Gathering and Cooking Seaweeds in Contemporary Ireland: Beyond Plant Foraging and Trendy Gastronomies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To document the diversity of seaweed and associated food and non-food uses that are still in use today or at least still present in living memory in two Irish regions;
- To explore the perceived trajectories of evolution of the role of seaweed and associated practices, identifying the main drivers behind any observed changes in two Irish regions;
- To identify similarities and differences in the trajectories of abandonment, continuation and revitalisation of seaweed-based products and practices, through a geographical comparison between the two study areas.
2. Background: Understanding the Economic, Cultural and Culinary Significance of Seaweed in Ireland
2.1. Economic Relevance: The Industry of the Kelp
2.2. Cultural Relevance: Artistic Depictions of Seaweed
2.3. Gastronomic Relevance: Seaweed in Past and Present Irish Cuisine
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Areas
3.2. Fieldwork, Data Collection and Analysis of Sociodemographic Data
4. Results
4.1. Southwest Region
4.1.1. The Contemporary Gastronomy of Seaweed
4.1.2. Medical and Cosmetic Uses
4.1.3. Traditional Ecological Knowledge Related to Seaweed Harvesting and Use
4.1.4. Evolution and Perceived Changes in Seaweed-Related Foodscape
4.2. West and Midwest Region
4.2.1. The Contemporary Gastronomy of Seaweed
4.2.2. Medical and Cosmetic Uses
4.2.3. Traditional Ecological Knowledge Related to Seaweed Harvesting and Use
4.2.4. Evolution and Perceived Changes in Seaweed-Related Foodscape
4.3. Comparison of Species Diversity and Uses between the Study Areas
5. Discussion
5.1. Trajectories of the Revitalisation of Seaweed: Dynamics behind the Divergent Trajectories
5.2. Promoting Seaweed: Sustainability Issues and Implications
- Co-creating a formal (regional and) national policy to ensure the sustainability of seaweed harvesting and farming and enhance communication to prevent over-exploitation;
- Promoting responsible gathering techniques and implementing ad hoc regulations about licences for harvesting;
- Developing and supporting seaweed aquaculture initiatives;
- Developing value-added seaweed products that cater to both local and international markets, such as creating innovative seaweed-based food products as well as non-food items like cosmetics and biodegradable packaging;
- Encouraging culinary innovation by working with local chefs and food entrepreneurs to incorporate seaweed into traditional and contemporary recipes, also via cooking workshops, food festivals and educational events, which can help raise awareness and appreciation for seaweed as a culinary ingredient;
- Fostering seaweed-related hospitality initiatives, such as developing food tours, culinary experiences and themed events that showcase the seaweed heritage and knowledge;
- Promoting community engagement and active participation in the revitalisation efforts by involving local stakeholders, such as fishermen, farmers, artisans, restaurants and small food-related businesses;
- Implementing education and awareness initiatives to inform multiple stakeholders including both locals and visitors about the nutritional benefits, environmental importance and cultural significance of seaweed;
- Advocating for supportive policies and incentives from the local and national governance to facilitate the growth of small-scale seaweed foraging and transformation.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- O’Connor, K. Seaweed: A Global History; Reaction Books: London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Abbott, I.A. Ethnobotany of Seaweeds: Clues to Uses of Seaweeds. Hydrobiologia 1996, 326–327, 15–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abbott, I.A. The Uses of Seaweed as Food in Hawaii. Econ. Bot. 1978, 32, 409–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner, N.J. The Ethnobotany of Edible Seaweed (Porphyra Abbottae and Related Species; Rhodophyta: Bangiales) and Its Use by First Nations on the Pacific Coast of Canada. Can. J. Bot. 2003, 81, 283–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dillehay, T.D.; Ramírez, C.; Pino, M.; Collins, M.B.; Rossen, J.; Pino-Navarro, J.D. Monte Verde: Seaweed, Food, Medicine, and the Peopling of South America. Science 2008, 320, 784–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Noriega Cardó, C. Algas Marinas Para La Alimentación de Los Peruanos. Tur. Patrim. 2016, 10, 55–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. Seaweed Consumption in the Americas. Gastronomica 2019, 19, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bangmei, X.; Abbott, I.A. Edible Seaweeds of China and Their Place in the Chinese Diet. Econ. Bot. 1987, 41, 341–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tseng, C.K. Modern Seaweeds of China; Science Press: Beijing, China, 1984. [Google Scholar]
