Next Article in Journal
The Role of Urban Green Spaces in Mitigating the Urban Heat Island Effect: A Systematic Review from the Perspective of Types and Mechanisms
Previous Article in Journal
The Characteristics of Spatial Genetic Diversity in Traditional Township Neighborhoods in the Xiangjiang River Basin: A Case Study of the Changsha Suburbs
Previous Article in Special Issue
Ecological Enhancement Through Smart Green Village Development: Strategic Options, Key Influencing Factors, and Simulation Evidence from Hunan Province, China
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 17
Issue 13
10.3390/su17136131
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Contribution of Chikanda Orchids to Rural Livelihoods: Insights from Mwinilunga District of Northwestern Zambia

by
Jane Musole Kwenye
1,*,
Gillian Kabwe
1,
Peter Mulenga
2 and
Mwazvita Tapiwa Beatrice Dalu
3,*
1
School of Natural Resource, Copperbelt University, Kitwe 10101, Zambia
2
School of Humanities, Copperbelt University, Kitwe 10101, Zambia
3
School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela 1200, South Africa
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(13), 6131; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17136131
Submission received: 23 May 2025 / Revised: 20 June 2025 / Accepted: 23 June 2025 / Published: 4 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability of Rural Areas and Agriculture under Uncertainties)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Studies examining the role of chikanda orchids in bolstering rural livelihoods coupled with the associated socio-economic intricacies remain absent, especially in African settings. This study examined the contribution of chikanda orchids in supporting rural livelihoods, taking into account socio-economic influences through a case study of the Mwinilunga District of northwestern Zambia. The study employed a mixed methods approach using 303 semi-structured questionnaires, complemented by three focus group discussions and nine in-depth interviews. Study findings showed that revenue generated from chikanda orchid sales supported rural livelihoods and served a crucial function in addressing food scarcity challenges. Income derived from chikanda orchid sales accounted for 30.8% of total household income and exhibited an income equalization effect of 8% among households. Participation in harvesting chikanda orchids exhibited a significant correlation with gender (χ2 = 6; p < 0.05) and marital status (χ2 = 8; p < 0.05). This study showed the significance of chikanda orchids in supporting livelihoods, including socio-economic influences, particularly for poorer households that exhibit vulnerability to food deficits. Consequently, the need to develop effective chikanda orchid management strategies that are locally tailored and acknowledge the socio-economic intricacies associated with the chikanda orchids trade is fundamental.

1. Introduction

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs), defined as all biological resources obtained from forests for human consumption aside from timber [1], are vital in many rural settings of African developing nations. They are essential for fulfilling household subsistence needs and serve as a significant source of cash income, which helps to cover domestic expenses [2,3,4]. NTFPs also provide crucial natural insurance during emergencies, such as periods of food scarcity resulting from crop failures [5,6,7]. Furthermore, they hold traditional and cultural significance [7] and are integral to the livelihoods of rural communities [3,8], mostly poor households [9]. Since harvest locations are open or semi-open access and their extraction does not require specialized knowledge or equipment, NTFPs are especially appealing to the rural poor in Africa [6,10].
Among the diverse range of NTFPs, wild edible plants (WEPs) are especially noteworthy. In numerous developing nations, WEPs are a crucial food source for impoverished households facing food insecurity [11,12]. They provide essential vegetables, tubers, nuts, and fruits that are vital for ensuring food availability and enhancing the nutritional quality of diets [4]. As a critical food resource, WEPs support approximately 300 million people in developing countries [13] and serve as important backup options in vulnerable nations susceptible to drought and famine [14,15,16]. When household income is low, there is a high propensity for women, with greater responsibility for cooking, to rely on WEPs more frequently, especially those living in poverty [9,17].
Wild terrestrial orchids of the family Orchidaceae are vital WEPs gathered for their edible tubers, particularly in the Southern African region [18,19]. The tubers are used for food and therefore traded within and across countries. Consequently, orchid collection has long been a tradition in numerous rural areas of developing nations [20]. In many African nations, chikanda, a traditional meatloaf-like dish, is made from processed orchid tubers, primarily from the genera Disa, Hebenaria, and Satyrium [21,22]. For ethnic groups in the northeastern part of Zambia, chikanda was traditionally eaten at the rural household level during famine or as a seasonal supplement to staple foods [23]. Over time, this traditional delicacy has gained popularity nationwide as a nutritious snack [24]. This has also been observed in other African countries in the southeastern region, such as Malawi, Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of Congo, where chikanda orchid tubers are traded within and across countries [19,25].
Wild terrestrial orchids have been studied from various scholarly viewpoints, including distribution, diversity and utilization patterns [19], domestication potential and nutrient composition [26], molecular species identification [24], genetic sequencing alongside species diversity [22], and properties [25], as well as diversity, frequency, and population density [27]. Some studies [18,23,28] have concentrated on the escalation in the demand for edible orchids, which has subsequently led to a proliferation of transnational commerce. In view of the increasing demand for chikanda orchid tubers, some studies have highlighted emergent concerns regarding their sustainability, as the considerable exploitation pressure poses a threat to their future existence [19,22,29]. Nevertheless, investigations that scrutinize the role of chikanda orchids in bolstering rural livelihoods, along with the intricate socio-economic dimensions pertaining to their collection and trade, remain conspicuously absent, thereby rendering such aspects inadequately comprehended, particularly within the African context. This gap exists notwithstanding the fact that orchids constitute one of the most extensive plant families engaged in commercial trade at the local, national, and international scales [30,31]. Consequently, our research represents the inaugural effort to investigate the contribution of chikanda orchids in supporting rural livelihoods, taking into account the influence of socio-economic factors through a case study conducted in the Mwinilunga District of northwestern Zambia. This study helps to contribute to a deeper understanding of the importance and potential of chikanda orchids from a rural livelihood perspective. It also provides valuable insights for fostering the sustainability of both the chikanda orchids and the communities that derive support from this vital WEP.
In this paper, we seek to address the following research questions: (a) Does the chikanda orchid trade contribute to supporting rural livelihoods? (b) Is participation in chikanda orchid collection and trade associated with socioeconomic factors? The conceptual framework upon which this investigation is anchored is depicted in Figure 1. Previous research has demonstrated that NWFPs are essential components of rural livelihoods [3,8,9] and are influenced by various socioeconomic factors, such as gender, wealth status, marital status, and education level, among others [3,32]. Consequently, the conceptual framework for this study asserts that the collection and trade of chikanda orchids contribute to enhanced rural livelihoods and are correlated with socioeconomic factors (Figure 1).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study was conducted in Mwinilunga District, located in Zambia’s northwestern province. The district receives 1386 mm of rainfall on average each year, with cool–dry season temperatures ranging from 6 °C to 15 °C and hot–dry season temperatures from 24 °C to 32 °C [33]. The district is rich in Miombo woodlands, as well as Kalahari and Cryptosepalum forests. According to the most recent census carried out in Zambia, the population of the Mwinilunga District stands at 136,770 [34].
The Mwinilunga District was chosen for this study based on evidence of the presence of terrestrial orchid species utilized in chikanda production. Based on their involvement in chikanda orchid gathering, three communities in the district were chosen for the study. The communities included Kasang’a, Munwa, and Nyamikanda, as shown in Figure 2. The Lunda ethnic group, who lives in the chosen communities, is anecdotally known to collect chikanda orchids for both subsistence and income generation.

