSR.

Moderating relationship

The study revealed that the moderating relationship between transformational leadership and organizational culture had a positive and significant impact on CSR (β = 0.188, t = 2.758, p < 0.01). These findings aligned with the study’s hypothesis (H6).

5. Discussion of Findings

The study shows that transformational leadership has a positive and significant relationship with CSR, aligning with findings by Manzoor et al. [40], Sobaih et al. [36], and Alrowwad et al. [18]. According to transformational leadership theory, leaders who instill ethical values, motivate, and advocate for their teams positively influence actions and outcomes aligned with broader organizational goals, including CSR [97]. This theory supports the finding that transformational leadership enhances CSR, with transformational leaders crafting an inspiring CSR vision that motivates individuals to align their efforts with long-term ethical objectives. Leaders also encourage innovation in CSR programs, addressing environmental and social challenges [98], while acting as ethical exemplars by prioritizing social responsibility.

These results emphasize that transformational leadership qualities—such as intellectual stimulation, individualized attention, and inspirational motivation—help foster a collective commitment to CSR [99]. Intellectual engagement inspires creative thinking around environmental issues, while tailored attention boosts employee engagement in CSR initiatives. Motivational support fosters solidarity around social concerns, driving a shared vision for addressing them [100].

Furthermore, transformational leaders can articulate clear objectives that garner support for CSR projects [21], establishing a culture that emphasizes ethical conduct and collaboration. The focus on recognizing employee achievements and promoting diversity strengthens commitment to CSR goals. Sierra Leone’s collectivist culture, reverence for authority, and robust communal values influence this outcome by inspiring transformational leaders in public universities to align their vision with social responsibility, community development, and institutional efforts aimed at national advancement and social impact.

The study results underscore the critical role of transformational leadership in enabling public universities to achieve their CSR objectives. By adopting these leadership practices, university leaders can foster ethical decision-making, community engagement, and sustainability, promoting a culture of responsibility [28]. Practical applications include involving faculty and staff in community projects, integrating CSR into curricula, and endorsing campus sustainability efforts, all of which enhance the university’s social influence and ethical reputation.

Additionally, transformational leadership had a positive and significant relationship with innovative work behavior, supporting the findings of Pradhan and Jena [101] and Stanescu et al. [102]. Transformational leadership encourages innovation by inspiring teams to exceed expectations [46]. Leaders motivate staff to explore new ideas and challenge existing norms [103], creating an environment where experimentation and creative solutions are encouraged. This fosters alignment between individual innovation and the organization’s strategic goals, enhancing creativity and execution.

Transformational leaders create a creative atmosphere by stimulating intellectual curiosity, motivating employees to grow and align their personal and professional goals, and providing individualized attention to support creative endeavors. These efforts enhance the organization’s innovative capacity and adaptability, as leaders focus on fostering trust, collaboration, and professional development [104]. The cultural focus in Sierra Leone on collaboration, flexibility, and communal assistance influences this result by enabling transformational leaders to inspire university personnel to engage in creative, trusting, and proactive thinking, thereby fostering a conducive atmosphere for innovative work practices in public institutions.

The study emphasizes the importance of leaders in public universities to cultivate environments that foster innovation. By adopting transformational leadership, university administrators can inspire faculty and staff to develop novel solutions for academic, social, and administrative challenges. Fostering collaboration, recognizing unique ideas, and supporting professional development to enhance creative problem-solving are key strategies for fostering innovation [105].

Third, the study found that innovative work behavior had a negative and significant effect on CSR, contradicting the findings by Cao [106] and Alhmoudi et al. [107]. Creativity and problem-solving, while crucial in many corporate contexts, can sometimes conflict with established CSR goals. Transformational leadership theory suggests that new work methods may challenge traditional norms, potentially undermining CSR efforts if not managed properly. Innovation driven by efficiency or profit may divert resources from CSR, especially if innovation initiatives lack adequate funding or alignment with CSR objectives [108].

These results suggest that innovative behavior can challenge CSR protocols if not carefully guided, underscoring the importance of leadership in ensuring alignment between innovation and CSR goals [109]. Leaders must establish clear protocols for ensuring that innovation supports CSR and create a culture where the social and environmental impacts of innovation are prioritized.

This issue may stem from resource limitations, misalignment between innovation and CSR objectives, or inadequate communication of CSR principles during innovation processes [110]. Addressing these challenges requires strategies such as integrating CSR into innovation agendas, fostering collaboration between departments, and offering training programs to incorporate sustainability into innovation.

Sierra Leone’s social and organizational culture influences this outcome; limited resources, insufficient institutional frameworks, and short-term objectives may hinder the transformation of innovative work behavior into effective CSR outcomes inside public universities. Sierra Leone’s collectivist culture may favor stability and group harmony, making institutions less receptive to disruptive innovation, which could explain the weaker connection between innovation and perceived social responsibility [111].