- Nisizawa, K.; Noda, H.; Kikuchi, R.; Watanabe, T. The Main Seaweed Foods in Japan. Hydrobiologia 1987, 151, 5–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dumilag, R.V.; Javier, R.F. Ethnobotany of Medicinal Seaweeds of Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Philipp. J. Sci. 2022, 151, 1135–1156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thurstan, R.H.; Brittain, Z.; Jones, D.S.; Cameron, E.; Dearnaley, J.; Bellgrove, A. Aboriginal Uses of Seaweeds in Temperate Australia: An Archival Assessment. J. Appl. Phycol. 2018, 30, 1821–1832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cappellani, S. Il Mauru Ossia Alghe Rosse Commestibili Nella Sicilia Centro-Orientale; CITEM: Metro Manila, Philippines, 1960. [Google Scholar]
- Sousa-Pinto, I. The Seaweed Resources of Portugal. In Seaweed Resources of the World; Critchley, A., Ohno, M., Eds.; JICA: Tokyo, Japan, 1998; pp. 176–184. [Google Scholar]
- Lentini, F.; Venza, F. Wild Food Plants of Popular Use in Sicily. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2007, 3, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gaspar, R.; Pereira, L.; Sousa-Pinto, I. The Seaweed Resources of Portugal. Bot. Mar. 2019, 62, 499–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Svanberg, I.; Ægisson, S. Edible Wild Plant Use in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. Acta Soc. Bot. Pol. 2012, 81, 233–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lambert, R. Seaweed Foraging in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly; Alison Hodge: Cornwal, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Burrows, E.M.; Blackler, H.; Dixon, P.S.; Powell, H.T. List of Marine Algae from the West of Ireland Collected by Members of the Third International Seaweed Symposium. Br. Phycol. Bull. 1959, 1, 47–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morton, O. Marine Algae of Northern Ireland; Ulster Museum Botanic Gardens: Belfast, Ireland, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Morrissey, J.; Kraan, S.; Guiry, M.D. A Guide to Commercially Important Seaweeds on the Irish Coast; Bord Iascaigh Mhara/Irish Sea Fisheris Board: Dublin, Ireland, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Dhonncha, E.N.; Guiry, M.D. Algaebase: Documenting Seaweed Biodiversity in Ireland and the World. Biol. Environ. 2002, 102, 185–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guiry, M.D.; Hardy, F. A Check-List and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland; The British Phycological Society: London, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Binchy, D. Críth Gablach; Dublin Institute for Advanced Studie: Dublin, Ireland, 1941. [Google Scholar]
- Monagail, M.M.; Morrison, L. The Seaweed Resources of Ireland: A Twenty-First Century Perspective. J. Appl. Phycol. 2020, 32, 1287–1300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Cornish, M.L.; Critchley, A.T.; Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. Saved by Seaweeds: Phyconomic Contributions in Times of Crises. J. Appl. Phycol. 2021, 33, 443–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Field, E. Irish Seaweed Revisited. In Wild Food: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 2004. Oxford Symposium; Hosking, R., Ed.; Prospect Books: Totnes, UK, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. World Cuisine of Seaweeds: Science Meets Gastronomy. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2018, 14, 55–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dhargalkar, V.K.; Pereira, N. Seaweed: Promising Plant of the Millennium. NIO 2005, 71, 60–66. [Google Scholar]
- Mac Monagail, M.; Cornish, L.; Morrison, L.; Araújo, R.; Critchley, A.T. Sustainable Harvesting of Wild Seaweed Resources. Eur. J. Phycol. 2017, 52, 371–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blikra, M.J.; Altintzoglou, T.; Løvdal, T.; Rognså, G.; Skipnes, D.; Skåra, T.; Sivertsvik, M.; Noriega Fernández, E. Seaweed Products for the Future: Using Current Tools to Develop a Sustainable Food Industry. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021, 118, 765–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rawiwan, P.; Peng, Y.; Paramayuda, I.G.P.B.; Quek, S.Y. Red Seaweed: A Promising Alternative Protein Source for Global Food Sustainability. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 123, 37–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cerca, M.; Sosa, A.; Murphy, F. Responsible Supply Systems for Macroalgae: Upscaling Seaweed Cultivation in Ireland. Aquaculture 2023, 563, 738996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rebours, C.; Marinho-Soriano, E.; Zertuche-González, J.A.; Hayashi, L.; Vásquez, J.A.; Kradolfer, P.; Soriano, G.; Ugarte, R.; Abreu, M.H.; Bay-Larsen, I.; et al. Seaweeds: An Opportunity for Wealth and Sustainable Livelihood for Coastal Communities. J. Appl. Phycol. 