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Article

An Example of the Transition to Sustainable Mobility in the Austrian City of Graz

by
Aleksandar Šobot
1,* and
Sergej Gričar
2,3
1
Faculty of Economics and Informatics, University of Novo Mesto, Na Loko 2, 8000 Novo Mesto, Slovenia
2
Faculty of Business and Management Sciences, University of Novo Mesto, Na Loko 2, 8000 Novo Mesto, Slovenia
3
Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Rijeka, Ika 46, 51414 Opatija, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(10), 4324; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104324
Submission received: 20 March 2025 / Revised: 7 May 2025 / Accepted: 7 May 2025 / Published: 9 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Transportation: Driving Behaviours and Road Safety)
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Abstract

:
With its profound impact, climate change has emerged as the most significant challenge for economic development. The primary cause of this global crisis is “fossil” capitalism, which denotes the pollution caused by greenhouse gas emissions. As the main contributors, cars significantly add to this pollution, making traffic one of the largest polluters responsible for the ecological and economic crisis. At the European Union (EU) level, countries have formulated environmental policies within the framework of the Green Deal. The Green Deal recognises sustainable mobility as a promising solution for reducing greenhouse gases and managing the consequences of climate change. The research background highlights the promising effects of the sustainable mobility strategy in the Austrian city of Graz. The research methodology is based on a case study analysis of the “eco-transformation” of Graz, focusing on developing a local sustainable mobility strategy and implementing the “soft mobility” concept. Soft mobility refers to non-motorised forms of transportation, such as walking, cycling, and public transit, which are environmentally friendly and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The research examines three key components—space, culture, and ambition—as fundamental elements of sustainable mobility. All available online data were collected through desk analysis and a literature review to assess the effectiveness of sustainable policies in Graz. In addition, a quantitative analysis using daily cyclist counts and weather data from 2022–2024 was conducted, confirming the impact of environmental and temporal variables on cycling behaviour. The findings underscore Graz’s replicable value as a sustainable mobility model and highlight the broader implications for EU climate goals.

1. Introduction

At the global level, the environmental standard mandates that the ‘polluter pays’, with ‘polluter’ referring to the end user [1]. However, the automotive industry, one of the largest polluters, stresses transitioning to a ‘producer pays’ model [2]. The automotive industry’s sway over global decision-makers is evident, as they are often influenced by corporations operating behind the scenes, contributing to their reluctance to alter the current international development model. They continue to pass environmental damage onto end users while avoiding ecological responsibility [3]. This frequently results in negligence among industries and countries in addressing environmental problems [4]. Nonetheless, this perspective also provides an opportunity to explore alternative solutions such as sustainable modes of mobility—cycling, public transportation, and walking—which have either minimal or no environmental impact [5]. This approach fosters climate change adaptation and lessens the environmental effects of polluting activities [6]. Consumers’ ‘green’ mindset plays a crucial role in promoting the ecological transition in transportation by considering environmental factors in their purchasing and service-use choices, which has fuelled the rise of sustainable mobility [7]. Despite the absence of a universally accepted definition [8], sustainable mobility exemplifies the power of consumer choices. This narrative offers significant lessons for developing future sustainability policies, as it highlights how poor management and ineffective policy frameworks can contribute to lasting adverse environmental effects [9]. Consequently, sustainable mobility is viewed as a broader framework for designing ’eco-thoughts’, ’eco-policies’, and ’environmental management processes’, which are essential for tackling contemporary environmental crises [10].
Urban mobility is a key topic in discussions about transportation, especially considering that many of the world’s population live in cities. According to United Nations projections, by 2050, around two-thirds of people globally will reside in urban areas [11]. This urban population needs effective mobility solutions for everyday activities, such as schooling, working, visiting family, and enjoying leisure time, which are vital for modern societal development [12]. Some scholars [13] have explored the historical progression of mobility, tracing it from walking to the use of animals, bicycles, cars, and more. Notably, cycling is regarded as the most environmentally friendly mode of transportation because it causes no pollution, requires no energy consumption, and fosters health benefits for individuals [14]. Concerns about pollution from mobility have been recognised since the 1980s, leading to global efforts to reduce its environmental impact [15]. Major initiatives, like the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015), have encountered practical challenges but have helped incorporate mobility considerations into the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, which stresses sustainable mobility (target 11.2) [16].
The European Union has established a Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy to meet these objectives, rooted in the 2019 Green Transition [17]. This strategy recognises sustainable mobility as an independent goal necessary to achieve the EU’s climate targets [18]. EU Member States have committed to developing their sustainable mobility strategies to achieve a 90% reduction in CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 [19]. Many cities have undertaken concrete decarbonisation initiatives for the green transition [20]. This Green Transition initiative directly impacts three fundamental aspects of sustainable development: technological (space), natural–ecological (culture), and socio-economic (ambition) [21]. The Copenhagenise concept for advancing sustainable mobility mirrors this by incorporating three pivotal elements: space, culture, and ambition [22]. ‘Space’ emphasises the creation of urban environments with green infrastructure and transport networks that facilitate cycling. ‘Culture’ promotes cycling as the most eco-friendly transport choice, improving the overall quality of life [23]. ‘Ambition’ refers to establishing laws and institutions supporting sustainable mobility initiatives [24].
To convert the ‘eco-logic’ of these frameworks into ‘eco-policy’ and ‘eco-management processes’, an ‘eco-transformation’ of existing systems is essential. This requires a political shift that supports an ecological transition towards sustainable practices [25]. The research highlights the case of the ‘eco-transformation’ of Graz, which embraced the concept of ‘soft mobility’ in 1990 [26]. By 2011, Graz had already formulated a sustainability strategy [27]. The emphasis of the research is mainly on the practical implementation of this plan by 2019, assuring the feasibility of ‘eco-transformation’ and the development of a green transition at the EU level [28].
This study offers a novel contribution to the literature on sustainable urban mobility by presenting an in-depth case analysis of the Austrian city of Graz, emphasising its long-term implementation of the ‘Soft Mobility’ model. Unlike previous research that primarily addresses sustainable transport strategies in broad or theoretical terms, this paper demonstrates how Graz operationalises the three interconnected dimensions of space, culture, and ambition within a localised EU policy framework. The research provides empirical evidence of how medium-sized cities can effectively transition toward sustainable mobility by tracing concrete developments, such as infrastructure investments, citizen engagement programs, and legislative efforts. This study assesses how these integrated dimensions have supported Graz’s ecological transformation, improved urban livability, and contributed to the EU’s climate goals. Through this, the paper establishes a transferable framework to guide similar cities in implementing scalable, community-driven mobility strategies aligned with the European Green Deal. These insights fill a gap in the existing literature by bridging theoretical discourse with actionable urban policy models grounded in lived practice.