University administrators must set clear criteria for responsible innovation, requiring impact assessments of CSR in all creative projects. Incentivizing CSR-aligned innovations and creating a culture where CSR and innovation complement one another will help bridge any conflicts and encourage a more holistic approach to development.

Moreover, the study found that organizational culture had a positive and significant impact on CSR, consistent with prior research by Siyal et al. [112] and González-Rodríguez et al. [60]. A strong organizational culture drives ethical behavior and aligns values with CSR objectives, fostering a collective commitment to social and environmental responsibilities [113]. An inclusive, accountable culture promotes employee engagement in CSR, ensuring the organization meets both its internal goals and external expectations.

The study identified three factors contributing to this positive relationship: (1) organizations that promote inclusivity and participation empower employees to actively engage in CSR initiatives [114]; (2) organizations prioritizing sustainability projects are more likely to implement them; and (3) organizations emphasizing environmental preservation and community well-being further strengthen their CSR efforts [115].

The corporate culture in Sierra Leone, emphasizing collective accountability, community engagement, and ethical conduct, influences this result. These attributes significantly enhance the implementation of CSR in public universities.

These findings emphasize the need for public universities to cultivate a culture that integrates CSR into institutional practices. University leaders can promote sustainability and social responsibility through curriculum design, strategic development, and community engagement initiatives. Universities with a culture of responsibility, diversity, and ethical leadership can have a profound societal impact.

Additionally, the study reveal that innovative work behavior partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR. This supports the transformational leadership theory, which highlights the role of leaders in inspiring, empowering, and motivating employees to exceed expectations [116]. Transformational leaders encourage creativity, innovation, and commitment to organizational goals, including CSR. This mediation suggests that transformational leadership influences CSR outcomes through the promotion of innovative behaviors.

The mediation occurs through three factors: (1) transformational leaders foster intellectual curiosity in their followers to develop creative solutions for CSR challenges [117]; (2) individualized attention encourages employees to apply their unique skills to CSR tasks; and (3) an emphasis on ethical principles motivates employees to seek solutions that benefit the community and environment.

These findings provide valuable insights for the governance of public universities. University administrators can foster a creative environment by applying transformational leadership tactics and aligning operations with CSR objectives. Promoting innovative solutions to societal challenges will enhance the university’s impact [118]. Leaders should implement initiatives that empower employees to be creative while ensuring their efforts align with ethical and socially responsible goals.

Finally, the study found that organizational culture positively moderates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR. According to transformational leadership theory, a strong corporate culture enhances the impact of leadership efforts, including CSR [119]. A positive organizational culture fosters collaboration, ethical behavior, and a commitment to innovation, aligning leadership activities with CSR objectives.

A strong culture supports transformational leaders by fostering trust, collaboration, and accountability, enabling CSR efforts to succeed [120]. By incorporating CSR principles into university practices and policies, administrators can cultivate a culture that encourages accountability and innovation. Recognizing CSR achievements through incentives and rewards further promotes a participatory culture, ensuring that transformational leadership has a lasting impact on CSR outcomes.

6. Conclusions and Managerial Implications

How innovative work behavior mediates and organizational culture moderates the relationship between transformational leadership and CRS in public universities remains underexplored in the current literature. This study addresses these gaps by collecting data from 367 employees at six public universities in Sierra Leone using a stratified sampling technique. SMART PLS software was utilized for statistical analysis.

The study found that transformational leadership had a positive and significant influence on CSR and innovative work behavior. It was revealed that innovative work behavior partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR. This implies that transformational leaders inspire innovation in their employees, which in turn contributes to CSR outcomes. Also, the study observed that organizational culture positively and significantly moderates the relationship between transformational leadership and CSR.

A positive organizational culture, emphasizing collaboration and ethical behavior, amplifies the effectiveness of transformational leadership in driving CSR initiatives. The results of these findings highlight the importance of leadership practices, innovation, and organizational culture in enhancing CSR within public universities.

To improve organizational outcomes and enhance leadership effectiveness, public universities in Sierra Leone must adopt and integrate transformational leadership principles into their institutional practices. Universities should implement leadership development programs that emphasize transformational qualities, including inspirational motivation, individualized care, and vision sharing. Additionally, mentorship programs for leaders at all levels should be introduced to strengthen leadership skills and create an environment aligned with the university’s objectives.

Institutions should foster a culture that encourages risk-taking and creativity, enabling employees to develop innovative work practices. Strategies to cultivate this creative culture include providing platforms for employees to propose and implement new ideas, recognizing and rewarding innovation, and allocating funds for research and development. Encouraging interdepartmental collaboration and acknowledging creative contributions will increase employee engagement in organizational development.

To enhance leadership outcomes, the organizational culture must align with the university’s core values. Universities should clearly define their cultural principles, prioritizing innovation, ethics, and social responsibility. Leadership should actively support these principles by conducting regular cultural assessments, implementing reward systems that recognize adherence to cultural standards, and fostering open communication. Retreats and seminars focused on organizational culture can further engage staff and align them with institutional goals.

Furthermore, universities should prioritize CSR by integrating it with innovative work practices, thereby enhancing the integration of academic and administrative responsibilities. While all staff and students should participate in CSR activities, leadership should establish dedicated CSR committees to oversee long-term initiatives. Additionally, universities should design CSR training programs that align with global sustainability goals to ensure effective contributions to societal development.

By implementing these practical strategies, public universities in Sierra Leone can strengthen their institutional culture, align more closely with global and national development objectives, and enhance their leadership role. These initiatives will also benefit local communities, fostering the universities’ growth and long-term success.

7. Theoretical Implications

The findings presented significant theoretical implications for understanding transformative leadership dynamics in public institutions, CSR, innovative work practices, and organizational culture. The study highlights that innovative work practices are influenced by organizational culture, which in turn enhances CSR. This expands the application of transformational leadership theory in the public sector, particularly in higher education. The study broadens the scope of transformational leadership beyond corporate environments, emphasizing the critical role of leadership in addressing societal challenges through educational institutions.

The partial mediation of innovative work behavior adds complexity to leadership theories. It suggests that transformational leadership influences CSR both directly and indirectly by enhancing employee creativity and problem-solving abilities. Future theoretical models should incorporate intermediary processes, such as behavioral mechanisms, to more accurately represent the impact of leadership on socially responsible outcomes.

The moderating role of organizational culture underscores the importance of culture in shaping leadership performance. The findings contribute to corporate culture theories by demonstrating how cultural alignment can enhance the effectiveness of transformational leadership in driving CSR. By analyzing the interplay between leadership, behavior, and culture, the study addresses theoretical gaps and offers a deeper understanding of these interactions in advancing CSR.

Future research should explore how these relationships are influenced by institutional and cultural contexts, particularly in low-resource settings like Sierra Leone. Scholars are encouraged to apply established concepts across diverse contexts to gain a more in-depth understanding of organizational nuances and leadership in global higher education systems.

8. Policy Implications for Sustainable Development

In advancing SDG 4 (Quality Education), leadership development in public universities should be integrated into institutional policies to enhance educational delivery and management. Establishing structured leadership training for academic and administrative staff will support the creation of learning environments that are inclusive, forward-thinking, and responsive to evolving educational needs. These programs can be aligned with national education reforms outlined in Sierra Leone’s Education Sector Plan to ensure system-wide impact.

To contribute to SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), institutional policies must encourage a culture that values idea generation, adaptability, and proactive engagement among staff. Creating platforms that promote collaboration, recognize creative contributions, and support professional autonomy will lead to improved work satisfaction and performance. This approach reinforces a work environment where continuous improvement is embedded into day-to-day operations.

Supporting SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) requires embedding ethical governance, community engagement, and accountability into university frameworks. Formalizing social responsibility as a core function of institutional governance, rather than a peripheral activity, can improve transparency and public confidence. Aligning such reforms with Sierra Leone’s National Development Strategy will help establish higher education institutions as role models of ethical leadership and institutional integrity.

9. Limitations and Future Directional Studies

This study encountered a limitation due to the use of a stratified sampling method to recruit participants from six public universities in Sierra Leone. The need for diverse representation may have reduced the generalizability of the findings, as biases could have been introduced within the selected strata through the stratified sampling process. Future research should explore alternative sampling techniques, such as snowball or random sampling, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the population across various educational levels and departments.

Another limitation is the reliance on self-reported data. These datasets are susceptible to social desirability bias, where respondents may answer questions in a manner they believe is expected, rather than truthfully reflecting their beliefs or behaviors. This could compromise the accuracy of the findings. To mitigate this, future studies could include behavioral data collection methods, such as observational studies or mixed-methods approaches, which combine objective metrics and third-party assessments to validate self-reported data.

The study’s focus on Sierra Leone’s public universities may limit its applicability to higher education contexts in other countries. Future research should examine the generalizability or context-specificity of the results by exploring similar relationships in different countries or private institutions, as leadership, innovation, and CSR dynamics may vary based on cultural and institutional contexts. Expanding the research to include a broader scope of educational institutions will contribute to a more global understanding of the issues influencing CSR. Future studies could adopt mixed methods to explore how CSR–innovation tensions (SDG 9) intersect with gender equity (SDG 5) in African universities