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Review

A Comprehensive Review of the Invasive Species Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.

by
Monica Angela Neblea
1,*,
Mădălina Cristina Marian
1 and
Tuba Aydin
2
1
Faculty of Sciences, Physical Education and Informatics, Pitesti University Center, National University of Science and Technology Politechnica Bucharest, Targu din Vale Street, No. 1, 110040 Pitesti, Romania
2
Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University, Firat District, New University Street, No. 2, 04100 Ağrı Agri, Türkiye
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(11), 4826; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17114826
Submission received: 4 April 2025 / Revised: 4 May 2025 / Accepted: 7 May 2025 / Published: 23 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainability, Biodiversity and Conservation)
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Abstract

:
Phytolacca acinosa is a species native to Asia with significant ecological, economic, and medicinal importance. This study investigates its taxonomic and biological particularities, ecological adaptability, and applications in different fields. The problem addressed is the dual nature of P. acinosa, which is both a valuable plant resource and also has a negative impact on natural ecosystems. The methodology was based on a review of the scientific literature containing information on P. acinosa in order to evaluate its therapeutic properties, phytoremediation capacity, and impact on biodiversity. The results showed that P. acinosa represents a hyperaccumulator of heavy metals, offering significant potential for soil and water decontamination. Also, its bioactive compounds exhibit anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and antioxidant properties, supporting its uses in traditional medicine. However, its role as an intermediate host for plant pests and pathogens and its invasive potential in areas outside its native range highlight its ecological risks. The main conclusion emphasizes the need for sustainable management strategies to harness the benefits of this species while minimizing its invasive capacity and highlighting its potential in biotechnological and environmental applications.

1. Introduction

Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. (Indian pokeweed) is a member of Phytolaccaceae family, together with twenty-six other species spread out all over the world in North America, South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia. It is native to Southeast Asia and East Asian regions (Figure 1).
P. acinosa is an important plant resource for locals in its native range who traditionally use it as an edible plant [1,2,3] or to treat various ailments in both humans and animals [4,5,6,7]. Building on the knowledge and experience gained by the locals regarding the medicinal importance of this species, subsequent modern research allowed the identification of a diversity of bioactive compounds with antitumor, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties, etc. [8,9,10,11]. Its potential to accumulate heavy metals (cadmium, copper, zinc, lead, manganese, etc.) from mine tailings has been studied in its native range, especially in China [12,13,14,15].
The Indian pokeweed is considered an alien species in other places, such as North America (Wisconsin) or Europe [16] (Figure 1). For instance, P. acinosa has been reported as an alien species in anthropogenic or natural habitats in a number of European countries, including Russia [17,18], Ukraine [19,20], Croatia [21], Slovenia [22], Austria [23], Hungary [24], Poland [25], and Romania [26,27]. According to international databases like EASIN, POWO, and Euro + Med Plantbase, P. acinosa is also found in Belgium, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Finland, France, Italy, and Switzerland [16,28,29].
Considering its status as an alien species and its wide distribution across the European continent, we must think about the degree of impact that Indian pokeweed will have on natural habitats in the future. We can exploit this plant resource that has entered in Europe in such a way as to achieve two important objectives in terms of biodiversity conservation: maintaining the integrity of native natural habitats and managing invasive alien species by applying appropriate management measures. Proper management practices for this invasive species can be applied depending on the habitat where it is present and the degree of invasiveness. For example, mechanical and manual control may be an eco-friendly method, and its biomass can be used for medicinal purposes.
The main purpose of this work was to systematize information from the scientific literature regarding P. acinosa so that we can sustainably use this valuable natural resource for the benefit of humans and wildlife.

2. Methodological Insights

In order to systematize the specialized literature that had the Indian pokeweed as a subject of study, the PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science Core Collections databases were consulted. Information from online international databases (EASIN, POWO, Euro + Med Plantbase, Flora of North America, Flora of China) was also consulted. The scientific names “Phytolacca acinosa”, “Phytolacca esculenta”, and “Phytolacca pekinensis” were used as keywords. The documentation sources were filtered with an emphasis on the taxonomy, distribution, biology, ecology, and economic importance of this species. Most of the information sources were scientific articles in English that could be consulted in full. In the case of other sources, only the abstracts were available. Taking into account that in the period 2018–2022 an important project on the management of invasive species was carried out in Romania, information on P. acinosa from the documents available on the project’s website were used, respecting the suggested citation recommendations. In addition, new information concerning the distribution of P. acinosa in Romania was provided based on personal field observations.

3. Taxonomy

There are different opinions regarding P. acinosa from a taxonomic point of view. Some authors [21,30,31] consider P. acinosa and P. esculenta to be distinct species, belonging to P. acinosa agg., and differentiating themselves mainly by the color of their anthers (white for P. acinosa, and pink for P. esculenta) and perianth (greenish-white to pinkish for P. acinosa, and white for P. esculenta). In Flora of China, P. acinosa is a synonym of P. esculenta and P. pekinensis and is recognized by the following characteristics: erect inflorescence and infructescence; five tepals, which are white or yellowish-green; stamens with pink anthers and white filaments; and 8–10 distinct carpels that are green or white [32].
The roots are thick and fleshy, and the erect stem has a green or reddish-purple color. The leaves are alternate, with elliptic or lanceolate–elliptic leaf blades that are 10–30 cm long and 4.5–15 cm wide [21]. The flowers are arranged in an erect raceme that is 15–20 cm in length, which grows sympodially (Figure 2). The flowers are hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, and 8 mm in diameter. The perianth has five tepals, initially white and purple-red during fruit ripening [21], and mostly with eight inner stamens that alternate with the same number of carpels [33]. The anthers of P. acinosa are white, and those of P. esculenta are pink [21]. Sometimes, it has a different number of outer stamens arranged alternately with the inner whorl so that the total number of stamens goes up to 15. At least two outer stamens are arranged opposite to one tepal [33]. But there is no relationship between the tepal and stamen initiating position, and the stamens are initiated on the ring meristem [31]. The outer stamens can persist as staminodes. The outer tepals are ovate and cover the flower bud in a quincuncial estivation [33]. The gynoecium is apocarpous with 7–15 carpels and a superior ovary. Fruit is composed of 7–15 purplish-black berries (Figure 2), with remnant styles and kidney-shaped seeds [21].

4. Biology

It is a hemicryptophyte, perennial herb, with a height up to 1.5–2 m and a flowering period from May to August. Vegetative organs of P. acinosa represent a shelter for endophytic bacteria from the Solirubrobacter genus, like roots for S. phytolaccae sp. nov. [34], and stems for S. taibaiensis sp. nov. [35].
For the first time, a study provided information on the phenology of P. acinosa across different habitats along an elevation gradient (2250–2780 m a.s.l.) in the Kashmir Himalayas [36]. According to this, sprouting started in the first week of April at the low-elevation site and in the second week of May at the high-elevation site, with a duration of the vegetative stage of 30–40 days. The blooming phase started at the end of May at low elevation, and at the end of June at high elevation. The duration of the flowering period was between 59 days at low elevation and 52 days at high elevation. The fruits and seeds formed in July and August, respectively. In Europe, the anthesis period of P. acinosa varies from the end of June to the end of July in Poland [25], and from May to August in Romania [37].
Pollination can be mediated by wind, water, or insects, and self-pollination by cleistogamy, pseudocleistogamy, or geitonogamy is an alternative mechanism [38]. During the fecundation process of P. acinosa, the pollen tube follows the extragynoecial pathway through the floral central space of the gynoecia, covered by papillate tissue that functions as an extragynoecial compitum [39]. Reproduction is amphimictic through seeds, apomictic, or vegetative [38]. The Cornus type (autochory, endozoochory) is the main dispersal strategy of P. acinosa, defined by taking into account the combinations of dispersal modes and their relative importance and named after the representative genus [40]. Also, its invasiveness worldwide is due to human-mediated dispersal (anthropochory).
Dry seeds germinate better than fresh seeds, and the seeds are not dormant and germinate better without their pericarp [22]. Gibberellic acid increases the germination rate of P. acinosa seeds [41]. According to their study, polyhouse assures the best possible condition for their growth in terms of morphological (plant height, leaf number, leaf length, leaf width, and root length) and physiological features (photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, and maximal quantum efficiency of photosystem II). Treatment with acid gibberellic, sodium nitroprusside, and acid scarification enhances the germination of P. acinosa seeds, amylase activity, and the amount of proline and phenolic content (except acid scarification, which reduces the phenolic contents during seed storage). These treatments can be useful for maintaining germination capacity for at least two years [42].
In terms of the molecular and physiological mechanisms of the seed germination of two species of Phytolacca, research highlights that the amount of soluble sugars is higher in P. americana than in P. acinosa [43]. This is due to β-amylase that has a higher activity at 1 day after germination in P. americana and at 4 days after germination in P. acinosa.
Being a native species to the Himalayan region and used as an edible plant for local communities, a decrease in its population in natural habitats has been registered. Therefore, ex situ conservation is required. A propagation protocol was proposed for P. acinosa based on rhizome cuttings [44]. According to this, gibberellic acid induced the highest sprouting percentage of the rhizome segments, and their sprouting and growth were stimulated by two variants of soil composition (sand, pebbles, vermicompost (1:1:1:1) and soil, sand, and vermicompost (1:1:1)).