2014, 26, 1939–1951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Matos, S. Designing Food Cultures: Propagating the Consumption of Seaweed in the Azores Islands Through Recipes. Iridescent 2016, 2, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aslan, L.O.M.; Supendy, R.; Taridala, S.A.A.; Hafid, H.; Sifatu, W.O.; Sailan, Z.; Niampe, L. Income of Seaweed Farming Households: A Case Study from Lemo of Indonesia. Proc. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2018, 175, 012221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Butcher, H.; Burkhart, S.; Paul, N.; Tiitii, U.; Tamuera, K.; Eria, T.; Swanepoel, L. Role of Seaweed in Diets of Samoa and Kiribati: Exploring Key Motivators for Consumption. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rioux, L.E.; Beaulieu, L.; Turgeon, S.L. Seaweeds: A Traditional Ingredients for New Gastronomic Sensation. Food Hydrocoll. 2017, 68, 255–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. The Rise of Seaweed Gastronomy: Phycogastronomy. Bot. Mar. 2019, 62, 195–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Lloréns, J.L. Microalgae: From Staple Foodstuff to Avant-Garde Cuisine. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2020, 21, 100221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Figueroa, V.; Farfán, M.; Aguilera, J.M. Seaweeds as Novel Foods and Source of Culinary Flavors. Food Rev. Int. 2021, 39, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cordeiro, C.M.; van Hal, J. A Systems Integral Approach in Exploring Creative Innovation in Culinary Research: The Example of Seaweed in the Context of the New Nordic Cuisine. Int. J. Food Stud. 2022, 11, 106–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morrissey, J. On the Verge of Want: A Unique Insight into Living Conditions Along Ireland’s Western Seaboard in the Late 19th Century; Crannog Books: Dublin, Ireland, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Pérez-Lloréns, J.L.; Critchley, A.T.; Cornish, M.L.; Mouritsen, O.G. Saved by Seaweeds (II): Traditional Knowledge, Home Remedies, Medicine, Surgery, and Pharmacopoeia. J. Appl. Phycol. 2023, 35, 2049–2068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woodham-Smith, C. The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849; Penguin: London, UK, 1962. [Google Scholar]
- O’Neill, T.P. Some Irish Techniques of Collecting Seaweed. Folk Life 1970, 8, 13–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pendleton, A.; Carr, L.M. Conflicts between Traditional and Modern Governance Structures in Irish Seaweed Harvesting. Local Environ. 2023, 28, 47–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McErlean, T.C. Archaeology of the Strangford Lough Kelp Industry in the Eighteenth- and Early-Nineteenth Centuries. Hist. Archaeol. 2007, 41, 76–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guiry, M.D.; Morrison, L. The Sustainable Harvesting of Ascophyllum nodosum (Fucaceae, Phaeophyceae) in Ireland, with Notes on the Collection and Use of Some Other Brown Algae. J. Appl. Phycol. 2013, 25, 1823–1830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, T. The Stones of Aran: Pilgrimage; The Lilliput Press Ltd.: Dublin, Ireland, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Mac an Iomaire, S. The Shores of Connamara; Tír Eolas: Kinvara, Ireland, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Araújo, R.; Vázquez Calderón, F.; Sánchez López, J.; Azevedo, I.C.; Bruhn, A.; Fluch, S.; Garcia Tasende, M.; Ghaderiardakani, F.; Ilmjärv, T.; Laurans, M.; et al. Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy. Front. Mar. Sci. 2021, 7, 626389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Lloréns, J.L.; Mouritsen, O.G.; Rhatigan, P.; Cornish, M.L.; Critchley, A.T. Seaweeds in Mythology, Folklore, Poetry, and Life. J. Appl. Phycol. 2020, 32, 3157–3182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mac Con Iomaire, M. Gastro-Topography: Exploring Food-Related Placenames in Ireland. Can. J. Irish Stud. 2014, 38, 126–157. [Google Scholar]
- Uris, L. Trinity; Doubleday: New York, NY, USA, 1976. [Google Scholar]
- Sexton, R. A Little History of Irish Food; Dublin Institute of Technology: Dublin, Ireland, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Ó Catháin, S. The Festival of Brigit: Celtic Goddess and Holy Woman; Dundalgan Press: Dublin, Ireland, 1995. [Google Scholar]