2. Literature Review

In the developed world, cycling is recognised as a key component of the environmental transformation toward sustainable mobility. It does not burden the environment, as it produces no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, does not pollute the air, and significantly reduces the energy consumption that would otherwise be required by other forms of transport, such as cars. This reduction in energy consumption is a significant step toward our emission reduction goal and supports the development of a strategy for sustainable mobility. Cycling in urban areas is increasingly considered an effective and environmentally friendly solution to mitigate adverse environmental and climate impacts. Furthermore, cycling promotes the health of its users by encouraging physical activity and reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases [29]. Cities, such as Copenhagen, Amsterdam, and Bogotá, have already successfully transformed into cyclist-friendly destinations, where cycling has become an everyday mode of transport. This shift has contributed to greater sustainable mobility and improved quality of life [30].
Experience from other countries confirms that cycling is increasingly integral to sustainable mobility. In Denmark, the share of cyclists grew from 22% to 28%; in Sweden, 25% to 35%; and in the Netherlands, 38% to 47% [31]. These data demonstrate the success of sustainable mobility policies, which have made cycling a standard mode of transport. Such policies have helped achieve the Sustainable Development Goals by reducing transport costs, noise, air pollution, traffic congestion, and energy consumption. Car usage has also declined [32], and cycling positively impacts health by promoting physical activity and lowering the risk of diseases associated with a sedentary lifestyle. Moreover, cycling in cities has become essential for reducing urban congestion, presenting a hopeful vision for the future of urban planning. It improves mobility and decreases the demand for extensive parking spaces [33]. By promoting cycling as the primary mode of transportation, cities are becoming greener and more environmentally friendly.
For cycling to become the primary mode of transport in the EU and worldwide, changes are needed in space, culture, and ambition. Countries, such as Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, and the UK, have adopted sustainable mobility strategies (ambition) supported by appropriate measures (culture) and infrastructure, such as cycle paths (space). These changes have led to greater integration of cycling into everyday life, increased public awareness of sustainable mobility, and, most importantly, greater citizen participation in shaping transport policies [34]. This active involvement of citizens has been a key factor in the success of these initiatives. The outcome of this citizen-led approach is the development of innovative policies, support for local and regional projects, and expansion of the number of cycle paths and bike-sharing systems. In cities where sustainable mobility strategies have been implemented, reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and improved residents’ quality of life have been observed [35]. Thus, cycling is becoming an ecologically sustainable choice crucial to improving urban quality-of-life strategies.
Cycling, a practice increasingly becoming a part of everyday life, enhances the quality of life and strengthens people’s connection with their environment. Many factors, such as demographics, infrastructure, age, education, and history, influence the adoption of cycling as a mode of transport. These factors shape the population’s perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours toward cycling [36]. Geographical factors, particularly the length of cycle paths, play a crucial role in developing sustainable cycling mobility. Longer and well-connected paths increase the accessibility and attractiveness of cycling as a mode of transport [37]. The quality of infrastructure, especially well-designed cycle paths and safety features, is a key factor that affects the number of users and is often decisive in promoting sustainable transport. Investment in these aspects is essential in designing policies that encourage cycling in cities and contribute to sustainable development.
Examples from major cities, such as Paris, Copenhagen, and London, underscore the resounding success of sustainable cycling mobility [38]. Paris and Copenhagen have developed the ‘15-min Bike’ model [39]. The ‘15-min Bike’ model enables quick and convenient bike use for short daily journeys. Users can easily find a bike via an app or physical station, unlock it, and begin their ride. In just 15 min, they can complete small tasks, such as visiting a shop, meeting friends, or taking a quick ride to work. The emphasis is on the bike’s easy accessibility, the fast completion of the ride, and sustainable mobility, as cycling provides an environmentally friendly alternative. After the ride, the bike is returned to the station, or the app completes the process.
Similar initiatives are also underway in other European cities. Utrecht in the Netherlands is known for its extensive cycling infrastructure and strategies that promote cycling as the primary mode of transport [40]. The city’s careful planning ensures its cycle routes are safe and comfortable, connecting different parts of the town through cycle networks and enabling quick and easy travel. Barcelona has also introduced a bike rental system that allows people to shorten their journeys using bicycles as an alternative to public transport [41]. The city is working to make cycling the primary mode of transport in the city centre, supported by the construction of cycle paths and accessible bike rental stations.
The ‘15-min’ model offers many benefits, making it a valuable tool for sustainable urban planning. It promotes a reduction in car dependency by ensuring that all the necessities of daily life are within a short distance from home. This improves the quality of urban spaces by reducing traffic, noise, and pollution and enhances air quality. The model’s emphasis on cycling benefits residents’ health, lowers transport costs and fosters social cohesion in urban communities. These benefits underscore the potential of the ‘15-min’ model to revolutionise urban planning practices. A review of the literature on the impact of the 15-min model on space, culture, and ambitions is presented in Table 1.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Methodology

The case study approach provides a valuable framework for exploring how the city of Graz has embedded environmental, social, and political dimensions into its urban mobility planning. This method allows for a nuanced, context-specific understanding of local challenges, policy decisions, and the role of stakeholder involvement in the city’s ecological transformation. By focusing on actual practices and tangible outcomes, the case study offers actionable insights that may inform the development of sustainable mobility strategies in other mid-sized European cities.
Data for the analysis was gathered from various online sources, including project reports, academic publications, and official planning documents. Through desk research and a systematic literature review (keywords: sustainable mobility, urban transport, Graz), the study conducted a comprehensive examination of policy design, implementation processes, and evaluation mechanisms. The analysis centred on three key dimensions: space, referring to the physical and infrastructural layout of the city; culture, encompassing mobility-related social norms, behaviours, and values; and ambition, denoting the political will and strategic orientation behind the city’s sustainability goals.
A particular focus was placed on implementing the ‘soft mobility’ concept and its role in advancing EU climate objectives, such as reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and promoting active, low-impact transport modes. The research sheds light on effective approaches for integrating sustainability into urban transport systems by investigating the real-life application of these principles in Graz. The study’s conclusions are especially relevant for planners and policymakers seeking adaptable models for mid-sized cities. Ultimately, the research highlights the necessity of aligning environmental goals with social dynamics and political commitment to build more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable urban environments.

3.2. Case Study

Graz is an important city in the central part of Southeastern Europe and the capital of the Styria region in Austria. The town, rich in history and culture, has a population of around 300,000 to 400,000, with approximately 100,000 people employed in the Graz area. With four universities hosting about 50,000 students, Graz is also a significant educational and research hub. The city is home to numerous institutions, companies, and organisations; an additional 70,000 people commute to the city centre daily for work, study, and other activities [42]. Such a high population density and increased traffic impact the city’s quality of life, particularly its environment.
The increase in city traffic has led to a rise in air pollutants, with traffic now the second-largest source of air pollution in Graz, after industry. The primary pollutants, carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) have reached high average annual levels, indicating the pressing need for measures to improve air quality. Graz’s average annual CO2 concentration is approximately 51.3 µg/m3, while the yearly NOx value is around 33 µg/m3 [43]. These levels increased due to urban planning policies from the 1950s and 1960s, which heavily favoured the development of motor vehicle infrastructure. However, this strategy has resulted in higher pollution levels and more inconvenience for residents. We must all play our part in improving the air quality in Graz.
In response to this challenge, the city government of Graz has adopted a new transport policy aimed at reducing CO2 and NOx emissions and improving air quality. Graz has embraced an ambitious vision of becoming a city with a high quality of life, extending beyond ecological and economic factors. A high quality of life also includes access to sustainable and efficient forms of mobility, which is a crucial factor in the satisfaction of its residents. This approach led to developing the ‘soft mobility’ concept, where sustainable transitions and innovative solutions have become central goals of urban development [44]. The idea of ‘soft mobility’ is twofold: it encompasses a carbon-focused discourse and innovative solutions addressing infrastructure challenges (space); the culture of the population, with an emphasis on cycling and other sustainable modes of transport (culture); and the ambition to implement sustainable transport policies in practice. The long-term benefits of this policy, such as improved air quality and a healthier environment, will provide reassurance and confidence to the residents of Graz. The city of Graz has developed a local Sustainable Mobility Strategy to achieve these goals. This strategy positions sustainable mobility as a key objective for achieving the EU climate goals [45]. A significant part of this strategy is the incorporation of the ‘soft mobility’ concept, which is like the ‘Copenhagenise’ approach from Copenhagen for the transition to sustainable mobility. This approach, focusing on space, culture, and ambition, offers a promising path forward. ‘Space’ refers to developing cities with green infrastructure and planning transport networks supporting cycling. ‘Culture’ focuses on promoting cycling as the most environmentally friendly mode of transport, enhancing the quality of life. ‘Ambition’ involves the development of legislation and institutions that support sustainable mobility.
Nevertheless, for the case study, we employ econometric analysis based on descriptive statistics to complement the qualitative evaluation of the sustainable mobility transition in Graz. The quantitative component of the research covers a time frame from 1 January 2022 to 31 December 2024, encompassing a total of 1095 daily observations. Data were collected from two key measurement locations in the city centre—Innenstadt and Graz Süd/West—providing a detailed view of urban cycling activity patterns over three years. The data from the City of Graz, Department of Traffic Planning (Abteilung für Verkehrsplanung, Radverkehr) include daily cyclist counts alongside corresponding meteorological variables, such as temperature, precipitation, and sunshine duration. Graphical inspection was first used to visualise trends, seasonality, and anomalies, enabling a clearer understanding of temporal fluctuations. Subsequently, bivariate regression models were applied to explore the relationship between cyclist volumes and environmental factors, controlling for structural variations across time. The econometric approach aimed to reveal how quantitative indicators align with the qualitative dimensions of ‘space’, ‘culture’, and ‘ambition’ embedded in the city’s soft mobility strategy. This dual methodology enhances the robustness of the findings and supports evidence-based policy recommendations tailored to mid-sized European cities pursuing climate-aligned urban mobility reforms.

4. Results

4.1. Space and Cycling

Space primarily refers to analysing the population’s circulation needs (e.g., home-to-work, home-to-school) and identifying potential infrastructure solutions to better connect remote areas within the city, enabling access to all key points within a 15-min cycling distance. This also includes optimising bike rental stations and improving infrastructure for cyclists, such as bike lanes, bike parking spaces, service stations, and safe crossings. These facilities must cater to users of all ages and abilities, ensuring everyone feels included and valued in the urban environment [46].
Over the past 25 years, Graz has made significant efforts to educate children about safe cycling, building more than 130 km of cycle paths. This number continues to grow in the city centre and surrounding areas. The cycle paths are designed to ensure safe and comfortable cycling, with speed limits of 30 km/h in urban areas and, in some sections, up to 50 km/h in suburban areas [47]. Unfortunately, as the number of cycle paths has increased, so has the number of traffic accidents involving cyclists, particularly near schools. Near schools, there are primarily minors, often under the age of 10, who have not passed the cycling exam and therefore have not yet developed the habit of observing regulations, particularly the rule prohibiting pedestrians from using cycling paths. According to the HEAT methodology, data shows that, in the past 25 years, approximately nine people have had a cycling accident per 100,000 inhabitants. To reduce the risk of accidents, various awareness-raising projects for children have been carried out in Graz, emphasizing the importance of safe cycling and proper use of cycle paths [48].
In addition to expanding cycle paths, Graz has significantly improved its bicycle parking infrastructure. There are currently more than 26,000 bicycle parking spaces across the city, divided into different zones. These spaces can be permanent or temporary, with over 11,000 designated permanent parking spaces. These spaces’ responsibility is often shared with private landowners cooperating with the city through public tenders. This collaborative effort benefits not only the city’s residents but also the landowners, who receive compensation in the form of sponsorship [49]. One example of a successful bicycle parking facility is the ‘Don Bosco’ station near the train station, which also offers bicycle repair services, including bicycle washing. This facility is critical, as it allows those arriving in Graz by train to easily rent a bicycle and continue their journey to work within the city. Increased investments in parking infrastructure, which have exceeded 25 million euros since 2014, have played a key role in supporting sustainable mobility in the city. A crucial element of these investments is the parking ticket system, which is primarily funded by the fines and fees paid by parking users. This system helps finance the construction of bicycle parking spaces and other infrastructure improvements, with more than 50% of the funds for this development collected through it [50].

4.2. Culture and Cycling

Culture represents values related to the environment and a healthy, high-quality lifestyle [51]. To put this goal into practice, it is necessary to monitor current cycling trends in daily life and analyse the main cultural barriers to increasing the number of cyclists. Cycling must become an integral part of everyday life, which requires understanding people’s behavioural patterns, habits, and attitudes toward cycling [52]. It is important to recognise cultural limitations, such as a lack of education about the benefits of cycling. Therefore, we must stress the need to promote cycling education to empower people with the knowledge and skills to cycle safely and confidently. Negative attitudes toward cyclists in urban traffic or the absence of adequate cycling routes all contribute to feelings of insecurity among potential users [53]. Therefore, awareness must be raised, and people should be encouraged to switch to sustainable modes of transport, such as bicycles. At the same time, cultural activities promoting cycling should be incorporated into broader promotional efforts [54].
In the 1990s, Graz began recognising the problems caused by insufficient public spaces and an overemphasis on motor vehicles. The city was covered by a dense transportation infrastructure, which sometimes occupied more than 50% of the city’s area. The first project, ‘Space for People’, was a beacon of hope, focusing on reducing the space allocated to vehicles and increasing the space dedicated to pedestrians and cyclists. The project aimed to change the approach to urban transport, emphasising ensuring a higher quality of life, including a healthier and more accessible environment for people. This approach evolved into the political concept of ‘soft mobility’ [55]. The term ‘soft mobility’ refers to modes of transport that are environmentally friendly, sustainable, and focused on using infrastructure dedicated to pedestrians and cyclists. Unlike ‘hard’ forms of mobility, such as cars and public transport, which require more extensive and energy-intensive systems, soft mobility aims to reduce environmental impact while improving users’ health and quality of life.
Awareness of the importance of cycling for the city’s sustainable development is also reflected in long-term goals, the achievement of which involves limiting daily travel by motorised vehicles to a maximum of 13 km per day. This includes commuting to work, shopping, and recreation. By doing so, the residents of Graz would reduce their dependence on cars, promoting greater sustainability and significantly improving air quality. This positive change will lead to a considerable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. This approach encompasses not only technical and infrastructural solutions but also a shift in the mindset of residents, who must embrace cycling as a daily mode of transport. In this way, Graz will serve as a model for other cities that aim to become more sustainable and create more liveable environments for their residents.
Additionally, investments in air quality measurement and monitoring cyclist numbers have enabled more accurate tracking of progress toward achieving sustainability goals, a testament to the city’s commitment to a greener future. The ‘Air Quality Graz’ website provides residents with real-time air quality information, helping raise awareness and encourage sustainable transportation. Research shows that bicycle use in the city has increased by more than 15%, while car use has decreased by over 8%, highlighting the city’s success in sustainable mobility initiatives [56].
As part of its broader promotion of sustainable mobility, Graz has introduced bicycle rentals, including traditional and electric bikes, encouraging residents to adopt cycling as a mode of transport for their daily needs. The use of bike-sharing programs has been on the rise, particularly in winter, as this form of mobility appeals to those who prefer easy access to transportation without the need for ownership [57]. Furthermore, Graz has organised numerous activities, such as bike cafes, cycling photo contests, film festivals, and cycling races, further promoting cycling culture. Through these efforts, Graz has become one of the leading cities in Europe in terms of sustainable mobility, a success story that inspires other cities to follow suit. Graz has successfully combined ecological goals, economic interests, and a healthy lifestyle for its residents.

4.3. Ambitions and Cycling

Conversely, ambitions refer to long-term goals aimed at involving the public as widely as possible in transforming the city’s transport system and formulating sustainable policies [58]. This includes the participation of various stakeholders, such as municipalities, businesses, organisations, and residents, in the design and implementation of transport policies. Each stakeholder’s unique perspective and contribution are valued, as they collectively ensure that the policies receive broad support and have a lasting impact on the quality of life in cities [59]. These goals involve promoting sustainable modes of transport, such as cycling, walking, and public transportation, while reducing reliance on cars, thus contributing to greater sustainability and less pollution [60]. This way, healthier and more interconnected urban spaces will be created, enabling greater mobility for all residents [61].
The EU Declaration for Cyclists, adopted in 2022, is a significant step in promoting sustainable mobility in European cities. The Declaration emphasises the need to improve cycling infrastructure, increase support for cyclists, and encourage cycling as a sustainable alternative to motorised transport. As urban planners, policymakers, environmental advocates, and members of the public interested in sustainable transport, public support and involvement are crucial in making this declaration a reality. This follows the adoption of the ‘European Strategy for the Promotion of Cycling as a ‘Healthy’ Means of Transport for Commuting to Work’ in May 2021, during the ‘Fifth High-Level Meeting on Transport, Health, and Environment’, held under the auspices of the UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) and the World Health Organization (WHO). This strategy laid the groundwork for further action to make cycling a key component of sustainable mobility in urban areas.
Austria’s ‘Cycling Program’, initiated in 2010, has been a significant step towards promoting cycling, improving infrastructure, optimising traffic, and raising awareness about the importance of cycling for health and the environment. The success of this program, which included measures, like building cycle paths and running campaigns, has been possible due to the support and advocacy of policymakers, environmental advocates, and community leaders. The program was also part of the broader ‘Danube Cycling Plans’, which focused on connecting cycle paths throughout the region and promoting sustainable forms of transport. Additionally, Styria, one of the Austrian regions where the city of Graz is located, developed a ‘Climate Protection Plan’ through 2020, which identified increasing cycling as a key strategy for reducing CO2 emissions and promoting sustainable mobility. This plan was also supported by a regional development strategy, which recognised the importance of cycling as a foundation for a sustainable future.
In Graz, the ‘soft mobility’ concept has become the cornerstone of the city’s transport policy, aimed at developing environmentally friendly and socially healthy transport systems. Based on this approach, a long-term’ Mobility Plan for Graz until 2050’ was developed, titled ‘I Live Graz—Smart People Create Their Smart City’ [62]. This plan is part of the Urban Transport Policy Guidelines 2020. It contains a strategy focused on increasing sustainable mobility in the city and promoting using bicycles as the primary mode of transport. It is expected to contribute to greater functionality in urban areas, and, importantly, it empowers residents to play a key role in the sustainable transition, making them integral to Graz’s development.
The concept of ‘I Live Graz—Smart People Create Their Smart City’ underscores the pivotal role of Graz’s residents in developing a smart city. A smart city, powered by advanced technologies, digital tools, and innovations, is designed to elevate the quality of life for its residents. It prioritises sustainable development, environmental protection, energy efficiency, and innovative environmental management. The phrase implies that intelligent people who understand and support these technological and sustainable solutions actively contribute to shaping and transforming their environment. This understanding and support are evident in their involvement in local initiatives that foster inclusion, enhance quality of life, and support improved transport systems and digital platforms for better environmental management [63].
The phrase ‘I Live Graz’ adds a personal touch to the local mobility strategy, encouraging individuals to take responsibility and contribute to co-creating their environment by embracing new technologies and engaging in urban processes. Graz is not just talking the talk but walking the walk with its commitment to sustainable practices. The city is already implementing various projects and initiatives, including digitalising urban infrastructure, using smart devices to monitor energy consumption, and developing intelligent transport systems for cyclists. Similar initiatives and practices for energy conservation in cities have been initiated by other researchers [64]. These initiatives and sustainable construction practices are a testament to Graz’s dedication to creating a more efficient and user-friendly urban environment. All contributions of the new concept are summarised in Table 2.

4.4. Empirical Results of Quantitative Analysis

To complement the qualitative insights of this study, a quantitative analysis was conducted using a dataset comprising 1096 daily observations of bicycle traffic counts at two significant locations in Graz—Innenstadt and Graz Süd/West—combined with meteorological variables including precipitation, temperature, and sunshine duration (Table 3). This data spans all seasons and includes weekdays and weekends, enabling a comprehensive temporal analysis of cycling patterns. On average, both monitoring locations recorded a similar number of daily rides: approximately 1390 at Innenstadt and 1388 at Graz Süd/West (Figure 1). These values suggest a balanced distribution of cycling traffic across central and peripheral urban zones. However, the data reveals substantial day-to-day variability, with standard deviations of over 575 rides at both locations, reflecting the strong influence of contextual factors such as weather conditions, urban activity levels, and possibly special events or holidays. The maximum recorded daily counts reached nearly 2900 rides. At the same time, the lowest dropped below 200, underscoring the fluctuation in bicycle use and the need for dynamic mobility planning that accounts for such variances.
Further stratification of the data into weekdays and weekends exposes distinct behavioural trends. The mean values indicate significantly higher cycling activity on weekdays than weekends, reinforcing that weekday traffic is heavily influenced by routine commuting, mainly to work or school. In contrast, weekend cycling levels are lower, possibly reflecting reduced necessity-driven mobility and a shift toward leisure-oriented trips. This trend is consistent with broader mobility behaviour literature associating weekday transportation with utilitarian purposes and weekends with discretionary travel. Such findings reinforce the relevance of targeting commuter-focused infrastructure during the workweek, while potentially promoting recreational cycling and public engagement activities during weekends to maintain consistent usage.
Environmental conditions further contextualise the variation in bicycle use. The average daily temperature during the study period was approximately 12.88 °C, with notable seasonal variation ranging from a minimum of −3.3 °C to a maximum of 28.3 °C. Sunshine duration exhibited a mean of 50.5% of daily daylight hours, with a wide distribution that peaked at 100% on clear days and dropped to 0% on overcast days. Precipitation averaged 1.98 mm per day, though extreme values reached 60.6 mm. Notably, higher ridership coincided with milder temperatures, reduced rainfall, and increased sunshine, affirming previous research linking favourable weather conditions with elevated cycling activity. However, while these environmental factors contribute to fluctuations in use, their impact appears secondary to the day-of-week effect, suggesting that daily structure and purpose of travel remain dominant drivers of bicycle mobility in Graz.
This quantitative exploration substantiates the effectiveness of Graz’s soft mobility initiatives and provides a grounded basis for further policy refinement. For instance, the intense weekday usage highlights the importance of maintaining robust cycling infrastructure during peak commuting times. In contrast, the relatively lower weekend figures suggest opportunities to incentivise cycling through public campaigns, temporary closures of car lanes, or event-based urban cycling initiatives. Moreover, understanding the interplay between weather and mobility can inform adaptive strategies, such as increasing the availability of sheltered bike lanes, weather-protected parking facilities, and real-time cycling alerts. These data-driven insights enrich the broader narrative of this study by providing empirical evidence that reinforces Graz’s potential as a replicable model for urban mobility transitions in similarly structured cities. Future work should continue to explore these dimensions using more granular data, including hour-level counts and socio-demographic profiles of users, to support more tailored and equitable mobility policies.
The regression provides interesting results. The variables have been integrated to the second order, first by natural logarithms and second by first differences. It is usually observed that meteorological data are integrated to some order of integration. While one can observe that the number of cyclists depends on the weather, there is also an integrated order of the number of cyclists. Our results in Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the integrated data of both locations, meteorological data, and the dependence of the meteorological variable for each area separately, followed by the regression equation.
∆ B I t − 2 = 0.00 + 1.35 ∙ ∆ T F B I t − 2 7.87 + ε
where t-statistics are in parentheses and the Durbin–Watson (D–W) statistic is 2.10, indicating no autocorrelation between the data sets. However, R2 is negligible, and the sun in Graz provides only 5% of all impacts for cyclists. The number of observations (N) is 1096. BI is the number of cyclists, t − 2 is the integrated time series, T is temperature, F is Fahrenheit, and ε is an unobserved element.
∆ B I t − 2 = 0.0 − 0.05 ∙ ∆ P R E C t − 2 – 12.46 + ε
where t -statistics are in parentheses and the D–W statistic is 2.08, indicating no autocorrelation between the data sets. However, R2 is negligible, and rain in Graz causes only 12% of all the impacts on cyclists. The N is 1095.

5. Discussion

Graz’s transformation into a model city for sustainable urban mobility is rooted in a multidimensional strategy that incorporates spatial restructuring, cultural adaptation, and ambitious political will, captured under the framework of the ‘soft mobility’ concept. This discussion integrates the qualitative dimensions of this eco-transformation with the quantitative findings from the empirical analysis, particularly regression-based insights into the determinants of bicycle use.

5.1. Quantitative Insights and Regression Analysis

The econometric evaluation presented in this study provides crucial evidence that complements and enhances the qualitative case study. By analysing over 1000 daily observations from 2022 to 2024, the study captures seasonal and behavioural patterns in cyclist activity at two significant sites—Innenstadt (central Graz) and Graz Süd/West. Summary statistics revealed that average daily cyclist counts are similar across both sites (~1390), indicating a relatively even distribution of cycling infrastructure use, despite their different geographical contexts.
A clear weekday-weekend distinction emerged, with weekday counts consistently higher due to work and school commuting patterns. Weekend volumes were lower but more variable, likely tied to weather and recreational behaviours. These results are consistent with international studies on mobility habits, which have shown that weekday cycling is more resilient to moderate weather fluctuations due to necessity-driven behaviours. At the same time, weekend usage is more sensitive to precipitation or sunshine duration.
Regression models provide a nuanced view of the relationship between cyclist volume and weather variables. The first model (Equation (1)) evaluated the correlation between temperature and bike usage. While temperature had a positive coefficient, the model yielded a relatively low R² value (approximately 5%), indicating that temperature explains only a tiny portion of the variance in cycling behaviour. The Durbin–Watson statistic of 2.10 suggested no significant autocorrelation, reinforcing the reliability of the time series. However, the marginal explanatory power suggests that while temperature matters, it is not a dominant determinant in isolation. This is particularly relevant in Graz, where cultural and infrastructural factors have fostered habitual cycling across seasons.
The second model (Equation (2)), analysing the impact of precipitation, yielded a slightly higher R² value (~12%), reflecting a more substantial relationship between rainfall and reduced cyclist counts. Again, the Durbin–Watson statistic (2.08) confirmed robustness. Rain, as expected, acts as a short-term deterrent, though Graz’s investment in protected and well-maintained infrastructure may have mitigated its deterrent effect to a degree. In both models, the relatively low explanatory power points to the significance of non-meteorological variables—social norms, policy, and infrastructure—as key enablers of consistent bicycle use. These insights align closely with the city’s long-term strategy of embedding cycling into daily life regardless of climate variability.
Figure 2 and Figure 3, which show base indices of cyclist activity against temperature and rain (indexed to 1 January 2022 = 100), visually confirm these relationships. Fluctuations are more pronounced in winter with poor weather, but remain within a predictable range. The resilience in cyclist numbers across seasons attests to the cultural internalisation of cycling as a primary mode of transportation in Graz.