2.2. Data Collection and Analysis

The data for this study were procured through a household survey, focus group discussions (FGDs), and in-depth key informant interviews. A structured questionnaire, alongside in-depth key informant interviews and FGD guidelines, were developed in accordance with established formats and were approved by the Research Review Board at Copperbelt University. Prior informed consent was sought from all research participants. The sampling frame utilized for the household survey encompassed the aggregate number of households within the designated communities (N = 391). To obtain a 95% desired accuracy at the 95% confidence level, the required minimum sample size using Yamane’s formula [35] was 198. Nevertheless, to enhance statistical power, reliability of the results, robustness, and generalizability, the sample size for the survey was 303 households (66, 94, and 143 households in Kasang’a, Munwa, and Nyaminkanda, respectively), reflecting a sampling intensity of 77%. The sampling unit was the household, whereas the unit of observation was the head of the household.
Random sampling was used to select respondents for the household survey. This sampling technique was used because it accorded community members an equal chance of being selected, thereby minimizing bias and increasing the likelihood that the sample was representative. To obtain the random sample for the household survey, a number of steps were undertaken. Firstly, the list of households in the communities were obtained from the village registers. Secondly, based on the obtained list, households were assigned random numbers and then sorted by their random numbers. Lastly, the targeted households were selected in ascending order of the random numbers until the desired sample size was reached.
Key elements of the questionnaire for the household survey encompassed the socio-economic attributes of heads of households (gender, wealth status, marital status, and education level), household livelihood portfolios, and the species and quantities of chikanda orchids that were gathered, consumed, and sold, along with their corresponding sale prices. For the purposes of comparison, data were also acquired pertaining to the sale prices and quantities of agricultural products and additional forest products that were collected and sold.
The currency referenced in this manuscript was USD, which was converted from the local currency Zambian Kwacha (ZMW) at a conversion rate of USD 1 = ZMK 13, reflective of the prevailing exchange rate during the period of data collection. Data concerning the quantities that were collected, consumed, and sold were assessed utilizing the recall method [36]. The recall method was used due to its efficiency and ability to minimize bias from direct observation. To reduce the potential for recall bias, the household survey was administered right after the harvesting season for chikanda orchids. Households were stratified according to wealth in order to encapsulate the diverse categories of households [32,37,38]. Prior research demonstrated that local populations possessed a superior capacity to accurately evaluate the relative wealth within their communities [32,39]. Consequently, village leaders (n = 3–5) contributed to the delineation of wealth categories within the rural communities (Table 1). Prior to undertaking the household survey, the questionnaire underwent a pre-testing phase within the Nyaminkanda community (among 20 participants not included in the main survey) to enhance its efficacy. Both the main survey and the pre-testing were executed in July 2019 to synchronize with the period for chikanda orchid harvesting in the region.
FGDs and key informant interviews were conducted to complement and deepen the insights gathered from the questionnaire responses. The FGDs and interviews served to triangulate the responses obtained from the household survey. Purposive sampling was used to select the participants for the focus group discussions and interviews. Purposive sampling was used because it enabled the selection of participants based on their knowledge and experience in chikanda orchids collection, consumption, and sale, which was fundamental for addressing the study’s research questions. It was through FGDs that species of harvested chikanda orchids were ascertained. Three FGDs, one in each targeted community, were held. Each FGD included nine participants, comprising both male and female youths (19–35) and adults (over 35 years) from various wealth categories. A total of nine participants in the FGDs were within the ideal range feasible for allowing good balance between diverse perspectives and sufficient time for each participant to contribute to the discussion [40]. A total of nine (9) key informants, three (3) from each target community, consisting of village leaders and adult males and females, participated in the interviews.
Data for this study were analyzed using STATA (version 14.2) and Microsoft Excel (version 2016). Key statistical evaluations performed included descriptive statistics, the chi-square test of independence, and Gini coefficient analysis. To assess the relationship between categorical variables, the chi-square test of independence was employed. In accordance with the assumptions underpinning the chi-squared test [41], the dataset utilized in this study was acquired through random sampling, thereby enhancing the reliability of the findings. Moreover, the measurement scales employed for the variables were categorized as nominal and ordinal. In addition, the classifications of the variables were designed to be mutually exclusive.
The Gini coefficient analysis was utilized to assess the overall per capita income and the impact of income derived from the sale of orchid tubers in reducing income inequality among households. As articulated by [42], the Gini coefficient operates under the premise of no predetermined distribution of the data, with ordinal data being sufficiently robust for its calculation. The dataset for this investigation adhered to these foundational assumptions. Qualitative data were analyzed by synthesizing responses to identify emerging themes and categories.