- Rhatigan, P. Irish Seaweed Kitchen. The Comprehensive Guide to Healthy Everyday Cooking with Seaweeds; Booklink: Holywood, FL, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- McKenna, S. Extreme Greens: Understanding Seaweeds; Estragon Press: Cork, Ireland, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Allen, D. Forgotten Skills of Cooking; Kyle Books: London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Murphy, D. Exploring Evidence of Lost and Forgotten Irish Food Traditions in Irish Cookbooks 1980–2015. Folk Life 2021, 59, 161–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mouritsen, O.G.; Dawczynski, C.; Duelund, L.; Jahreis, G.; Vetter, W.; Schröder, M. On the Human Consumption of the Red Seaweed Dulse (Palmaria palmata (L.) Weber & Mohr). J. Appl. Phycol. 2013, 25, 1777–1791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenhardt, K.M. Building Theories from Case Study Research. Acad. Manag. Rev. 1989, 14, 532–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guiry, M.; Hession, C. The Seaweed Resources of Ireland. In Seaweed Resources of the World; Critchley, A., Ohno, M., Eds.; Japan International Cooperation Agency: Hakone, Japan, 1998; pp. 210–216. [Google Scholar]
- Guiry, M.D. How Many Species of Algae Are There? J. Phycol. 2012, 48, 1057–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Royle, S.A. The economy and society of the aran islands county gal way in the early nineteenth century. Irish Geogr. 1983, 16, 36–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Royle, S.A. Exploitation and Celebration of the Heritage of the Irish Islands. Irish Geogr. 2003, 36, 23–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The ISE Code of Ethics (2008). Available online: www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-Ethics (accessed on 28 December 2023).
- QSR International. NVivo Qualitative Data Analysis Software Version 12.5.0; QSR International: Melbourne, Australia, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- WoRMS Editorial Board. World Register of Marine Species. 2024. Available online: https://www.marinespecies.org (accessed on 28 December 2023).
- Vance, C.; Pollard, P.; Maguire, J.; Sweeney, J.; Murphy, F. Sustainable Scale-up of Irish Seaweed Production: Quantifying Potential Environmental, Economic, and Social Impacts of Wild Harvesting and Cultivation Pathways. Algal Res. 2023, 75, 103294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohammed, H.O.; O’Grady, M.N.; O’Sullivan, M.G.; Hamill, R.M.; Kilcawley, K.N.; Kerry, J.P. An Assessment of Selected Nutritional, Bioactive, Thermal and Technological Properties of Brown and Red Irish Seaweed Species. Foods 2021, 10, 2784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clean Technology Centre. Socio-Economic Study of Seaweed Harvesting in Ireland; Clean Technology Centre: Cork, Ireland, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Fusté-Forné, F. Seasonality in Food Tourism: Wild Foods in Peripheral Areas. Tour. Geogr. 2022, 24, 578–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mendes, M.C.; Navalho, S.; Ferreira, A.; Paulino, C.; Figueiredo, D.; Silva, D.; Gao, F.; Gama, F.; Bombo, G.; Jacinto, R.; et al. Algae as Food in Europe: An Overview of Species Diversity and Their Application†. Foods 2022, 11, 1871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Łuczaj, Ł.; Wilde, M.; Townsend, L. The Ethnobiology of Contemporary British Foragers: Foods They Teach, Their Sources of Inspiration and Impact. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reyes-García, V.; Menendez-Baceta, G.; Aceituno-Mata, L.; Acosta-Naranjo, R.; Calvet-Mir, L.; Domínguez, P.; Garnatje, T.; Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Molina-Bustamante, M.; Molina, M.; et al. From Famine Foods to Delicatessen: Interpreting Trends in the Use of Wild Edible Plants through Cultural Ecosystem Services. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 120, 303–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barrionuevo, C.A.; Bernat, E.E.; Velarde, I.J. We Recovered Food Heritage, and Then? Value Enhancement and Promotion of Local Agri-Food Products in Argentina and Spain. Br. Food J. 2019, 121, 3168–3180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zocchi, D.M.; Fontefrancesco, M.F.; Corvo, P.; Pieroni, A. Recognising, Safeguarding, and Promoting Food Heritage: Challenges and Prospects for the Future of Sustainable Food Systems. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madej, T.; Piroznikow, E.; Dumanowski, J.; Łuczaj, L. Juniper Beer in Poland: The Story of the Revival of a Traditional Beverage. J. Ethnobiol. 2014, 34, 84–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pedret-Massanet, C.; López-Lago Ortiz, L.; Allen-Perkins, D. From Stigma to Haute Cuisine: Strategies, Agents, and Discourses in the Revalorisation of Carob as a Gourmet Product. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2023, 31, 100677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Łuczaj, Ł.; Pieroni, A. Nutritional Ethnobotany in Europe: From Emergency Foods to Healthy Folk Cuisines and Contemporary Foraging Trends BT—Mediterranean Wild Edible Plants: Ethnobotany and Food Composition Tables; Sánchez-Mata, M.d.C., Tardío, J., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2016; pp. 33–56. [Google Scholar]