5.2. Bridging with the Qualitative Dimensions

The regression analysis supports the core qualitative dimensions of this research—space, culture, and ambition—by showing that weather only marginally explains cycling habits. This points to deeper structural and societal factors embedded in the city’s planning approach.
Space, as demonstrated, plays a foundational role. The city’s commitment to the 15-min cycling city model, reinforced by over 130 km of cycle paths and 26,000 parking spots, ensures residents have physical access to sustainable transport infrastructure. Moreover, targeted investments like the Don Bosco station enable modal interchanges (e.g., train-to-bike commutes) and enhance the convenience and safety of cycling over driving. The spatial planning decisions—such as setting urban speed limits at 30 km/h and reducing car infrastructure dominance—are designed to normalise cycling across age groups, including school children. The safe, dense, and visible cycling infrastructure likely underpins the stable ridership levels observed in the regression analysis.
Culture, perhaps the most complex and impactful factor, is visible in the persistence of cyclist numbers even in less favourable weather conditions. Awareness campaigns, youth cycling education, seasonal cycling competitions, and public festivals have helped to normalise cycling as both a utilitarian and lifestyle choice. This cultural transition is crucial in explaining why the regression models yielded only weak statistical correlations with environmental variables—cycling in Graz is not just opportunistic or weather-dependent, but embedded in the city’s behavioural fabric. The transition from car-dominant planning in the 1960s to pedestrian and cycle-oriented strategies in the 1990s marks a paradigmatic shift in public values. Furthermore, data from public surveys and usage patterns suggest that this cultural shift has transcended demographics, appealing to both the young and elderly, and contributing to the 15% rise in cycling and 8% reduction in car usage.
In this context, ambition reflects the sustained political commitment to soft mobility at the municipal and regional levels. Graz’s leadership has implemented the local Sustainable Mobility Strategy and actively participated in supranational frameworks like the Austrian Mobility Programme, the Danube Cycling Plan, and the EU Cyclists’ Declaration. The ‘I Live Graz—Smart People Create Their Smart City’ initiative encapsulates this ambition by combining digital infrastructure (e.g., real-time air quality monitoring) with public engagement. This is particularly relevant in light of the regression findings: although the direct impacts of variables, like temperature and rain, are measurable, their effects are dampened by a robust policy environment that continuously adapts to local needs. Graz’s ambition has resulted in infrastructural maintenance, dynamic budgeting through parking revenue reinvestment, and a participatory governance model that includes residents and private landowners in mobility planning.

5.3. Integrating Quantitative Findings into Future Urban Mobility Design and Sustainability

Quantitative results can inform sustainable urban mobility design when contextualised with qualitative frameworks. For instance, understanding the marginal impact of sunshine on cyclist numbers could guide infrastructure investments toward lighting and weather-shielded cycling paths. Similarly, recognising the strong weekday commuting trend can inspire initiatives such as employer-based cycling incentives, real-time congestion-based cycle routing apps, or enhanced winter maintenance programs. These interventions can be fine-tuned using ongoing data collection, potentially integrated into Graz’s broader smart city infrastructure.
In conclusion, the discussion underscores the synergy between data-driven analysis and value-driven planning. The empirical evidence validates Graz’s long-term vision and soft mobility principles, demonstrating that sustained investments in space, culture, and ambition create resilient and inclusive transport systems. This approach transcends climatic and temporal fluctuations and builds a foundation for cities aiming to harmonise economic vitality, environmental sustainability, and social equity through mobility reform [65].

6. Conclusions

As implemented in Graz’s local mobility strategy, the chosen conceptual model of ‘soft mobility’ has effectively supported the development of cycling as a central pillar of sustainable urban transport. By integrating spatial, cultural, and political dimensions, the strategy has significantly improved the urban environment for cyclists. Key infrastructural initiatives—such as adapting road space, constructing new cycle paths, and expanding secure bicycle parking in central and peripheral areas—have made cycling safer and more convenient. Special attention has been paid to areas near schools to enhance child safety, reinforcing the inclusivity of the strategy. These physical upgrades illustrate the city’s long-term commitment to transforming everyday mobility patterns while addressing environmental concerns such as CO₂ and NOx emissions.
From a cultural standpoint, Graz has undergone a meaningful shift in public awareness about motorised transport’s health and environmental impacts. This cultural awakening has been catalysed by public campaigns, cycling education programs, and inclusive activities that elevate cycling from a leisure activity to a daily mobility practice. The city’s leadership has played a vital role in shaping this transition by aligning local actions with broader regional and EU strategies. Graz’s involvement in the regional Styria climate plan, the Danube Cycling Plan, the Austrian Cycling Master Programme, and the EU Cyclists’ Declaration underscores its commitment to fostering a pan-European sustainable mobility culture. This alignment also ensures access to technical expertise, funding, and policy support necessary to scale and sustain change.
Nevertheless, the case study presents certain limitations that should be acknowledged. Graz, as a single European mid-sized city, represents a unique confluence of demographic, geographic, and institutional factors. While this makes it a compelling model, it also limits the generalisability of findings to cities with different socio-economic or climatic conditions. Furthermore, although the study integrates robust qualitative insights and some quantitative elements, it lacks a comprehensive evaluation of emissions reduction, modal shifts, and cost-efficiency impacts. The absence of cross-city comparative analysis, particularly with cities in non-European or developing contexts, restricts the broader applicability of the ‘Soft Mobility’ model. Future research should adopt mixed-methods approaches and longitudinal frameworks that capture diverse metrics and enable richer benchmarking across different urban settings to address these gaps.
Notably, the quantitative findings of this study, based on 1095 daily observations between 2022 and 2024, reveal actionable insights. Regression analysis shows that weather variables such as temperature and precipitation are minor in determining cyclist volumes, suggesting that built environment, cultural factors, and policy measures are more decisive. This insight has substantial policy implications: cities can develop resilient mobility systems that are less dependent on seasonal variation by prioritising infrastructure investment and behaviour change. Graz’s strategic blend of spatial redesign, civic engagement, and policy ambition presents a replicable roadmap for similar cities aiming to lower their carbon footprint and enhance liveability. Advanced methodological tools—such as natural log transformations and integration of time series—demonstrate that significant trends can be extracted even in modest datasets. Future work may enrich this approach using machine learning or systems modelling to map the dynamic interplay between infrastructure, user behaviour, and environmental change.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.Š.; methodology, A.Š. and S.G.; software, A.Š.; validation, A.Š. and S.G.; formal analysis, A.Š.; investigation, A.Š.; resources, A.Š. and S.G.; data curation, A.Š.; writing—original draft preparation, A.Š.; writing—review and editing, A.Š. and S.G.; visualization, A.Š. and S.G.; supervision, A.Š. and S.G.; project administration, A.Š.; funding acquisition, S.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency, the Ministry of the Environment, Climate and Energy, and the Ministry of Cohesion and Regional Development, grant number CRP2023 V5—2331. The same institutions funded APC.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) University of Novo mesto (protocol code UNM 49/2024 and date 24 April 2024).

Informed Consent Statement

Patient consent was waived because people were not interviewed, but counted in public places.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available in the repository from the second author on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Variability patterns in the bicycle counts in the observed locations.
Figure 1. Variability patterns in the bicycle counts in the observed locations.
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Figure 2. Number of cyclists and temperature base indices; 1 January 2022 is 100.
Figure 2. Number of cyclists and temperature base indices; 1 January 2022 is 100.
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Figure 3. Number of cyclists and rain base indices; 1 January 2022 is 100.
Figure 3. Number of cyclists and rain base indices; 1 January 2022 is 100.
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Table 1. Review of the literature.
Table 1. Review of the literature.
TitleAuthorsYear of PublicationMain ThemeImpacting Category
Systematic literature review of 10 years of cyclist safety research, Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 184.Scarano, A., Aria, M., Mauriello, F., Riccardi, M., Montella, A.2023Promotion of the health benefits of cyclingCulture
Determinants of bicycle use: Do municipal policies matter? Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 38(7), 531–550Rietveld, P., & Daniel, R.2004Cyclist-friendly destinationsSpace
Macro-factors driving bicycle adoption as a primary transport mode across Europe. Travel Behaviour and Society, 34.O’Reilly, R. K., Kollmann, A., Cohen, J. J., & Reichl, J.2024Increase in the number of cyclistsCulture
Mobile transitions: Exploring synergies for urban sustainability research. Urban Studies, 53(9), 1942–1957.Affolderbach, J., & Schulz, C.2016Increased use of bicyclesSpace
Bicycle Parking Requirements in City Building Codes and Their Potential to Promote Sustainability. Sustainability, 16, 2531.Kohlrautz, D.; Kuhnimhof, T.2024Positive impact of mobility, reducing the demand for parking spacesSpace
Cycling, Economic Growth, and Sustainability: A Comparative Analysis of Slovenia and Belgium. J. Risk Financial Manag. 2024, 17, 506.Longar, U.; Gričar, S.; Baldigara, T.; Bojnec, Š.2024Greater citizen participation in shaping transport policiesAmbitions
Sustainable Mobility: A Review of Possible Actions and Policies. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7499.Gallo, M.; Marinelli, M.2020Impact on quality of lifeCulture
Choosing the Bicycle as a Mode of Transportation, the Influence of 762 Infrastructure Perception, Travel Satisfaction and Pro-Environmental Attitude, the Case of Milan. Sustainability 2023, 15, 12117.Biassoni, F.; Lo Carmine, C.; Perego, P.; Gnerre, M.2023Factors influencing the development of cyclingAmbitions
What aspects of traffic intensity most influence cycling mode choice? A study of commuting in Surrey, UK. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 17(2), 136–147.Grudgings, N., Hughes, S., & Hagen-Zanker, A.2023Longer, well-connected paths enhance the accessibility and attractiveness of cycling as a mode of transportSpace
Micro-Level Bicycle Infrastructure Design Elements: A Framework for Developing a Bikeability Index for Urban Areas. Smart Cities 2025, 8, 46.Ahmed, T.; Pirdavani, A.; Wets, G.; Janssens, D.2025The success of sustainable cycling mobilityCulture
Implementation of Green Infrastructure in Sustainable Transportation in Supporting Urban Mobility: A Literature Review. Eng. Proc. 2025, 84, 25.Hapriyanto, A.R.; Azmi, H.2025‘15-min Bike’ model Ambitions
Cycling into Sustainability: Lessons from the Netherlands for Slovenia’s E-Bike Adoption. Sustainability 2024, 16, 9987.Gričar, S.; Longar, U.; Longar, T.; Šugar, V.2024Promote cycling as the primary mode of transportationCulture
Are We Back to Normal? A Bike Sharing Systems Mobility Analysis in the Post- COVID-19 Era. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6209.Cortez-Ordoñez, A.; Tulcanaza-Prieto, A.B. 2024Bike rental system Ambitions
Table 2. Contributions of “soft mobility”.
Table 2. Contributions of “soft mobility”.
Contributions of “Soft Mobility”
SpaceCultureAmbitions
Adapting spaces for cyclistsAwareness regarding the harmful effects of air pollutionDeveloping a local sustainable mobility strategy
New parking areasBroader social dialogue about the need for proper space useParticipation in shaping the regional Styria “Climathe protection plan”
New cycling pathsActivities designed to encourage cyclingParticipation in the Austrian Cycling Master Programme
Improving safety for cyclists Participation in supranational Danube Cycling Plan
Participation in the EU Cyclists’ Declaration
Table 3. Quarter-end summary table.
Table 3. Quarter-end summary table.
DateLocation 1_RI InnenstadtLocation 2_RI Graz Süd/WestPrecipitation [mm]Temperature [°C]Sunshine Duration [%]
31 March 202271466717.898.10
30 June 2022265426071.126.366
30 September 2022107611211.1813.220
31 December 20224143890.06.235
31 March 2023153415182.111.423
30 June 2023239123330.023.387
30 September 2023124412410.018.340
31 December 20234223940.04.056
31 March 20249098070.015.341
30 June 2024137313090.027.567
30 September 2024185019290.010.149
31 December 20244854730.01.1100
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Šobot, A.; Gričar, S. An Example of the Transition to Sustainable Mobility in the Austrian City of Graz. Sustainability 2025, 17, 4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104324

AMA Style

Šobot A, Gričar S. An Example of the Transition to Sustainable Mobility in the Austrian City of Graz. Sustainability. 2025; 17(10):4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104324

Chicago/Turabian Style

Šobot, Aleksandar, and Sergej Gričar. 2025. "An Example of the Transition to Sustainable Mobility in the Austrian City of Graz" Sustainability 17, no. 10: 4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104324

APA Style

Šobot, A., & Gričar, S. (2025). An Example of the Transition to Sustainable Mobility in the Austrian City of Graz. Sustainability, 17(10), 4324. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104324

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