5. Ecological Features and Characteristic Habitats

One study proposed a dataset of ecological indicator values for Czech flora compatible with Ellenberg indicator values [45]. According to this, P. acinosa is a meso-heliophilous, thermophilous, meso-xerophilous, and moderate acidophilous species. It prefers soils rich in nitrogen minerals and, as a glycophyte, cannot tolerate a high concentration of salt. Low light levels (1500–2000 lx) negatively affect the stem length, average leaf number, reproductive traits, total number and length of racemes, total biomass, leaf mass fraction, flower mass fraction, and specific leaf area [46].
P. acinosa grows in different natural habitats, like open rocky slopes, partial shade, inside forests, and along roadsides, and at more than 1950 m altitude, especially in plant communities dominated by Poa angustifolia, P. pratensis, and Cynodon dactylon in the Himalaya region [47]. These habitats are characterized by a wide range of pedological conditions in terms of available nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, soil organic carbon, organic matter, and soil pH. P. acinosa is considered a pioneer species that settles on sites affected by landslides caused by heavy rainfalls or geological changes, like in the Himalayan region [48]. The characteristic habitats of P. acinosa in China were gradually invaded by P. americana, which became more competitive. Some authors highlighted the decline of P. acinosa and the range expansion of P. americana [46]. They demonstrated the inhibitory effect of the volatile organic compounds secreted by P. americana on the growth and development of P. acinosa in terms of the stem length, average leaf number, total biomass, and leaf mass fraction. Climate change can lead to the degradation of P. acinosa’s natural habitats, and it will be considered a threatened species in the Himalayan region in the future [49].
In the USA, P. acinosa has been reported from Olin Park in Madison (Wisconsin) in the profoundly shaded habitats of a deciduous forest [50].
In Romania, an exhaustive research was carried out over four years (2019–2022) as part of the project POIM/178/4/1/120008-Adequate management of invasive species in Romania, in accordance with EU Regulation 1143/2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species. One of the main objectives of this project was the inventory and mapping of the invasive and potentially invasive alien plant species in Romania. According to the final research reports [51,52], P. acinosa is mentioned as an alien species of interest for Romania, being observed in 14 hotspots at the national level during 2020–2022 in different localities (Bucharest, Moșnița Nouă, Timișoara, and Iași). It can be found in anthropogenic habitats (edges of railways, roadsides, urban green spaces) such as in Praid, Iași, and Cluj-Napoca [53]. Also, P. acinosa was proposed on a special list for which the necessary application of eradication measures was needed [27]. Personal research has highlighted the presence of mature individuals in the flowering and fruiting stage in the green spaces of Deva city (Romania) (Figure 3). Probably, these specimens were cultivated for the decorative value of their flowers and, especially, of their fruits.
In other European countries (Slovenia, Croatia, Ukraine), P. acinosa vegetates in cemeteries, urban wastelands, gardens, or parks (under trees or shrubs, the foot of walls) [19,21,22]. In Hungary, the most suitable habitats for P. acinosa are urban areas, as well as the partially shaded natural habitats of the Alliarion alliance [30]. In Poland, specimens of P. acinosa were discovered on degraded lands near settlement tanks and solid sludge dumps, together with other species from the Stellarietea mediae class and Sisymbrietalia order. The author considered how some vegetative parts or seeds had been brought there by birds or together with farm waste [25].
So far, no information on the control methods for P. acinosa has been found in the literature. Taking into account that it is related to P. americana, we consider that the methods used in the management of this invasive species can be applied to P. acinosa. Therefore, both physical and chemical control methods have been mentioned for the management of P. americana. Physical methods include pulling, cutting, and discing [54,55]. Dicamba, Triclopyr, Glyphosate, Imazapyr, and 2,4-D can be used as preemergence or postemergence herbicides [55].

6. Phytochemistry and Medicinal Properties

6.1. Ethnomedicinal Uses

In traditional Chinese medicine, P. acinosa (especially the root) is used to treat edema, lymphatic congestion, mastitis, stomach ulcers, diarrhea, diabetes, bleeding, swelling, and sores [4,56,57] (Figure 4). The oil obtained from the roots relieves joint pain [58]. Communities from Kashmir Valley (India) use the dried root powder to treat infections and digestive ailments [7]. P. acinosa represents a useful natural resource for indigenous people from the Kashmir region for the treatment of various ailments like swelling of the nipples that affect women during the postpartum period [59]. In traditional medicine in the Doodhganga forest range (India), locals use the root, leaves, or fruits of P. acinosa in the form of infusions, decoctions, pastes, or powders to lower blood pressure; treat arthritis, wounds, and stomach cramps; or as a sedative [60]. Also, the root paste is used as a purgative by Sherpas of Helambu from central Nepal [61]. Mongolian communities from China use the vegetative organs of P. acinosa for the treatment of diphtheria, anthrax, and toothache, applying traditional processing methods like steaming with black beans or soaking in milk [6]. As a native species from the Kashmir Himalayas, it is used as a medicinal plant by the locals and is under low anthropogenic pressure like deforestation or constructional activities [62]. The decoction obtained from the roots is used for constipation, diuresis, cervical erosion [63]. According to the data registered at the Information Bank on Chinese Medicines from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the roots of P. acinosa can be used to induce an abortion [64]. Other species of Phytolaccaceae (P. americana, P. dodecandra) are used in conventional medicine for skin infections, edema, ascites, and digestive and kidney disorders [65,66,67]. There are also species with toxic effects, which are not used in folk medicine, such as P. japonica and P. polyandra [67].

6.2. Phytochemicals and Pharmacological Effects

Studies highlighted the presence of saponins, flavones, and esculentosides A, B, C, E, F, H, and T with anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antibacterial, and antimycotic properties in P. acinosa’s vegetative organs [4,68,69] (Figure 4). The same medicinal properties were identified in P. americana and P. dodecandra due to the presence of these natural compounds [65,67,70]. Triterpenoids are the main constituents identified in P. acinosa (esculentosides A, B, H, T and phytolaccagenic acid) [10] (Table 1), as well as in other species of the Phytolacca genus (P. americana, P. tetramera, P. dodecandra) [65,67,68,71]. Along with these, the leaves and berries of P. acinosa contain 21 carotenoids and 26 phenolic compounds, the main ones being 13′-Z-antheraxanthin, 13′-Z-neoxanthin, dinoxanthin, all-E-lutein, 9-Z-lutein, neolutein A, all-E-β-carotene, quercetin-3-glucoside, quercetin-3-rutinoside, malvidin-3-(6″-coumaroyl)-5-diglucoside, and delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside, respectively [72]. Esculentoside A and esculentoside H have antitumor action, and esculentoside T is anti-inflammatory [10]. Esculentoside A has been used against tumors, hyperplasia of mammary glands, and endometriosis [73] and also to ameliorate allergic asthma due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action [11]. Furthermore, this compound is very efficient for the prevention and treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome and has an anti-inflammatory effect on lung injury in mice [74]. Esculentoside A ameliorates symptoms of atopic dermatitis in model mice constructed by the induction of 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene and deactivates the NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, an important component of the innate immune system, by activating transcription factor Nrf2 [75]. The aqueous extracts of P. acinosa have a diuretic effect on mice due to the presence of the esculentoside A compound that inhibits the expression of aquaporins AQP2 and AQP4, angiotensin II type 1 receptor, and renin [76]. Esculentoside A from the roots of P. acinosa has an anti-inflammatory effect on the digestive system, enhancing intestinal motility both in vivo and in vitro in rats with ulcerative colitis induced with dextran sulfate sodium and lipopolysaccharide, respectively [77]. The anti-inflammatory potential of esculentoside A has also been demonstrated in osteoarthritis, where it inhibits matrix catabolism and osteoclastogenesis, diminishing the degradation of the cartilage and osteoclast formation [78]. Esculentoside B is recognized for its anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-treated macrophage RAW 264.7 cells [4].
Acinospesigenin-A, -B, and -C, isolated from the berries of P. acinosa have antiedema activity in albino rats [79]. P. acinosa contain the pokeweed antiviral protein (PAP), known for its antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and antitumor activity [80]. Some polysaccharides (PAP-I) isolated from P. acinosa have an inhibitory role on solid Meth A tumor growth and prolong the survival time of mice bearing ascite tumors [81]. PAP-I augments immunological functions both in vivo (natural killer cell activity and lymphocyte proliferation in mice [8]) and in vitro (the cytotoxicity of murine splenocyte and interleukin-2 activity [82]). Also, PAP-I activates mouse splenocytes to produce colony-stimulating factors [83], enhances splenic lymphocyte proliferation, IL-2 and NKCF (natural killer cell cytotoxic factor) production [84]. Later, the authors confirm the antitumor action of PAP-I, as well as the stimulation of cytokine production such as TNF, IL-1, and IL-6 [9]. Some studies reveal the in vivo cytotoxicity of mouse peritoneal macrophages primed by PEP-I, related to its TNF and IL-1 production [86].
A mixture of aqueous extracts obtained from Aconitum carmichaeli, Rhizoma bolbostemmatis, Phytolacca acinosa, Panax notoginseng, and Gekko swinhonis was tested on hepatocarcinoma Bel-7402 cells to demonstrate the antitumor action [87]. As a result of using this mixture, the authors observed the inhibition of the proliferation, apoptosis, differentiation, and arrest cells in the S phase. Moreover, ethanolic extracts of P. acinosa roots containing flavones had anti-cancer activity on the human lung cancer cell line A549 [57]. The antitumor efficiency of an aqueous extract known in Chinese medicine as WRCP (warming and relieving cold phlegm) on human breast cancer in vivo was improved by adding 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) [88]. The ethanol-H2O fractions of P. acinosa roots had anti-proliferative activities against two human tumor cell lines of gastric carcinoma (SCG-7901) and colorectal carcinoma (Hep G2) [89]. Another active compound of P. acinosa with antitumoral action is xathomicrol, which suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/MMP9 pathway [85].

7. Phytoremediation

Species of the Phytolacca genus (P. dodecandra, P. americana, P. clavigera, P. bogotensis, P. icosandra) are recognized for their potential to extract heavy metals (cadmium, lead, manganese) from contaminated sites [90,91] or to accumulate rare elements [92,93].
Among them, P. acinosa has a high potential to accumulate heavy metals (cadmium—Cd; zinc—Zn; chromium—Cr; lead—Pb; copper—Cu; iron—Fe; antimony—Sb; and especially manganese—Mn) from polluted soils [12,14,94,95,96,97,98,99] (Figure 4). Besides these heavy metals, it has been demonstrated that the leaves of Indian pokeweed also accumulate a high concentration of aluminum, more than 400 mg/kg [100]. The application of some substances, like chelating agents and organic acids, can improve cadmium and arsenic accumulation by P. acinosa, the most efficient being malic acid and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) [101]. Also, other chelating agents such as EDTA-Na2+, single or mixed with citric acid, can be a viable solution for the decontamination of polluted soils with Cu and Cd [102]. P. acinosa is a manganese hyperaccumulator; the highest Mn content was found in the vascular tissues of the root, stem, petiole, and midrib [103]. These authors emphasized that the cortex root has an important role in Mn absorption, and the Mn content was higher in the leaf epidermis, and this could be one of the detoxification mechanisms of P. acinosa.
The presence of some endophytic bacteria from the α-Proteobacteria, β-Proteobacteria, γ-Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria groups intensified the accumulation of heavy metals. Within these groups, most clones belong to the genera Agrobacterium and Pseudomonas [14]. Bacterial strains of Bacillus tianshenii, B. aryabhattai, B. paranthracis, B. paramycoides, B. cereus, and Solibacillus isronensis isolated from the tissues of P. acinosa have high potential in the phytoremediation efficiency of Cd-contaminated soils [104,105]. The Fe-Mn plaque inoculated with the bacterial strain Arthrobacter echigonensis MN1405 increased the accumulation and translocation of Cd in P. acinosa [96]. Also, endophyte PE31 Bacillus cereus inoculation enhanced the Cd uptake of P. acinosa in Cd-contaminated soils, increasing the phytoremediation hotspot area [106]. The endophyte B. paramycoides inoculation enhanced the bioavailable Cd percentage, resulting in the increased Cd uptake by P. acinosa up to 19.22% and bioavailability of Cd in macroaggregates up to 15%, especially [107]. The growth and Mn/Cd accumulation of P. acinosa can be optimized by the endophyte strain Bacillus sp. SLS18 [108].
Due to its ability to accumulate heavy metals, the local populations that use this plant as a food (like in China or India) should be aware of the health risk in case of overconsumption. In this case, the consumption of fresh or preserved plants grown in polluted environments should be prohibited unless heavy metal analyses can be performed.
The heavy metal-enriched P. acinosa biomass had been pyrolyzed to produce biochar [109]. This study demonstrates the efficiency of this technique that reduces the mobility and bioavailability of Mn and discharges aqueous silver, lead, cadmium, and copper ions. P. acinosa can be used to synthesize a manganese oxide/biochar composite (Mn@BC) that activates the periodate and shows high performance for degrading dyes, like methylene blue, in natural sewage [110]. A magnetic hydrochar derived from iron-rich P. acinosa was obtained as an efficient adsorbent for water bodies polluted with Cd [15]. An iron-loaded biochar capable of adsorbing vanadium from wastewater using co-pyrolysis of Fe2(SO4)3, NaOH and P. acinosa as the substrate was obtained [111].
A study reported the capacity of P. acinosa to accumulate phosphorus from a mining area in China, but its concentration decreases significantly in the roots from the seedling to the flowering stage [13]. Also, P. acinosa is known for its ability to accumulate rare-earth metals (erbium–Er; thulium–Tm; gadolinium–Gd; lutetium–Lu; scandium–Sc; lanthanum–La; praseodymium–Pr; etc.) and potassium (K) [42,92]. The higher concentrations of these elements are in the roots and leaves. The rare-earth elements increased the number of lateral roots and foliar anthocyanins and decreased the lateral root length and chlorophyll content [92].

8. Other Properties

In China, it is harvested for use as a food additive, with the subterranean parts cooked with meat or rice [2] and for dyeing wool red [112] (Figure 4). In India, P. acinosa leaves are consumed boiled or fried in oil with various spices only in March, as mature leaves are toxic [1]. The leaves are consumed by the Gujjar tribe from India in salads, and the fruits are a source of food for poultry [63]. The tender leaves of P. acinosa are boiled, dried, and preserved for the winter by local communities from the western Himalayas of Kashmir [3]. The leaves, roots, or fruits of other species of Phytolacca (P. americana, P. dodecandra) are used as food colorants, to curdle milk, or for textile dyeing [65]. Betacyanins isolated from P. acinosa berries together with guar gum/polyvinyl alcohol and Ag nanoparticles can be used for food packaging films, giving them antibacterial and antioxidant properties [113].
The molluscicidal properties of the unripe berries of P. acinosa were tested on Radix luteola, a vector of animal schistosomiasis [114] (Figure 4). According to this study, the methanol extract of P. acinosa had a low potential of toxicity (LC50 value of 399.10 ppm and LC90 value of 193.76 ppm) and the aqueous extracts caused the death of 10% of adults at a 100 ppm concentration. Saponins of P. acinosa had molluscicidal effects on the gastropods of the Oncomelania genus [115], known as vectors of diseases such as schistosomiasis. According to their results, 95.6% of snails were dead after 24 h of soaking in a solution of 125 mg/L of saponins at 28 °C, and 98.8% of them had the operculum closed after 6 h, which highlights the irritating effect on snails. The strain SL-30 from Aspergillus fumigatus isolated from the P. acinosa rhizosphere had molluscicidal effects against Oncomelania hupensis due to bioactive agents called gliotoxin [116,117]. Later, the same authors studied the efficiency of a kind of diketopiperazines produced by A. fumigatus SL-30, isolated from the rhizosphere of P. acinosa on O. hupensis, and also its toxicity on zebrafish (Brachydanio rerio), East Asian river prawns (Macrobrachium nipponense), and Asian rice frogs (Rana limnocharis) [118]. Another study demonstrated toxic effects on zebrafish larvae in vivo, causing liver injury, abnormal liver function, and apoptosis [119]. The molluscicidal effects [65,120,121,122] and vertebrate toxicity [121] have also been reported in P. dodecandra and P. americana.
Saponins of P. acinosa had toxic effects on the liver, kidney, and heart muscle [123]. The toxicity of esculentoside A from P. acinosa on rat livers was also demonstrated in a study that highlights the activation of oxidative stress and energy metabolism disorders, triggering inflammation and apoptosis [69]. Esculentoside B had negative effects on zebrafish larvae, such as neurotoxicity, metabolic disorder, development abnormalities, alterations of locomotor behavior [124]. A metabolomic method by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to evaluate the effect of Radix phytolaccae decoction in different types of rat tissue (liver, kidney, heart). This medicine, which contains the dried roots of P. acinosa and P. americana, induced disturbance of energy metabolism, aminoacid metabolism, and the urea cycle [125]. Acetone powders using the leaves, roots, and seeds of P. acinosa had an abortifacient activity on mice, and the seeds were most efficient [126]. The toxicity of the unripe fruits of P. acinosa is due to the presence of alkaloids [7]. Phytolaccatoxin and phytolaccagenin can be responsible for the toxicity of this species [67].
Pokeweed antiviral protein (PAP-c) isolated from P. acinosa can induce the systemic resistance of plants, like Nicotiana benthamiana, to plant virus infection, increasing the production of ROS and activating the expression of salicylic acid-associated genes (NbNPR1, NbPR1, and NbPR2) [127]. Aqueous extracts of P. acinosa leaves can be used for preventing or controlling the viral infection of some potato cultivars with Potato virus Y (PVY) due to the capacity of this species to produce ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) [128].
P. acinosa is a secondary host for Adelphocoris lineolatus and Apolygus lucorum, common pests of cotton and several other crops in northern China [129,130]. According to [131], based on phylogenetic analysis, P. acinosa can be a transitional host and vector for cucumber mosaic virus (Figure 4).
An ethnoveterinary survey conducted in the Himalayas revealed that communities of shepherds use a decoction of the roots or leaves of P. acinosa for sheep treatment (cough, cold, constipation, tonic) [5] (Figure 4).

9. Conclusions

Phytolacca acinosa represents a valuable plant resource whose economic, medicinal, and food potential can be exploited especially in areas where it has been introduced and is considered an invasive species. Thus, its harvesting for use in various purposes could represent an efficient and sustainable measure to control its expansion. Considering that it is a secondary host for certain pathogens and pests of agricultural crops, special attention must be paid to its elimination by physical methods in areas where it has invasive potential.
The traditional use of Indian pokeweed to treat different diseases must be certified by studies that highlight chemical compounds with pharmacological effects and therapeutic potential both in human medicine and especially in veterinary medicine.
P. acinosa is recognized as a hyperaccumulator of different heavy metals. Its potential in the phytoremediation of polluted habitats must be exploited by identifying new species/strains of bacteria that accelerate its ability to accumulate heavy metals, testing its ability to accumulate other heavy metals than those described so far in the scientific literature, and developing technologies for obtaining different types of biochar useful for the degradation of a wide range of substances from polluted terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Furthermore, research is needed to identify other species of bacteria and fungi located in the rhizosphere of P. acinosa that can accelerate the inhibitory or lethal effect on some species of pests and pathogens. Moreover, its toxic effects should be tested on other invertebrate species that are vectors of parasites, especially in humans. Also, it is necessary to harness the antiviral, antifungal, or antibacterial potential of Indian pokeweed for the biological control of some pathogens.
It is also important to develop protocols regarding technologies with various growth conditions for its ex situ conservation in order to reduce the pressure of exploitation in its natural range.
On the basis of the above statements, Phytolacca acinosa is a valuable source of germplasm, and its multiple economic values can be diversified through ongoing research, taking into account its sustainable exploitation in nature.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.A.N.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.N., M.C.M. and T.A.; writing—review and editing, M.A.N., M.C.M. and T.A.; visualization, M.A.N., M.C.M. and T.A.; supervision, M.A.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was financed by National University of Science and Technology Politechnica Bucharest through the PubArt publication support programme.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Global distribution map of Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.
Figure 1. Global distribution map of Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.
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Figure 2. Flowers (a) and fruits (b) of P. acinosa.
Figure 2. Flowers (a) and fruits (b) of P. acinosa.
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Figure 3. Cultivated specimens of P. acinosa in green spaces from Deva city (Romania).
Figure 3. Cultivated specimens of P. acinosa in green spaces from Deva city (Romania).
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Figure 4. Phytolacca acinosa—a valuable bioresource.
Figure 4. Phytolacca acinosa—a valuable bioresource.
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Table 1. Brief summary of the main biological compounds and their pharmacological activities.
Table 1. Brief summary of the main biological compounds and their pharmacological activities.
Bioactive CompoundsPart PlantPharmacological ActivitiesReferences
esculentoside Arootanti-inflammatory, antitumoral, antioxidative, diuretic[4,10,11,67,73,74,75,76,77,78]
esculentoside Brootanti-inflammatory[4,10,67]
esculentoside Hrootanti-inflammatory, antitumoral, antioxidative[10,67]
esculentoside Trootanti-inflammatory[10]
phytolaccagenic acidrootantifungal[10]
carotenoidsleaf, berryantioxidative, antichollinesterase[72]
acinospesigenin-A, -B, and -Cberryanti-inflammatory[79]
pokeweed antiviral protein (PAP)not mentionedantibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antitumoral[80]
polysaccharides (PAP-I)rootantitumoral, immunostimulation[9,81,82,83,84]
flavonesrootantitumoral[57,85]
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Neblea, M.A.; Marian, M.C.; Aydin, T. A Comprehensive Review of the Invasive Species Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Sustainability 2025, 17, 4826. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17114826

AMA Style

Neblea MA, Marian MC, Aydin T. A Comprehensive Review of the Invasive Species Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Sustainability. 2025; 17(11):4826. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17114826

Chicago/Turabian Style

Neblea, Monica Angela, Mădălina Cristina Marian, and Tuba Aydin. 2025. "A Comprehensive Review of the Invasive Species Phytolacca acinosa Roxb." Sustainability 17, no. 11: 4826. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17114826

APA Style

Neblea, M. A., Marian, M. C., & Aydin, T. (2025). A Comprehensive Review of the Invasive Species Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Sustainability, 17(11), 4826. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17114826

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