- Bessière, J.; Tibere, L. Traditional Food and Tourism: French Tourist Experience and Food Heritage in Rural Spaces. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2013, 93, 3420–3425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Merkel, A.; Säwe, F.; Fredriksson, C. The Seaweed Experience: Exploring the Potential and Value of a Marine Resource. Scand. J. Hosp. Tour. 2021, 21, 391–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Łuczaj, Ł.; Pieroni, A.; Tardío, J.; Pardo de Santayana, M.; Sõukand, R.; Svanberg, I.; Kalle, R. Wild Food Plant Use in 21 Century Europe: The Disappearance of Old Traditions and the Search for New Cuisines Involving Wild Edibles. Acta-Soc. Bot. Pol. 2012, 81, 359–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Magnani, N. Reconstructing Food Ways: Role of Skolt Sami Cultural Revitalization Programs in Local Plant Use. J. Ethnobiol. 2016, 36, 85–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Svanberg, I.; Lindh, H. Mushroom Hunting and Consumption in Twenty-First Century Post-Industrial Sweden. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2019, 15, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- de Jong, A.; Varley, P. Foraging Tourism: Critical Moments in Sustainable Consumption. J. Sustain. Tour. 2018, 26, 685–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Derek, M. Nature on a Plate: Linking Food and Tourism within the Ecosystem Services Framework. Sustainability 2021, 13, 1687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luković, M.; Kostić, M.; Dajić Stevanović, Z. Food Tourism Challenges in the Pandemic Period: Getting Back to Traditional and Natural-Based Products. Curr. Issues Tour. 2024, 27, 428–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mina, G.; Scariot, V.; Peira, G.; Lombardi, G. Foraging Practices and Sustainable Management of Wild Food Resources in Europe: A Systematic Review. Land 2023, 12, 1299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angus, S. Modern Seaweed Harvesting and Gathering in Scotland: The Legal and Ecological Context*. Scottish Geogr. J. 2017, 133, 101–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buschmann, A.H.; Camus, C.; Infante, J.; Neori, A.; Israel, Á.; Hernández-González, M.C.; Pereda, S.V.; Gomez-Pinchetti, J.L.; Golberg, A.; Tadmor-Shalev, N.; et al. Seaweed Production: Overview of the Global State of Exploitation, Farming and Emerging Research Activity. Eur. J. Phycol. 2017, 52, 391–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lotze, H.K.; Milewski, I.; Fast, J.; Kay, L.; Worm, B. Ecosystem-Based Management of Seaweed Harvesting. Bot. Mar. 2019, 62, 395–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chopin, T.; Ugarte, R.A.U.L. The Seaweed Resources of Eastern Canada. In Seaweed Resources of the World; Critchley, A.T., Ohno, M., Eds.; Japan International Cooperation Agency: Yokosuka, Japan, 1998; pp. 289–291. [Google Scholar]
- Delaney, A.; Frangoudes, K.; Ii, S.-A. Chapter 2—Society and Seaweed: Understanding the Past and Present. In Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention; Fleurence, J., Levine, I., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2016; pp. 7–40. [Google Scholar]
- Aziz, M.A.; Mattalia, G.; Sulaiman, N.; Shah, A.A.; Polesny, Z.; Kalle, R.; Sõukand, R.; Pieroni, A. The Nexus between Traditional Foraging and Its Sustainability: A Qualitative Assessment among a Few Selected Eurasian Case Studies. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2022, 28, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teixidor-Toneu, I.; Giraud, N.J.; Karlsen, P.; Annes, A.; Kool, A. A Transdisciplinary Approach to Define and Assess Wild Food Plant Sustainable Foraging in Norway. Plants People Planet 2023, 5, 112–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pieroni, A.; Nedelcheva, A.; Hajdari, A.; Mustafa, B.; Scaltriti, B.; Cianfaglione, K.; Quave, C.L. Local Knowledge on Plants and Domestic Remedies in the Mountain Villages of Peshkopia (Eastern albania). J. Mt. Sci. 2014, 11, 180–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ang, P.O.; Sharp, G.J.; Semple, R.E. Changes in the Population Structure of Ascophyllum nodosum (L.) Le Jolis Due to Mechanical Harvesting. Hydrobiologia 1993, 260, 321–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siggins, L. Canadian-Owned Seaweed Firm to Resubmit Applications for Licence. Available online: https://www.irishtimes.com/business/agribusiness-and-food/canadian-owned-seaweed-firm-to-resubmit-applications-for-licence-1.3554256 (accessed on 23 January 2024).
- Garineaud, C. Pratiques Manuelles ou Mécanisées: La Part de la Main Dans les Perceptions Sensorielles et dans les Savoirs Écologiques. Exemple des Récoltants D’algues en Bretagne. Available online: https://www.ethnographiques.org/2015/Garineaud (accessed on 23 January 2024).
- Cavallo, G.; Lorini, C.; Garamella, G.; Bonaccorsi, G. Seaweeds as a “Palatable” Challenge between Innovation and Sustainability: A Systematic Review of Food Safety. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Banach, J.L.; Hoek-van den Hil, E.F.; van der Fels-Klerx, H.J. Food Safety Hazards in the European Seaweed Chain. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020, 19, 332–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bizzaro, G.; Vatland, A.K.; Pampanin, D.M. The One-Health Approach in Seaweed Food Production. Environ. Int. 2022, 158, 106948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Interview Number | Region | Location of the Interview | Origin | Age | Occupation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | W | County Cork | England | 50s | Seaweed harvester and cultivator of seaweed |
2 | W | Inis Meáin, the Aran Islands | Inis Meáin, the Aran Islands | 70s | Farmer |
3 | W | Inis Meáin, the Aran Islands | Inis Meáin, the Aran Islands | 60s | Stone wall builder, boat builder and seaweed harvester |
4 | W | Inis Mór, the Aran Islands | Inis Mór, the Aran Islands | 60s | Seaweed harvester with business |
5 | W | Inis Mór, the Aran Islands | Inis Mór, the Aran Islands | 40s | Public relations of seaweed-related business |
6 | W | Inis Mór, the Aran Islands | New Zealand | 40s | Marine biologist and seaweed harvester |
7 | W | Kinvarra, Galway Bay | Kinvarra, Galway Bay | 40s | Dairy farmer and seaweed cutter (third generation of farmers in area) |
8 | W | Lahinch, County Claire | Unknown | 40s | Forager and cook |
9 | W | Leitir Mealláin, Connemara | Connemara | 60s | Irish Gaelic historian and retired marine biologist |
10 | W | Leitir Mealláin, Connemara | Leitir Mealláin, Connemara | 60s | Fisherman and seaweed harvester and cutter |
11 | W | Leitir Móir, Connemara | Leitir Móir, Connemara | 50s | Village shop owner (seven generations of family owning the shop) |
12 | W | Leitir Móir, Connemara | Leitir Móir, Connemara | 80s | Retired seaweed harvester |
13 | W | Moy, County Claire | Donegal, Northern, Ireland | 20s | Pro surfer and organic vegetable farmer |
14 | W | Moy, County Claire | Connemara | 90s | Unknown |
15 | W | Quilty, County Claire | Quilty, County Claire; | 40s | Seaweed harvester with business (third generation of four generations of seaweed harvesters) |
16 | W | Quilty, County Claire | County Claire | 70s | Retired, but formerly a seaweed harvester and buyer |
17 | SW | Clonakilty | Dublin | 30s | Herbalist |
18 | SW | Clonakilty | Northern Ireland | 50s | Chef/cook |
19 | SW | Ballydehob | Unknown | 30s | Chef/cook |
20 | SW | Baltimore | England | 60s | Retired (harvests seaweed for personal use) |
21 | SW | Rosscarbery | Cork | 60s | Writer |
22 | SW | Bantry | Unknown | 30s | Farmer |
23 | SW | Glandore | Glandore | 60s | Farmer |
24 | SW | Schull | Unknown | 40s | Musician and actor (harvests seaweed for personal use) |
25 | SW | Skibbereen | Dublin | 30s | Chef, activist and harvester |
26 | SW | Skibbereen | Unknown | 50s | Fisherman |
27 | SW | Ballydehob | Northern Ireland | 40s | Chef/cook |
Phylum/Class | Family | Scientific Name | Common Names | Uses | Notes | Frequency of Citation * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brown algae | Alariaceae | Alaria esculenta (Linnaeus) Greville, 1830 | Atlantic wakame (EN) | Food | Used as a Incorporated into bread dough | + |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis, 1863 | Bladderwrack (EN); Feamainn bhoilgíneach (IG) | Cosmetic, Medicinal | Used to stimulate the thyroid and consequently boost metabolism, to treat rheumatism (external application) | ++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Fucus serratus Linnaeus, 1753 | Toothed wrack (EN); Míoránach (IG) | Agriculture, Cosmetic | Agriculture: fertiliser Cosmetic: baths and skin masks | ++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Fucus spiralis Linnaeus, 1753 | Spiral wrack (EN) | Cosmetic | - | ++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus, 1753 | Bladderwrack (EN); Feamainn bhoilgíneach (IG) | Agriculture, Cosmetic, Food, Medicinal | Cosmetic: infusions, baths and tinctures Medicinal: to regulate hormones | ++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Pelvetia canaliculata (Linnaeus) Decaisne & Thuret, 1845 | Channelled wrack (EN); Caisíneach, Dúlamán (IG) | Agriculture, Cosmetic | Agriculture: fertiliser feed for livestock (especially pigs) Cosmetic: bath, a skin preparation of blitzed channelled wrack, sea salt and neutral oil for skin ailments | ++ |
Brown algae | Himanthaliaceae | Himanthalia elongata (Linnaeus) S.F.Gray, 1821 | Sea spaghetti (EN); Ríseach (IG) | Food | Pickled | ++ |
Brown algae | Laminariaceae | Laminaria hyperborea (Gunnerus) Foslie, 1885 | Kelp (EN); Leathach buídhonn, Feamainn gheimhridh (IG) | Agriculture, Cosmetic, Food | Agriculture: fertiliser Food: broths, stews, flavouring enhancer | +++ |
Brown algae | Laminariaceae | Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) C.E.Lane, C.Mayes, Druehl & G.W.Saunders, 2006 | Sugar kelp (EN); Claíomh (IG) | Agriculture, Cosmetic, Food | Food: broths, stews | ++ |
Brown algae | Sargassaceae | Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt, 1955 | Japanese wireweed (EN); Feamainn ghuaireach, Sheapánach (IG) | Medicinal | Infusions, tinctures | + |
Green algae | Ulvaceae | Ulva intestinalis Linnaeus, 1753 | Gut-weed (EN); Líneáil ghorm (IG) | Food | Baked Butter infusion (seaweed lemon butter, usually mixed with Chondrus crispus and Ulva lactuca) | + |
Green algae | Ulvaceae | Ulva lactuca Linnaeus, 1753 | Sea lettuce (EN) | Food | Baked Butter infusion (seaweed lemon butter, usually mixed with Chondrus crispus and Ulva lactuca) | + |
Red algae | Bangiaceae | Porphyra umbilicalis Kützing, 1843 | Nori (EN); Sleabhac (IG) | Food | Used dried Salads (mostly in the past) | + |
Red algae | Gigartinaceae | Chondrus crispus Stackhouse, 1797 | Carrageen, Irish Moss (EN) | Cosmetic, Food, Medicinal | Cosmetic: lubricants and soap-making, shampoos Food: soup, infused butter Medicinal: infusion (boiled with water or milk and honey) to relieve sore throats, coughs and colds | +++ |
Red algae | Palmariaceae | Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) F.Weber & D.Mohr, 1805 | Dulse (EN); Dillisk, Duileasc (IG) | Food | Butter/oil infusion (e.g., dulse and wild garlic oil) Garnish Added to salads Soups (e.g., dulse soup) | ++ |
Red algae | Rhodomelaceae | Osmundea pinnatifida (Hudson) Stackhouse, 1809 | Pepper dulse (EN) | Food | Regarded as “truffle of the sea” Used fresh (on white fish cooked with butter), dried or powder as garnish Added to shellfish and pasta dishes | +++ |
Phylum/Class | Family | Scientific Name | Common Names | Uses | Notes | Frequency of Citation * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brown algae | Alariaceae | Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar, 1873 | Atlantic wakame (EN) | Food | Dried and rehydrated Eaten raw or cooked | ++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis, 1863 | Yellow weed, Egg wrack, Knotted wrack, Bladderwrack (EN); Feamainn Bhuí (IG) | Agriculture | Fertiliser, mulch, animal feed, cash crop, alginate | +++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Fucus serratus Linnaeus, 1753 | Serrated wrack (EN) | Medicinal | Used in baths for absorption of the nutrients and soothing effect | ++ |
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus, 1753 | Bladderwrack (EN) | Agriculture | Fertiliser | +++ |
Food | Flavouring in food | |||||
Medicinal | Gel in bubbles used for antiinflammatory purposes on skin | |||||
Brown algae | Fucaceae | Pelvetia canaliculata (Linnaeus) Decaisne & Thuret, 1845 | Channel wrack (EN); Caisíneach (IG) | Agriculture | Food for livestock, particularly pigs | ++ |
Food | Eaten as famine food Similar uses as those of Sargassum fusiforme in Japan | |||||
Brown algae | Himanthaliaceae | Himanthalia elongata (Linnaeus) S.F.Gray, 1821 | Sea spaghetti (EN); Ríseach (IG) | Food | Dried and rehydrated Eaten raw as salad or cooked Not traditionally harvested or used by respondents | ++ |
Brown algae | Laminariaceae | Laminaria digitata (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 | Kelp, Kombu, Oarweed, Long kelp, Laminaria (EN); Copóg (IG) | Agriculture | As fertiliser, mulch and crop cover | +++ |
Food | Flavouring (not traditional) Main type of kelp used now, often referred to as kombu and used as such | |||||
Medicinal | Old treatment for varicose veins, by being wrapped around the leg | |||||
Brown algae | Laminariaceae | Laminaria hyperborea (Gunnerus) Foslie, 1885 | Kelp, Kombu, Laminaria, Mayweed (EN); Scothach (IG) | Food | Flavouring Often used interchangeably with Laminaria digitata but less preferred | +++ |
Brown algae | Laminariaceae | Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) C.E.Lane, C.Mayes, Druehl & G.W.Saunders, 2006 | Sugar kelp (EN); Claíomh (IG) | Food | Cooked As a dried snack Not traditionally used as food | +++ |
Red algae | Bangiaceae | Porphyra spp. C.Agardh, 1824 | Nori, laver (EN); Sleabhcán (IG) | Food | Stewed fresh with salt and water or pork fat Accompanied with potatoes, bacon and butter Reported in the past to have been cooked all day with turf (peat) on the beach while harvesters were harvesting Dried and milled into a seasoning (a modern invention for commercial purposes) Dried and then reconstituted during the boiling process | +++ |
Red algae | Gigartinaceae | Chondrus crispus Stackhouse, 1797 | Irish moss, Carrageen (EN); Carraigín (IG) | Agriculture | Feed, with milk for nutrients, especially for calves | +++ |
Food | With milk as a set pudding In stews as a thickener | |||||
Medicinal | Antiviral and antibacterial properties As a drink, it is soaked, boiled (water/milk), strained (or not) and flavoured with combinations of lemon, honey, whiskey, garlic, cocoa and brown sugar Boiled in milk and drunk with similar flavourings as above Boiled in water and then left to go cold after straining. The resulting liquid will cool into a gel, which can then be dissolved spoon by spoon into hot water or kept | |||||
Red algae | Palmariaceae | Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) F.Weber & D.Mohr, 1805 | Dulse, Dillisk, (EN); Duileasc, Séagrass, Creathnach (IG) | Agriculture | Animal feed | +++ |
Food | Eaten raw, dried as a snack or cooked Bar snack with stout beer Boiled with potatoes Simmered together with milk or fried with butter | |||||
Medicinal | Traditionally a cure for worms because of iodine content | |||||
Red algae | Rhodomelaceae | Osmundea pinnatifida (Hudson) Stackhouse, 1809 | Pepper dulse (EN) | Food | Eaten fresh as flavouring or snack Not sold or traditionally used | |
Green algae | Cladophoraceae | Cladophora spp. Kützing, 1843 | Slobán (IG) | Agriculture | Fertiliser | + |
Green algae | Ulvaceae | Ulva intestinalis Linnaeus, 1753 | Gutweed (EN) | Food | - | + |
Medicinal | Referred to as sea spirulina | |||||
Green algae | Ulvaceae | Ulva spp. Linnaeus, 1753 | Sea lettuce (EN) | Food | - | ++ |
Porifera | Codiaceae | Iotrochota birotulata (Higgin, 1877) | Green sponge fingers (EN) | Food | Identified as edible but not used by any respondent | + |
Family | Scientific Name | Food | Agriculture | Medicinal | Cosmetic |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alariaceae | Alaria esculenta (Linnaeus) Greville, 1830 | SW | - | - | - |
Alariaceae | Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar, 1873 | W | - | - | - |
Bangiaceae | Porphyra spp. C.Agardh, 1824 | W | - | - | - |
Bangiaceae | