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Article

Ethnomycology as a Biocultural Preservation Strategy for Wild Mushrooms in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, México

by
Miriam Toxqui-Munguía
1,2,
Aline Romero-Natale
3,
Teresa Soledad Cid-Pérez
4,
Manuel Huerta-Lara
1,5,
María del Carmen Guadalupe Avelino-Flores
6,
Marco Antonio Marín-Castro
7,
Raúl Avila-Sosa
1,4 and
Ricardo Munguía-Pérez
1,2,*
1
Posgrado en Ciencias Ambientales Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
2
Laboratorio de Micología, Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
3
Colegio de Quimica, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Pachuca 42000, Mexico
4
Departmento de Bioquímica-Alimentos, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
5
Departmento para el Desarrollo Sustentable, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
6
Colegio de Alimentos, Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
7
Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Agrícolas, Instituto de Ciencias, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla 72592, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(13), 5852; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135852
Submission received: 23 April 2025 / Revised: 13 June 2025 / Accepted: 23 June 2025 / Published: 25 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Food)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Fungal biodiversity and ethnomycological knowledge are fundamental components of the biocultural identity of communities within the La Malinche National Park (PNM), a region of ecological and cultural significance in Mexico. This study documented the diversity of wild fungi and their uses in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, through field excursions with local mushroom gatherers, interviews, and qualitative analysis. Key species such as Russula delica, Boletus aff. edulis, and Amanita basii were identified, playing a vital role in local gastronomy with traditional recipes like mole and pipián. Intergenerational knowledge transmission, crucial for identifying edible fungi and avoiding intoxications, highlights the importance of oral tradition. However, deforestation, illegal logging, and land-use change threaten fungal diversity, a problem exacerbated by the lack of effective conservation policies. The discussion highlights the interplay between biodiversity and culture, emphasizing the significance of the Wild Mushroom Fair organized by the Yolaltepetl collective as an effort to disseminate ethnomycological knowledge and promote the conservation of the PNM. Such community-driven initiatives represent a sustainable model that integrates environmental protection with cultural strengthening. The study concludes that protecting the PNM requires a holistic approach, merging ecological conservation with the recognition of biocultural knowledge. This is essential to preserve both biodiversity and cultural heritage, ensuring their sustainability for future generations.

1. Introduction

The biological and cultural wealth of Mexico positions it as a globally renowned country that hosts a vast diversity of species integral to its ecosystems and human practices [1]. Among these, wild macrofungi hold particular importance, not only for their ecological relevance but also for their profound cultural significance in numerous Indigenous communities. These relationships between macrofungi and human communities have fostered extensive ethnomycological knowledge, where macrofungi play fundamental roles in nutrition, traditional medicine, and ceremonial practices [2,3].
In pre-Hispanic Mexico, macrofungi, known as nanacatl or “flesh of the gods,” were closely tied to religious rituals and daily sustenance. This knowledge, transmitted intergenerationally, allowed Indigenous communities to distinguish between edible and toxic species, and its importance was recorded in codices like the Magliabecchiano [4,5]. While contexts have evolved, the relationship between macrofungi and human communities remains meaningful, shaping cultural identities and biocultural conservation practices [6,7]. In this study, the term “macrofungi” refers to wild, macroscopic fungal species, including both edible and inedible forms.
San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, stands as a notable example of how wild macrofungi are integrated into local traditions. In this community, these organisms not only enrich the daily diet through diverse dishes but also significantly impact the local economy and strengthen cultural identity. This gastronomic richness is particularly notable when contrasted with the nearly imperceptible presence of macrofungi consumption in Puebla’s capital city [8,9]. Events like the “Wild Mushroom Fair”, organized by the Yolaltepetl collective, highlight the role of these resources as key elements in biodiversity conservation and the transmission of traditional knowledge. These fairs combine cultural, educational, and commercial activities, reinforcing the inhabitants’ connection to their natural surroundings [10,11,12].
The diversity of macrofungi in Mexico includes cosmopolitan, eurychoric, and endemic species, the latter being particularly vulnerable to environmental changes driven by human activities [13,14,15]. Conserving these species is crucial not only for their ecological roles but also as biocultural bridges linking Indigenous communities and nature. Macrofungi are considered non-timber forest products, and as such, they offer alternatives for regional development as a nutritious food source rich in proteins, minerals, and essential amino acids, with low fat content. Moreover, their use promotes sustainable practices that integrate ancestral knowledge with contemporary needs [16,17].
Food can be understood as an expression of cultural and geographical identity, reflecting the complex interaction between humans and their environment. Macrofungi exemplify how climatic and territorial conditions influence their availability and consumption, shaping culinary practices that are both functional and symbolic [18,19]. This article seeks to document and analyze the diversity of wild macrofungi with biocultural significance used in the traditional gastronomy of San Miguel Canoa, Puebla. It also explores their cultural and economic significance, highlighting how these culinary practices strengthen the interaction between humans and macrofungi. The study also emphasizes the preservation of an invaluable cultural and gastronomic legacy, highlighting the importance of the oral transmission of this knowledge for future generations.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Area

The research was conducted in the auxiliary town of San Miguel Canoa, located in the municipality of Puebla, Mexico. This area lies within the influence zone of the La Malinche National Park (PNM), also known as Malinche or Matlalcuéyatl, which translates to “the one with blue skirts” (Figure 1). The PNM, designated as a protected area on 6 October 1938, spans 45,711 hectares and reaches a maximum elevation of 4420 m. Its biodiversity includes mixed forests of pine (Pinus montezumae), oak (Quercus crassifolia, Q. laurina, Q. crassipes), pine–oak, oak–pine, and fir (Abies religiosa) [20,21].
The region’s climate is temperate, subhumid, and semi-arid, with annual precipitation ranging from 600 to 800 mm and average temperatures between 14 and 16 °C. The soils, derived from volcanic eruptions, are predominantly composed of vitric andosols, with lithosols present at higher altitudes. These conditions create an ideal environment for the growth of macrofungi, particularly during the rainy season (June to October) [22,23].
San Miguel Canoa is a predominantly Indigenous community with a population of 15,070 inhabitants according to the 2020 census. Sixty-four percent of the population over the age of three speaks Náhuatl in addition to Spanish, reflecting the significance of its cultural and linguistic diversity in preserving ancestral knowledge [24,25].

2.2. Wild Mushroom Fair in San Miguel Canoa

The Wild Mushroom Fair in San Miguel Canoa is organized by the Yolaltepetl collective, with its sixth edition held in September 2024. This event aims to promote the conservation of La Malinche National Park (PNM) and preserve the region’s ethnomycological knowledge. During the fair, local families share their knowledge about wild macrofungi with visitors and mycology experts, who collaborate through educational activities. Additionally, traditional dishes made with macrofungi are sold, reinforcing the transmission of traditional knowledge and fostering the cultural development of the community.

2.3. Ethnomycological Data Collection

Ethnomycological knowledge was documented through interviews and fieldwork. During the third edition of the fair, the project was presented to the Yolaltepetl collective, requesting their authorization to carry out the study.

2.3.1. Interviews

Two types of interviews were conducted to gather information:
  • Interviews for Qualified Community Informants: Administered to members of the Yolaltepetl collective and other key actors to identify families or individuals with extensive knowledge about macrofungi.
  • Interviews for Key Residents: Documented harvesting practices, mushroom names in Nahuatl and Spanish, and traditional uses. The interviews were conducted in Spanish, but participants were asked to provide mushroom names in both languages for documentation. A bilingual (Spanish–Nahuatl) community member was present during the interviews.
The snowball sampling method was employed [26], with interviews concluding upon reaching data saturation. Interviews were supported by mycological guides [27,28], photographs, and records of macrofungi previously documented in Puebla.

2.3.2. Fieldwork

During the rainy seasons from 2021 to 2024, mushroom collection excursions were conducted with guidance from local residents. These activities confirmed the species mentioned in interviews and identified additional ones. Collaboration with five bilingual residents ensured the accurate documentation of local names and characteristics by translating terms between Nahuatl and Spanish.

2.3.3. Data Analysis

The collected data were analyzed using the R-Commander software (2.9-0 version) Ontario, Canadá. Descriptive statistics were calculated, including means, ranges, and percentages, to characterize demographic variables of the participants and their reported ethnomycological practices. Comparative analyses explored potential differences in these practices and knowledge among community subgroups, specifically examining variations based on age, gender, and household, to identify how these factors might influence fungal knowledge and use. Furthermore, the number of fungal species recognized by each participant was compared to assess the individual knowledge levels. These combined analytical approaches identified overarching patterns in macrofungi usage and knowledge within the community, as well as significant differences between subgroups.

2.3.4. Taxonomic Identification

The collected specimens were analyzed taxonomically by observing macro- and micromorphological characteristics, using dichotomous keys and specialized literature [29,30,31]. The specimens were dried following standard procedures [32] and archived in the Herbarium of the Center for Microbiological Research at the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. This process ensures their preservation for future studies and reference purposes.

3. Results

3.1. Diversity and Traditional Use of Wild Macrofungi in San Miguel Canoa

A total of 30 household interviews were conducted in San Miguel Canoa, involving 16 men and 14 women. The interviewees collectively identified ten species of wild macrofungi, primarily utilized in the preparation of traditional dishes. Among these, Amanita bassii, Boletus edulis, and Suillus brevipes were the most sought-after wild edible mushrooms, considered priority species for consumption within the community. Individual participants recognized between five and nine species, with an average of seven species recognized per person. Table 1 presents the scientific, common, and Nahuatl names of these species, documented through consented recordings that also captured their pronunciation in the Nahuatl language.

3.2. Etnomycological Knowledge and Ecological Factors

The community showed a deep understanding of the ecological interactions, as they mentioned clear associations between the presence of macrofungi fruiting bodies and tree species such as pines, oaks, and oyamel. This demonstrates an inherent local knowledge of mycorrhizal symbiosis.
However, older residents have noted a decline in macrofungi abundance over the last decade. They attribute this decrease to deforestation, land-use changes, and climatic variations. These perceptions are corroborated by direct testimonies from the interviewees: “When we go to the mountain, it’s increasingly difficult to find macrofungi; we have to leave at 5:00 a.m. to cover more distance. Sometimes we return at 3:00 p.m. and don’t even have 4 kilos of mushrooms.” (M. Reyes, Personal communication, 20 June 2022). This scenario underscores the urgent need to protect the La Malinche National Park (PNM) ecosystem.

3.3. Collection and Socioeconomic Aspects

Nahua families were asked about the species they collect and the quantities they gather. We identified 10 different species, and they reported collecting between 12 and 15 kg of macrofungi per season (June–October), distributed across six to eight field trips. This resource is used not only as a substitute for expensive foods like meat but also as a source of income through the sale of part of the harvest. However, family consumption takes priority; one interviewee mentioned, “Sometimes, when we don’t collect enough macrofungi, we don’t go out to sell them; we’d rather cook them at home and eat them ourselves.” (Felix, Personal communication, 10 August 2022). These findings highlight the socioeconomic importance of wild macrofungi for rural and Indigenous households (Figure 2, Table 2).

3.4. Cultural Implications: Mycogastronomy and Knowledge Transmission

Mycogastronomy plays a fundamental role in preserving the community’s ethnomycological knowledge. Families involve their members, including new generations, in all stages from collection to preparation and sale of macrofungi.
The transmission of ethnomycological knowledge was a central theme in the interviews. The participants indicated that this knowledge was acquired through familial inheritance, often through direct interaction within the family unit. Specifically, they were taught about mushroom collection and uses through family narratives and by accompanying relatives on field trips within the PNM.
When asked which family member transmitted this knowledge, 33% (10 out of 30) of the respondents cited their mother, 27% (8 out of 30) their father, and 40% (12 out of 30) their grandparents. All the interviewees, however, agreed that learning was predominantly consolidated under the guidance of parents and grandparents.
This dynamic reinforces oral tradition and ensures the intergenerational transmission of knowledge. Specifically, mushroom gathering is a predominantly male activity, with men and boys participating in the identification of edible species. During field expeditions, they use sensory criteria such as color, odor, and taste for identification: a small portion of the mushroom is tasted or evaluated, discarding those that show a blue stain when cut.
Conversely, women play a fundamental role in transforming these macrofungi into traditional dishes, which celebrates cultural heritage. Culinary preparation and ingredient selection are skills passed down by mothers and grandmothers, as detailed in Table 3.
The most common dishes are mushroom mole, pipián, mushroom tamales, and stuffed gorditas, as illustrated in Figure 3.

3.5. Conservation and Cultural Promotion

The Wild Mushroom Fair represents a key initiative in preserving mycological knowledge and conserving PNM. This annual event brings together community families, researchers, and external visitors, promoting the dissemination of ethnomycological knowledge and sustainable practices. During the fair, traditional dishes are sold, and traditional recipes are shared, strengthening the connection between the community and its natural environment.

4. Discussion

This study reveals a profound connection between the inhabitants of San Miguel Canoa and wild edible macrofungi. This bond goes beyond mere sustenance; it is a pillar of their cultural practices and strengthens community identity. The ethnomycological knowledge, passed down through generations, not only includes harvesting techniques but also an ecological understanding of the symbiotic relationships between fungi and their natural environment.
However, this vital relationship faces serious challenges. The interviewees reported that deforestation has forced them to travel increasingly longer distances to find mushrooms. This scarcity of sufficient macrofungi for commercialization directly impacts their economy. Unlike other countries, Mexico lacks public policies that establish harvesting bans or regulate collection through permits, which exacerbates the situation and jeopardizes this ancestral tradition.

4.1. Mycological Knowledge and Intergenerational Transmission

Mexico, recognized as a megadiverse country, has significantly utilized various mushroom species for human consumption. Currently, the consumption of 425 fungal species has been documented nationally, a number expected to progressively increase. This is largely due to limited documentation and research on mushroom consumption in many communities, which suggests considerable potential for identifying new species and consumption practices [33].
Findings by Ruan-Soto et al. (2025) [33] indicate that the most representative fungal genera in terms of species consumed in Mexico are Ramaria, Amanita, Boletus, and Russula. This observation aligns with consumption patterns specifically reported for the SMC.
The process of transmitting mycological knowledge in San Miguel Canoa is essential for preserving traditional harvesting practices. The role of parents, grandparents, and other community members in educating younger generations underscores the value of intergenerational knowledge. This learning process is not merely practical but reflects a worldview in which fungi are seen as an integral part of local biodiversity, closely connected with tree species such as pine and oyamel. These ecological relationships, critical for the fruiting and survival of macrofungi, have been observed and understood by communities for centuries [34].
As with other communities near PNM, mycological knowledge is also linked to Indigenous worldviews, where nature is not separate from humans but interdependent. This perspective aligns with the findings of López-García et al. (2024), who argue that the division between humans and nature, driven by capitalist modernity, has impacted the management and preservation of natural resources [35]. In contrast, Indigenous communities continue to view macrofungi as living beings that require respectful handling to ensure their health and continuity.

4.2. Impacts of Land-Use Change and Deforestation

The decline in mushroom abundance observed in recent years, as reported by participants in this research, reflects the effects of deforestation and land-use change in the forested areas surrounding the community. Studies conducted in Malinche National Park (PNM) have documented issues negatively impacting the ecosystem’s integrity. Notably, Rico-Carrillo et al. (2024) [36] reported a decrease in the availability of edible mushrooms, which poses a direct threat to the food security of local communities.
This phenomenon aligns with studies by Schunko et al. (2022) [37], which highlight the critical role of ectomycorrhizal fungi in forest ecosystem conservation. By forming associations with tree species such as pine, birch, and oak, ectomycorrhizal fungi play a pivotal role in the development and survival of these trees, emphasizing the importance of fungi for forest health. However, the expansion of human activities, including agriculture and deforestation, disrupts this balance, negatively affecting both fungal biodiversity and the well-being of dependent communities [37].
A similar phenomenon has been observed in the PNM, where poverty and land-use changes have hindered the preservation of natural resources, including macrofungi collected for sale [38]. The pressure on the local natural resources, exacerbated by the growth of human settlements, jeopardizes the long-term reproductive capacity of fungi.

4.3. Worldviews and Sustainable Mushroom Management

The relationship between communities and macrofungi is deeply influenced by Indigenous worldviews that prioritize harmony between humans and nature. Traditional knowledge about the sustainable harvesting of macrofungi is a key component of natural resource conservation. The expertise of mushroom gatherers, who prefer oyamel forests to avoid toxic species like Amanita muscaria, exemplifies how local wisdom enables responsible resource management, thus minimizing health risks and preserving fungal biodiversity [39,40].
The use of macrofungi such as Russula complex, Boletus aff. edulis, and Amanita basii reflects precise knowledge of edible and inedible species. This understanding extends beyond species identification to include preparation methods, such as using grinding stones (metate) for traditional recipes, emphasizing the cultural and economic significance of macrofungi in the region. The traditional use of macrofungi not only contributes to food security but also fosters social cohesion and the transmission of knowledge between generations [41].
Communities in the Michoacán Highlands exemplify the deep gastronomic interaction between mushrooms and local populations, demonstrating deeply rooted traditional knowledge. This pattern is not exclusive to this region; it is replicated in various parts of the country, highlighting a widespread culture of intergenerational knowledge transfer regarding wild edible mushrooms [42].
Consistent with studies in other communities near PNM, macrofungi play a central role in local gastronomy, with their consumption closely tied to culinary traditions [21]. Specific recipes developed for macrofungi like Russula complex demonstrate how gastronomic practices are a manifestation of biocultural heritage, helping to preserve both traditional knowledge and natural resources [43,44].

4.4. Implications for Conservation and Public Policy

At the local level, bioculturality plays a crucial role in preserving biodiversity and sustainably managing natural resources. The Indigenous cosmology, which promotes respectful interaction with the natural environment, can provide solutions to contemporary environmental challenges such as deforestation and climate change. However, as Lughadha et al. (2020) note, public policies and external pressures like urbanization and agricultural expansion are affecting communities’ capacity to sustainably manage their natural resources [45].
It is essential to promote adequate training for landowners in sustainable macrofungi harvesting, which would contribute to the conservation of native species and long-term food security. Integrating traditional practices with modern conservation strategies could significantly aid in protecting mycorrhizal ecosystems and regional biodiversity [46].
Strategies that add value and diversify marketing for wild edible mushrooms are a promising way to ease concerns about forest preservation and the sustainable growth of fungal populations. This includes promoting and training people to transform mushrooms into products like condiments, dehydrated mushrooms, jams, or sauces.
Such initiatives are also observed beyond Mexico, notably in Bolivia, and within other communities in central Mexico, such as the Tlahuica-Pjiekakjoo community women, who have successfully added value to edible mushrooms [47]. These practices not only diversify income sources but also foster habitat conservation by recognizing the intrinsic economic and cultural value of mushrooms [48].

5. Conclusions

This study highlights the biocultural richness and relevance of ethnomycological knowledge in communities adjacent to La Malinche National Park (PNM), focusing on San Miguel Canoa, a key Nahua settlement. Its unique location, both close to the PNM and Puebla’s capital, makes it a compelling case study. Despite potential cultural erosion due to urban proximity, this community preserves vast ancestral knowledge, particularly concerning wild mushrooms. Consequently, it is imperative to emphasize and value the significance of this cultural heritage.
The integration of wild macrofungi into culinary traditions, such as mole, pipián, and tamales, highlights a deep connection between the region’s volcanic fungal biodiversity and cultural practices. This biocultural link actively promotes the sustainable use of natural resources and strengthens the cultural identity of communities [43].
San Miguel Canoa’s belief systems and ancestral knowledge have enabled the identification of diverse uses for wild macrofungi, prioritizing their dietary consumption while also leveraging them for medicinal and commercial purposes. This oral transmission of knowledge, carefully preserved across generations, has been key to safe harvesting and avoiding poisoning. However, this invaluable cultural heritage is at risk due to deforestation, land-use changes, illegal logging, and insufficient governmental intervention for the conservation of PNM.
Comprehensive public policies are urgently needed to support the park’s conservation and enhance local capacities to preserve traditional knowledge. Only a combined approach of environmental conservation and respecting the communities’ cultural rights can ensure the continuity of this rich nature–culture interaction, fostering sustainable development for all generations.
In this context, initiatives like the Wild Mushroom Fair organized by the Yolaltepetl collective are crucial. These fairs disseminate ethnomycological knowledge and also foster intercultural dialog between locals and visitors. They serve as tangible examples of how community strategies can integrate into PNM conservation efforts, bolstering both the volcano’s biodiversity and the cultural resilience of its communities.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, drafting, methodology, validation, and supervision: M.T.-M., A.R.-N., M.A.M.-C., M.d.C.G.A.-F., R.A.-S., T.S.C.-P. and M.H.-L.; research and resources: M.T.-M. and R.M.-P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was approved by the Graduate Program Committee in Environmental Sciences of the BUAP University.

Informed Consent Statement

Personal thanks to Mr. Felix and his family for agreeing to be in Figure 2 and for guiding most of the field trips of the research. All the participants in this study provided informed consent to participate.

Data Availability Statement

All the data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Acknowledgments

We sincerely thank the community of San Miguel Canoa Puebla, Mexico, and the Yolaltepetl Collective for their kind willingness to share their knowledge and friendship with us. We acknowledge Secihti (Secretariat of Science, Humanities, Technology and Innovation) and VIEP (Vicerrectoria de investigación y Estudios de Posgrado) for Research and Graduate Studies for their funding support for this research project.

Conflicts of Interest

None of the authors of the manuscript has competing interests.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
PNMMalinche National Park
SMCSan Miguel Canoa

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Figure 1. Geographic location of San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, near Malinche volcano, and surrounding oak–pine forest. Created with QGIS (version 3.42.3) by Miriam Toxqui Munguia and Pablo Uziel Perez Bravo.
Figure 1. Geographic location of San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, near Malinche volcano, and surrounding oak–pine forest. Created with QGIS (version 3.42.3) by Miriam Toxqui Munguia and Pablo Uziel Perez Bravo.
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Figure 2. Field expeditions in San Miguel Canoa for the collection of wild edible macrofungi.
Figure 2. Field expeditions in San Miguel Canoa for the collection of wild edible macrofungi.
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Figure 3. Traditional dishes using wild macrofungi from La Malinche National Park: (a) tamales with macrofungi, (b) soup with macrofungi, (c) mushroom pipian, and (d) mushroom mole with beans.
Figure 3. Traditional dishes using wild macrofungi from La Malinche National Park: (a) tamales with macrofungi, (b) soup with macrofungi, (c) mushroom pipian, and (d) mushroom mole with beans.
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Table 1. Scientific, common, and Nahuatl names of macrofungi found in the PNM.
Table 1. Scientific, common, and Nahuatl names of macrofungi found in the PNM.
Scientific NameFamilyCommon NameNahuatl NameAdditional InformationUse
Amanita bassi Guzmán & Ram.-GuillAmanitaceaeFlor de calabazaAyoxochitlayotli = squash; xochitl = flower.C
Amanita rubescens Pers.sensu latoAmanitaceaeMantecada--C
Boletus edulis sl ToroBoletaceaePanteXotomaXitomat l = large, red, and large tomato.C
Calvatia cyanthiformis (Bosc) MorganAgaricaceaeHuevitosXiteboro-C
Hellvella lacunosa AfzelHelvellaceaeOreja de conejoGachupí-C
Infundibulicybe gibba (Pers.) Harmaja (grupo)TricholomataceaeIzquiloizquilonanacatlizquitl = roasted corn; aromatic flower.C
Ramaria flava sl (Schaeff.) QuélGomphaceaeCoralXelhuasxelhuatzi = broom xolhuatztli = small brush.C
Russula delica Fr.RussulaceaeTrompa cochinoCuatecaxcuatlil = head; tecaxitl o tecaxitli = grinding stone.C
Suillus brevipes (Peck) KuntzeSuillaceaePoposoPopozonallotpopozonallot = foam.C
Turbinellus floccosus (Schwein) EarleGomphaceaeTrompetaTlapitzaltlapitzalli = trumpet.C
C: use edible.
Table 2. Income from edible mushroom species in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla.
Table 2. Income from edible mushroom species in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla.
Scientific NamePriority Species for ConsumptionIncome (1000 g/dollar)
Amanita bassi Guzmán & Ram.-GuillIII10–12
Amanita rubescens Pers.sensu latoII5–7
Boletus edulis sl ToroIII10–12
Calvatia cyanthiformis (Bosc) MorganI3–5
Hellvella lacunosa AfzelIII8–10
Infundibulicybe gibba (Pers.) Harmaja (grupo)II5–7
Ramaria flava sl (Schaeff.) QuélII8–10
Russula delica Fr.I5–7
Suillus brevipes (Peck) KuntzeIII3–5
Turbinellus floccosus (Schwein) EarleIII10–12
Symbols: III very tasty, II tasty, and I somewhat tasty. Prices in USD.
Table 3. Edible macrofungi from San Miguel Canoa and their traditional preparations.
Table 3. Edible macrofungi from San Miguel Canoa and their traditional preparations.
Common Name (Scientific Name)Preparation and Main Ingredients
Pante (Boletus edulis).Soup with epazote, onion, chili, salt, and water.
Corneta (Turbinellus floccosus) Coral (Ramaria flava) Izquilo (Infundibulicybe gibba).“Gordita” made with corn dough, lard, and tomato sauce.
Flor de calabaza, mantecada Berbecho (Amanita spp.).Pipian with tomato, peanut, sesame, and ground chili (chile ancho).
Oreja de conejo (Hellvella lacunosa).Tamales.
Suillus previpes—Russula brevipes.Mole with tomato, peanut, sesame, ground chili (chile ancho and chile morita), onion, and chocolate.
Huevitos (Calvatia sp.).This species must be consumed in its juvenile or tender state, with salt and grilled.
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Toxqui-Munguía, M.; Romero-Natale, A.; Cid-Pérez, T.S.; Huerta-Lara, M.; Avelino-Flores, M.d.C.G.; Marín-Castro, M.A.; Avila-Sosa, R.; Munguía-Pérez, R. Ethnomycology as a Biocultural Preservation Strategy for Wild Mushrooms in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, México. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5852. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135852

AMA Style

Toxqui-Munguía M, Romero-Natale A, Cid-Pérez TS, Huerta-Lara M, Avelino-Flores MdCG, Marín-Castro MA, Avila-Sosa R, Munguía-Pérez R. Ethnomycology as a Biocultural Preservation Strategy for Wild Mushrooms in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, México. Sustainability. 2025; 17(13):5852. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135852

Chicago/Turabian Style

Toxqui-Munguía, Miriam, Aline Romero-Natale, Teresa Soledad Cid-Pérez, Manuel Huerta-Lara, María del Carmen Guadalupe Avelino-Flores, Marco Antonio Marín-Castro, Raúl Avila-Sosa, and Ricardo Munguía-Pérez. 2025. "Ethnomycology as a Biocultural Preservation Strategy for Wild Mushrooms in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, México" Sustainability 17, no. 13: 5852. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135852

APA Style

Toxqui-Munguía, M., Romero-Natale, A., Cid-Pérez, T. S., Huerta-Lara, M., Avelino-Flores, M. d. C. G., Marín-Castro, M. A., Avila-Sosa, R., & Munguía-Pérez, R. (2025). Ethnomycology as a Biocultural Preservation Strategy for Wild Mushrooms in San Miguel Canoa, Puebla, México. Sustainability, 17(13), 5852. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135852

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