3. Results

3.1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Study Sample

The mean size of households consisted of six individuals, with a predominant representation of male-headed households (83.5%). A significant proportion of household heads possessed less than a primary level of education, accounting for 37.0%, whereas those with tertiary education represented a negligible fraction (0.3%). Nearly half of the households were classified as poor (56.8%), and married household heads were in the majority (79.2%) (Table 2).
The gender of household heads demonstrated a statistically significant correlation with the wealth status of the household (χ2 = 37; p < 0.001), as well as the educational attainment (χ2 = 10; p < 0.05). Furthermore, a notable association was identified between marital status and wealth status (χ2 = 38; p < 0.001), along with a correlation between educational attainment and wealth status (χ2 = 17; p < 0.05). Additionally, a significant relationship was established between gender and educational attainment (χ2 = 10; p < 0.05).

3.2. Harvesting Chikanda Orchids Species and Perceptions on Wild Orchids Populations

The harvested species of chikanda orchids belonged to the genera Disa, Hebenaria, and Satyrium. The predominant species harvested were identified within the genus Satyrium. The majority of the participants in the household survey (99%) reported a perceived decline in the wild populations of chikanda orchids. This concern was similarly emphasized by participants in the FGDs. Upon inquiry regarding the status of chikanda orchid populations, one female discussant articulated her observations:
Overall the population of chikanda orchids in the wild is of great concern to us as there is definitely a significant reduction in the quantities of these valuable resources. In the past we never used to walk long distances to harvest chikanda orchids as is the case at the moment (Nyamikanda community interviewee).
The decline in chikanda orchid populations was further accentuated by respondents during the in-depth interviews. When prompted to provide commentary on the status of chikanda orchid populations, one male interviewee expressed his insights:
In the past we used to harvest as much as 20 kg of chikanda orchids from morning to mid-day. This is not the case anymore as often times we only manage to harvest a maximum of about 3 kg per day. This has now forced most of us to go as far as our neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to harvest chikanda orchids (Munwa community interviewee).
Overall, the findings derived from FGDs, in-depth interviews, and household surveys revealed a collective agreement concerning the declining populations of chikanda orchids in the study area.

3.3. Association Between Chikanda Orchids Harvesting and Socio-Economic Factors

Household survey findings indicated that 88.1% of household heads participated in the harvesting of chikanda orchids. In comparative terms, a greater proportion of female household heads engaged in this activity (98%) in contrast to their male counterparts (86.2%). The gender of household heads demonstrated a statistically significant correlation with participation in the harvesting of chikanda orchids (χ2 = 6; p < 0.05). In terms of marital status, it was observed that all widowed and divorced heads of households participated in the harvesting of chikanda orchids, while 96.9% of married and 85.4% of single heads of households were similarly engaged. Marital status exhibited a significant association with household heads’ involvement in the harvesting of chikanda orchids (χ2 = 8; p < 0.05).
The majority of the heads of households engaged in the harvesting of chikanda orchids possessed primary education (45%). Conversely, those with tertiary education represented a minority (0.4%). No statistically significant association was identified between educational attainment and involvement in the harvesting of chikanda orchids by the household heads (χ2 = 1; p > 0.05). Furthermore, no association was established between engagement in the harvesting of chikanda orchids by household heads and wealth status of the household (χ2 = 1; p > 0.05) (Table 3).

3.4. Relationship Between Household Food Shortages and Socio-Economic Factors

A significant 91% of households that participated in the survey experienced food shortages in the year prior to the current study, with poor households constituting the majority (96%) as compared to intermediate households (88%) and wealthy households (46%). A significant correlation was detected between the experience of food shortages and the wealth status of the household (χ2 = 37; p < 0.001). No significant correlation was found between the experience of food shortages and gender (χ2 = 1; p > 0.05). Additionally, the experience of food shortages was not significantly associated with marital status (χ2 = 2; p > 0.05) and educational level (χ2 = 1; p > 0.05) (Table 4).

3.5. Association Between Household Food Shortages and Socio-Economic Factors

Results revealed that 95% of the surveyed households across the three studied communities utilized income derived from the trade of chikanda orchids to mitigate household food deficiencies. When analyzed by gender, a slightly higher percentage of female-headed households employed income from the orchid trade to alleviate food deficits (96%), compared to male-headed households (94%). No significant association was observed between gender and the use of income derived from the chikanda orchids trade for mitigating food deficits (χ2 = 1; p > 0.05). When analyzed by wealth status, results indicated that a greater proportion of poor households utilized income from the chikanda orchids trade to alleviate food deficits (97%), compared to intermediate households (92%) and wealthy households (85%). A statistically significant association was noted between wealth status and the use of income generated from the chikanda orchids trade for mitigating food deficits (χ2 = 6; p < 0.05). When asked whether income derived from the chikanda orchids trade helped to cushion food deficits, a poor female head of household responded:
“If it was not for the income my household derives from the sale of chikanda, hunger would have eliminated us by now. The income we derived from chikanda sales is very critical in my household so all members of my household participate in chikanda orchids harvesting” (Munwa community interviewee).
No notable correlation was detected between marital status and the mitigation of food deficits utilizing income generated from the sale of chikanda orchids (χ2 = 3; p > 0.05), as well as between educational attainment and the alleviation of food deficits through income derived from chikanda orchid sales (χ2 = 2; p > 0.05) (Table 5).

3.6. Income from Chikanda Orchids Sales in Comparison to Other Sources

Surveyed households exhibited diverse income portfolios encompassing the sale of chikanda orchids, the marketing of forest products, agricultural and livestock production, financial assistance from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) through social welfare programs, and government-funded social cash transfers. When analyzed by community, income from chikanda orchid sales constituted 42.9% of the total household income within the Nyaminkanda community, whereas in the Munwa and Kasang’a communities, the respective contributions were 34.6% and 39.7% (Figure 3).
When stratified by wealth status, the average income generated from chikanda sales for poor, intermediate, and wealthy households were USD 26.39, USD 29.46, and USD 42.54, correspondingly. Poor households reported the highest annual household income from chikanda sales at USD 292.31, in contrast to intermediate households at USD 149.23 and wealthy households at USD 211.54. Furthermore, when categorized by gender, average incomes from chikanda sales were USD 34.92 for female-headed households and USD 27.23 for male-headed households. Female-headed households garnered the highest annual household income from chikanda orchids sales, amounting to USD 292.31, compared to male-headed households, which earned USD 211.54 per annum (Table 6).
In terms of contributions to overall household annual income, the findings revealed that income from the chikanda orchid sales constituted 30.8% of the total annual household income, while income from crop-based agricultural production made up 37.9%. Income from livestock production, sale of forest product, social cash transfer, and NGO social welfare support programs accounted for 16.7%, 12.4%, 1.7%, and 0.6% of the total annual household income, respectively (Figure 4).
When stratified by household wealth status, income generated from chikanda orchid sales contributed 43.6% to the total annual household income of poor households, while contributions to intermediate and wealthy households were 37.4% and 28.6%, respectively (Figure 5).
The computed Gini coefficient for total household income was 0.49. Upon the exclusion of income derived from the chikanda orchids trade, the Gini coefficient increased by 8% (0.57), indicating a rise in income inequality among households in the absence of income from chikanda orchid sales.

4. Discussion

Our results underscored the significance of the chikanda orchids trade in supporting rural households, taking into account socioeconomic influences. Our findings revealed that harvested chikanda orchid species belonged to the genera Disa, Hebenaria, and Satyrium, consistent with findings documented in previous research [24,34]. Knowing which species are collected for the expanding chikanda orchids trade allows for the identification of species that are vulnerable to overharvesting and can guide conservation planning, as noted by [24]. Our results also showed that a substantial proportion of households within the study sites participated in the harvesting of chikanda orchids, and the gender of the head of household was significantly associated with involvement in chikanda orchids harvesting for income generation. Furthermore, a substantial proportion of female-headed households actively participated in harvesting chikanda orchids for commercial purposes. This observation corroborates previous research indicating that orchid harvesting is predominantly undertaken by women [19,43]. It also aligns with existing scholarship that has elucidated gender-specific roles in the extraction of forest resources [32,44,45]. Our findings suggest that in order to proficiently formulate policies aimed at the sustainability of orchids, it is imperative to incorporate considerations of gender by acknowledging the impact of gender norms and roles on the accessibility, management, and engagement in the conservation and utilization of orchids. This calls for the establishment of equitable rights to resources, the encouragement of female involvement in decision-making processes, and the rectification of gender-specific obstacles associated with livelihoods reliant on chikanda orchids.
The involvement of household heads in the harvesting of chikanda orchids was found to exhibit a significant correlation with marital status, with a notably higher proportion of married heads of households participating in this activity. This observation is consistent with the findings of [46], which documented the impact of marital status on the extraction of forest products, particularly highlighting higher levels of involvement among married women. Our research study did not find a significant correlation between educational attainment and participation in the harvesting of chikanda orchids by heads of households. Nonetheless, a larger segment of participants possessed lower educational qualifications. This may be attributable to the notion that higher educational levels tend to divert individuals from subsistence-oriented livelihood activities, such as the harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), as education often provides access to alternative employment opportunities [4,47,48].
No significant relationship was detected between engagement in chikanda orchid collection and the economic status of the household, although a greater proportion of economically disadvantaged households were involved in this activity. Our findings indicated that wealth differentiation did not significantly influence participation in chikanda orchids harvesting, albeit economically poorer households exhibited a higher level of involvement, compared to their intermediate and wealthier counterparts. This observation reinforces prior studies that contended that economically disadvantaged households are more reliant on forest resources than their wealthier counterparts [49]. It is posited that due to their limited purchasing power to procure sufficient food to offset inadequate harvests, low-income households are compelled to depend heavily on the extraction of natural resources. The results of our study underscore the importance of taking into account the income levels of community members when formulating policies and conservation strategies pertinent to chikanda orchids. Specifically, such policies should be designed to be inclusive, thereby facilitating avenues for the economic empowerment of rural communities while concurrently safeguarding the conservation of chikanda orchids.
The income generated from chikanda orchid sales was identified as a significant contributor to the livelihoods of rural households in this study. Consistent with existing literature on rural livelihoods [1,50,51], our study showed that households within the study area employed multiple income sources to diversify their livelihood strategies. The income derived from the chikanda orchids trade constituted a significant proportional contribution to the annual household income. Furthermore, when stratified by wealth status, the relative contribution of income from chikanda orchid sales exhibited variability across wealth categories. However, despite the wealthy households attaining higher mean incomes from the sale of chikanda orchids than their poorer counterparts, the proportional contribution of chikanda orchids income to total household income was found to be greatest among poorer households, compared to intermediate and wealthy households. This shows that the contribution of income from the chikanda orchids trade to the overall annual household income diminishes as household wealth increases. This finding shows that the chikanda orchids trade is a significant income generator for economically disadvantaged households. This corroborates existing literature that identified non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as vital income streams within the economic framework of rural households [52,53,54]. Our study findings underscore the economic importance of chikanda orchids for economically disadvantaged households that exhibit greater vulnerability to food deficits [14,15,16] than their intermediate and wealthy counterparts. This accentuates the need to formulate conservation strategies and policies for chikanda orchids that recognize the economic significance of these orchids for rural communities while simultaneously promoting responsible harvesting and effective resource management. This is crucial in view of the observed decline in chikanda orchid populations [24,27,29]. To lessen reliance on the unsustainable harvesting of chikanda orchids, communities must have access to alternative sources of income. Consequently, it is essential to create policies that support such options. Furthermore, establishing policies that support fair pricing and trade practices is also crucial in order to guarantee that orchid collectors are fairly compensated for their products. Additionally, promotion of the community-based management of chikanda orchid resources is imperative. This necessitates the empowerment of communities to sustainably manage chikanda orchid resources, thereby cultivating a sense of ownership and accountability. Furthermore, facilitating and conducting community outreach initiatives to educate rural communities about the significance of chikanda orchid conservation and the advantages of sustainable practices is fundamentally important. In this sense, policies must effectively reconcile the economic requirements of rural communities with the long-term conservation of chikanda orchids.
The results of this study showed that in relative terms, income derived from agricultural production was the major contributor to total household income, followed by income derived from chikanda orchids. However, the derived Gini coefficient indicated an escalation in income inequality in the absence of income from chikanda orchids. This finding aligns with previous studies that underscored the income equalization effects of NTFPs within rural communities [32,55,56]. Given that the trade in chikanda orchids has the potential to reduce income disparities in rural communities, strategies that promote equitable access and involvement in the harvesting and trade of chikanda orchids are essential to maximizing the potential for income equality.
A substantial proportion of our study sample encountered food scarcity in the year prior to our study. The experience of food shortages was significantly correlated with the wealth status of the household, suggesting that economically disadvantaged households were disproportionately affected in comparison to their intermediate and wealthy counterparts. This finding substantiates prior studies that documented associations between food security and income levels within rural households [27,57]. Furthermore, our findings showed that a majority of the households that experienced food shortages utilized income from chikanda orchids to mitigate food deficits within their households. This underscores how important chikanda orchid revenue is as a safety net in addressing food shortages. Our results corroborate the findings by [54], which showed that NWFPs are indispensable in alleviating food shortages, as evidenced by a case study conducted in a rural community in Nigeria. While the results of our study demonstrated that the trade in chikanda orchids helps to alleviate food shortages and generate revenue, sustainable management strategies are essential to safeguard chikanda orchid populations and ensure their long-term viability. This is particularly vital in light of the diminishing populations of chikanda orchids, as indicated by [19,27,55,58]. Consequently, conservation strategies for chikanda orchids should be integrated into forest management policies to guarantee their sustainability. Both in situ and ex situ management practices are essential to promote chikanda orchid conservation.
Our study was not devoid of limitations. To start with, the study relied on self-reported quantities of chikanda orchids. This approach harbors the potential for recall bias in the self-reported quantities of chikanda orchids. Nevertheless, we mitigated the likelihood of such bias by administering the household survey right after the harvesting season for chikanda orchids, thereby augmenting the respondents’ recall prowess. Furthermore, our study employed cross-sectional data, which consequently limited the capacity to observe temporal variations, essential for understanding trends and causal relationships. The incorporation of longitudinal data in subsequent research would be advantageous in this context. Similarly, the identification of harvested chikanda orchid species was exclusively reliant on lists of species provided by participants during focus group discussions (FGDs). This approach was susceptible to groupthink bias and may have restricted the range of identified species, thereby impeding the formulation of a comprehensive inventory of the harvested chikanda orchid species. Future research could consider the use of molecular methods, such as DNA barcoding, to improve the accuracy of chikanda orchid identification.

5. Conclusions

This study examined the contribution of chikanda orchids to rural livelihoods, taking into account the influence of socio-economic factors. Our study showed that the chikanda orchids trade plays an importance role in supporting rural livelihoods, and socio-economic factors, such as gender and marital status, do have significant influence in determining participation in chikanda orchid harvesting and trade. Our findings showed that income generated from the chikanda orchids trade plays an important role in addressing food insecurity, particularly for economically disadvantaged households that are more susceptible to food shortages. In addition, income generated from the chikanda orchids trade constitutes a more significant proportion of the overall household income for poorer households in comparison to their more affluent counterparts. Our computed Gini coefficient illustrated an escalation in inequality in the absence of chikanda orchid income, thereby underscoring the equalizing effects of chikanda orchids-derived income. In this sense, income from chikanda orchids has the potential to lessen income disparity in rural communities, as evidenced by its equalizing effects. In particular, in rural areas, the trade in chikanda orchids can help close the gap between high- and low-income earners by offering reasonably accessible and lucrative sources of income. However, it is crucial to note that the extent to which the trade in chikanda orchids achieves an income-equalizing effect may depend on various factors, such as market accessibility, the scale of production, and the overall economic context of the region under consideration.
While our study empirically demonstrated the importance of the chikanda orchids trade in generating revenue and promoting food security, particularly for households that are economically disadvantaged, unsustainable harvesting methods can result in the overexploitation of these wild orchids. Consequently, a shift towards sustainable practices, community engagement, and effective regulations is needed to ensure that the trade continues without inflicting ecological damage. To preserve chikanda orchid populations, sustainable harvesting techniques, including rotational and selective harvesting, must be used. Furthermore, encouraging the cultivation or domestication of chikanda orchids may lessen the strain on wild populations and offer a more sustainable supply of the product. Further, raising awareness of the value of sustainable practices and involving community members in conservation initiatives are essential.
Our study also showed that in order to effectively develop policies for the sustainability of chikanda orchids, socio-economic factors, including gender, must be taken into account by recognizing the influence of gender norms and roles on orchid accessibility, management, and participation in conversation and use. In this sense, it is crucial to establish fair rights to resources, promote female participation in decision making, and address gender-specific barriers related to orchid-dependent livelihoods. Moving forward, further research is needed to monitor orchid populations, understand the dynamics of the chikanda trade, and evaluate the effectiveness of conservation initiatives.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.M.K.; methodology, J.M.K. and G.K.; software, J.M.K. and P.M.; validation, J.M.K., G.K., P.M. and M.T.B.D.; formal analysis, J.M.K. and P.M.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M.K.; writing—review and editing, J.M.K., G.K., P.M. and M.T.B.D.; visualization, J.M.K., G.K. and P.M.; supervision, J.M.K.; project administration, J.M.K. and G.K.; funding acquisition, J.M.K., G.K. and M.T.B.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Funding for this research study was provided through the Darwin Initiative (UK Government) Grant No. 23034. The University of Mpumalanga provided support for the article processing charges (APC).

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee at Copperbelt University (Project Identification Code; CBUSNR100) on 30 June 2019.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the research study.

Data Availability Statement

Data presented in this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon request.

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to Francis Chishiba for facilitating communication with village leaders, rendering interpretation services, and serving as our local guide; to Saini Ngambu for assisting in the organization of community members for our data collection efforts and providing interpretation services; and to Jean Moussa for the creation of the maps.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

References

  1. Angelsen, A.; Jagger, P.; Babigumira, R.; Belcher, B.; Nicholas, J.H.; Bauch, S.; Borner, J.; Smith-Hall, C.; Wunder, S. Environmental income and rural livelihoods: A global comparative analysis. World. Dev. 2014, 64, 12–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Cavendish, W. Empirical regularities in the poverty-environment relationship of rural households: Evidence from Zimbabwe. World Dev. 2000, 28, 1979–2003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Timko, J.A.; Waeber, P.O.; Kozak., R.A. The socio-economic contribution of non-wood forest products to rural livelihoods in Sub-Sahara Africa: Knowledge gaps and new directions. Internat. Forest. Rev. 2010, 12, 284–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Mwajombe, A.R.; Liwenga, E.T.; Mwiturubani, D. Contribution of wild edible plants to household livelihood in a semiarid Kondoa District, Tanzania. World Food Pol. 2022, 8, 276–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Angelsen, A.; Wunder., S. Exploring the Forest-Poverty Ink: Key Concepts, Issues and Research Implications; CIFOR Occassional paper No. 40; Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Indonesia: Bogor, Indonesia, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  6. Shackleton, C.; Shackleton, S. The importance of non-timber forest products in rural livelihood security and as safety nets: A review of evidence from South Africa. S. Afri. J. Sci. 2004, 100, 658–664. [Google Scholar]
  7. Heubach, K.; Wittig, R.; Nuppenau, E.A.; Hahn, K. The economic importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for livelihood maintenance of rural west African communities: A case study from northern Benin. Ecol. Econ. 2011, 70, 191–2001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bakkergaard, R.K.; Hogarth, N.J.; Bong, I.W.; Bosselmann, A.S.; Wunder., S. Measuring forest and wild product contributions to household welfare: Testing a scalable household survey instrument in Indonesia. For. Policy Eco. 2017, 84, 20–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Beyene, A.D.; Mekonnen, A.; Hirons, M.; Robinson, E.J.Z.; Gonfa, T.; Gole, T.W.; Demissie, S. Contribution of non-timber forest products to the livelihood of farmers in coffee growing areas: Evidence from Yayu coffee forest biosphere reserve. J. Environ. Plan Manag. 2020, 63, 1633–1654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Shackleton, C.M.; Shackleton, S.E.; Buiten, E.; Bird, N. The importance of dry woodlands and forests in rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation in South Africa. For. Policy Econ. 2007, 9, 558–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Mavengahama, S.; McLachlan, M.; de Clercq, W. The role of wild vegetable species in household food security in maize based subsistence cropping systems. Food Sec. 2013, 5, 227–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Yumkham, S.D.; Chakpram, L.; Salam, S.; Bhattacharya, M.K.; Singh, P.K. Edible ferns and fern- allies of North East India: A study on potential wild vegetables. Genet. Resour. Crop. Evol. 2016, 64, 467–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Bharucha, Z.; Pretty, J. The roles and values of wild foods in agricultural systems. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2010, 365, 2912–2926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. McNamara, K.E.; Prasad, S.S. Valuing Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Change Adaptation Planning in Fiji and Vanuatu; Traditional Knowledge Bulletin; United Nations University: Tokyo, Japan, 2013; Traditional Knowledge Bulletin. [Google Scholar]
  15. Azam, F.M.S.; Biswas, A.; Mannan, A.; Afsana, N.A.; Jahan, R.; Rahmatullah, M. Are famine food plants also ethnomedicinal plants? An ethnomedicinal appraisal of famine food plants of two districts of Bangladesh. Evid.-Bas. Complement Altern. Med. 2014, 2014, 741712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Erskine, W.; Ximenes, A.; Glazebrook, D.; da Costa, M.; Lopes, M.; Spycherelle, L. The role of wild foods in food security: The example of Timor-Leste. Food Sec. 2015, 7, 55–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Abate, D.F.; Tadesse, W.; Gure, A. Economic contribution to local livelihoods and households’ dependency on dry land forest products in Hammer District, South-eastern Ethiopia. Int. J. For. Res. 2016, 2016, 5474680. [Google Scholar]
  18. Davenport, T.R.B.; Ndangalasi, H.J. An escalating trade in orchid’s tubers in Tanzania’s Southern Highlands: Assessment, dynamics and conservation implications. Oryx 2003, 37, 22–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Kasulo, V.; Mwabumba, L.; Munthali, C. A review of edible orchids in Malawi. J. Hort. Fores. 2009, 1, 133–139. [Google Scholar]
  20. Challe, J.F.X.; Price, L.L. Endangered edible orchids and vulnerable gatherers in the context of HIV/AIDS in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2009, 5, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Bingham, M.G. Chikanda, an unstainable industry. Pollinia 2009, 7, 23–25. [Google Scholar]
  22. Veldman, S.; Gravendeel, B.; Otieno, J.N.; Lammers, Y.; Duijm, E.; Byterbier, B.; Ngugi, G.; Martos, F.; van Andel, T.; de Boer, H. High-throughput sequencing of African Chikanda cake highlights conservation challenges in orchids. Biodivers. Conserv. 2017, 26, 2029–2046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Bingham, M.G.; Smith, P.P. Southern African Plant Red Data Lists; SABONET: Pretoria, South Africa, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  24. Veldman, S.; Kim, S.J.; van Andel, T.R.; Font, M.B.; Bone, R.E.; Bytebier, B.; Chuba, D.; Gravendeel, B.; Martos, F.; Mpatwa, G.; et al. Trade in Zambian edible orchids-DNA barcoding reveals the use of unexpected orchid taxa for Chikanda. Genes 2018, 9, 595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Kumwenda, F.D.; Sumani, J.; Jere, W.; Nyirenda, K.K.; Mwatseteza, J. Nutritional, phytochemical and functional properties of four edible orchid species from Malawi. Foods 2024, 13, 2403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Lalika, M.C.S.; Mende, D.H.; Urio, P.; Gimbi, D.M.; Mwanyika, S.J.; Donati, G. Domestication potential and nutrient composition of wild orchids from two southern regions of Tanzania. Time J. Biol Sci. Technol. 2013, 1, 1–11. [Google Scholar]
  27. Tembo, C.; Phiri, E.E.; Syampungani, S.; Malgas, R.R.; Maciejewski, K.; Dube, T. A point-initime inventory of chikanda orchids within a wild harvesting wetland in Mwinilunga, Zambia: Implications for conservation. Biodivers. Conserv. 2023, 33, 705–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bingham, M.G.; Kokwe, G.M. Where have all the flowers gone? SABO New. 2001, 6, 40. [Google Scholar]
  29. Ndaki, P.M.; Erick, F.; Moshy, V. Challenges posed by climate change and non—climate factors on conservation of edible orchids in southern highlands of Tanzania: The case of Makete District. J. Glob Ecol. Environ. 2021, 13, 144–167. [Google Scholar]
  30. Goswami, P.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Bhattacharjee, S. Global research contributions on orchids: A scientometric review of 20 years. J. Appl Biol. Biotechnol. 2024, 12, 268–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Hinsley, A.; De Boer, H.; Fay, M.F.; Gale, S.; Gardiner, L.M.; Gunasekara, R.S.; Masters, P.S.; Metusala, D.; Roberts, D.; Veldman, S.; et al. A review of the trade in orchids and its implications for conservation. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 2018, 186, 435–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Kalaba, F.K.; Quinn, C.H.; Dougill, A.J. Contribution of forest provisioning ecosystem services to rural livelihoods in the Miombo Woodlands of Zambia. Popul. Environ. 2013, 35, 159–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Weather Atlas. Climate and Monthly Weather Forecast Mwinilunga, Zambia [WWW Document]. Weather Atlas. 2022. Available online: https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/zambia/mwinilunga-climate (accessed on 6 June 2025).
  34. Zambia Statistics Agency. Census of Population and Housing; Zambia Statistics Agency: Lusaka, Zambia, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  35. Uakarn, C.; Chaokromthong, K.; Sintao, N. Sample size estimation using Yamane and Cochran and Krejcie and Morgan and Green formulas and Cohen statistical power analysis by G* power and comparisons. Apheit Internal. J. 2021, 10, 76–88. [Google Scholar]
  36. Zambia Statistics Agency. Census of Population and Housing. Republic of Zambia; Zambia Statistics Agency: Lusaka, Zambia, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  37. Tschakert, P.; Coomes, O.T.; Potvin, C. Indigenous livelihoods, slash and burn agriculture and carbon stocks in Eastern Panama. Ecol. Econ. 2007, 60, 807–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Jumbe, C.B.L.; Bwalya, S.M.; Husselman, M. Contribution Of dry Forests to Rural Livelihoods and the National Economy in Zambia. In Proceedings of the XIII World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 18–23 October 2009. [Google Scholar]
  39. Zulu, D.; Ellis, R.H.; Culham, A. Collection, consumption and sale of lusala (Dioscorea hirtifora)—A wild yam by rural households in Southern Province, Zambia. Econ. Bot. 2016, 73, 47–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Krueger, R.A. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research; Sage Publications Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  41. McHugh, M.L. The Chi-squared test of independence. Biochem. Medica. 2013, 23, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Petersson, J. Using the Gini coefficient for assessing heterogeneity within classes and schools. SN Soc. Sci. 2023, 3, 186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Cruz-Garcia, G.; Lagunez-Rivera, L.; Chavez-Angeles, M.G.; Solano-Gomez, A. The wild orchid trade in a Mexican local market: Diversity and economics. Econ. Bot. 2015, 69, 291–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Kideghesho, J.R.; Msuya, T.S. Gender and socio-economic factors influencing domestication of indigenous medicinal plants in the West Usambara Mountains, northern Tanzania. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Ecosyst. Serv. Manag. 2010, 6, 3–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Kiptot, E.; Franzel, S. Gender and agroforestry in Africa: A review of women’s participation. Agrofor. Syst. 2012, 84, 35–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Mushi, H.; Yanda, P.Z.; Kleyer, M. Socio-economic factors determining extraction of non-timber forest products on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Hum. Ecol. 2020, 48, 695–707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Shively, G.; Pagiola, S. Agricultural intensification, local labor markets and deforestation in the Philippines. Environ. Dev. Econ. 1999, 9, 241–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Newton, P.; Miller, D.C.; Byenkya, M.A.A.; Agrawal, A. Who are forest dependent people? A taxonomy to aid livelihood and land use decision making in forested regions. Land Use Policy 2016, 57, 388–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Hedge, R.; Enters, T. Forest products and household economy: A case study from Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Southern India. Environ. Conserv. 2000, 27, 250–259. [Google Scholar]
  50. Belcher, B.; Ruiz-Perez, M.; Achiawan, R. Global patterns and trends in the use and management of commercial NTFPs: Implications for livelihoods and conservation. World Dev. 2005, 33, 1435–1452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Sunderlin, W.D.; Angelsen, A.; Belcher, B.; Burgers, P.; Nasi, R.; Santoso, L. Livelihood, forests and conservation in developing countries: An overview. World Dev. 2005, 33, 1383–1402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Suleiman, M.S.; Wasonga, V.O.; Mbau, J.S.; Suileman, A.; Elhadi, Y.A. Non-timber forest products and their contribution to household income around Falgore game reserve in Kano, Nigeria. Ecol. Process. 2017, 6, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Babulo, B.; Muys, B.; Nega, F.; Tollens, E.; Nyssen, J.; Deckers, J. Household livelihoods strategies and forest dependence in the highlands of Tigray Northern Ethiopia. Agric. Syst. 2008, 98, 147–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Malleson, R.; Asaha, S.; Egot, S.M.; Kshatriya, M.; Marshall, M.E.; Obeng-Okrah, K.; Sunderland, T. Non-timber forest products income from forest landscapes of Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria- an incidental or integral contribution to sustaining rural livelihoods. Int. For. Rev. 2014, 16, 261–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Kamanga, P.; Veldad, P.; Sjaastad, E. Forest incomes and rural livelihoods in Chiradzulu District, Malawi. Ecol. Econ. 2009, 68, 613–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Mamo, G.; Sjaastad, E.; Veldad, P. Economic dependence on forest resources: A case from Dendi District. Ethiop. For. Pol. Econ. 2007, 9, 916–927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Annestrand, K.; Lenz, S.; Bird, A.; James, A. The Impact of Income Levels on Food Security in Rural Communities. Undergrad. J. Serv. Learn. Community-Based Res. 2016, 5. Available online: https://ujslcbr.org/index.php/ujslcbr/article/view/241 (accessed on 6 June 2025).
  58. Dhanda, S.; Bullough, L.A.; Whitehead, D.; Grey, J.; White, K. A Review of the Edible Orchid Trade; Roy Bot Gar: Surrey, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
Sustainability 17 06131 g001
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
Sustainability 17 06131 g001
Sustainability 17 06131 g002
Figure 2. Maps of Zambia, northwestern province, and study sites in the Mwinilunga District.
Figure 2. Maps of Zambia, northwestern province, and study sites in the Mwinilunga District.
Sustainability 17 06131 g002
Sustainability 17 06131 g003
Figure 3. Contribution of income from chikanda orchid sales to total household income stratified by target communities.
Figure 3. Contribution of income from chikanda orchid sales to total household income stratified by target communities.
Sustainability 17 06131 g003
Sustainability 17 06131 g004
Figure 4. Contribution of chikanda orchid income to the total annual household income in comparison to other sources.
Figure 4. Contribution of chikanda orchid income to the total annual household income in comparison to other sources.
Sustainability 17 06131 g004
Sustainability 17 06131 g005
Figure 5. Contribution of chikanda orchid income to the total household income stratified by wealth status.
Figure 5. Contribution of chikanda orchid income to the total household income stratified by wealth status.
Sustainability 17 06131 g005
Table 1. Household wealth categories.
Table 1. Household wealth categories.
CharacteristicsWealth Categories
WealthyIntermediatePoor
Household size (rooms)>41–31–3
Type of roofingIron sheets Iron sheets Thatch
Size of pineapple field>10 Ha5–10 Ha<5 Ha
Number of barkhives>10050–100<50
Type of sanitationPit latrinePit latrineNil
Source of power supplySolar energySolar energyNil
Table 2. Summary of the characteristics of the study sample.
Table 2. Summary of the characteristics of the study sample.
CharacteristicCategoryFrequency (%)
CommunityNyaminkanda143 (47.2)
Munwa96 (31.7)
Kasang’a66 (21.8)
Household wealth statusRich13 (4.3)
Intermediate118 (38.9)
Poor172 (56.8)
Household head genderMale253 (83.4)
Female50 (16.5)
Household marital statusMarried240 (79.2)
Single32 (10.6)
Divorced25 (8.3)
Widowed6 (2.0)
Household education Less than primary112 (37.0)
Primary134 (44.2)
Secondary56 (18.5)
Tertiary1 (0.3)
Table 3. Relationship between involvement in chikanda orchid harvesting and socio-economic factors.
Table 3. Relationship between involvement in chikanda orchid harvesting and socio-economic factors.
Involvement in Chikanda Orchids Harvesting
Socio-Economic Factor
(N = 303)		χ2p-Value
Gender6<0.05
Marital status8<0.05
Education level1>0.05
Wealth1>0.05
Table 4. Correlations between household food shortages and socio-economic factors.
Table 4. Correlations between household food shortages and socio-economic factors.
Food Shortages
Socio-Economic Factor
(N = 303)		χ2p-Value
Gender1>0.05
Marital status2>0.05
Education level1>0.05
Wealth37<0.001
Table 5. Correlations between socio-economic factors and cushioning food deficits with income from chikanda orchid sales.
Table 5. Correlations between socio-economic factors and cushioning food deficits with income from chikanda orchid sales.
Cushioning Food Deficits Using Income from chikanda Sales
Socio-Economic Factor
(N = 303)		χ2p-Value
Gender1>0.05
Marital status3>0.05
Education level2>0.05
Wealth6<0.05
Table 6. Annual household income generated from chikanda orchid sales stratified by gender and wealth status.
Table 6. Annual household income generated from chikanda orchid sales stratified by gender and wealth status.
VariableAverage Income (USD)Minimum Income (USD)Maximum Income (USD)
Gender
Female headed34.921.92292.31
Male headed27.231.92211.54
Wealth status
Poor26.391.92292.31
Intermediate29.463.84149.23
Wealthy42.545.77211.54
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Kwenye, J.M.; Kabwe, G.; Mulenga, P.; Dalu, M.T.B. The Contribution of Chikanda Orchids to Rural Livelihoods: Insights from Mwinilunga District of Northwestern Zambia. Sustainability 2025, 17, 6131. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17136131

AMA Style

Kwenye JM, Kabwe G, Mulenga P, Dalu MTB. The Contribution of Chikanda Orchids to Rural Livelihoods: Insights from Mwinilunga District of Northwestern Zambia. Sustainability. 2025; 17(13):6131. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17136131

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kwenye, Jane Musole, Gillian Kabwe, Peter Mulenga, and Mwazvita Tapiwa Beatrice Dalu. 2025. "The Contribution of Chikanda Orchids to Rural Livelihoods: Insights from Mwinilunga District of Northwestern Zambia" Sustainability 17, no. 13: 6131. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17136131

APA Style

Kwenye, J. M., Kabwe, G., Mulenga, P., & Dalu, M. T. B. (2025). The Contribution of Chikanda Orchids to Rural Livelihoods: Insights from Mwinilunga District of Northwestern Zambia. Sustainability, 17(13), 6131. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17136131

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop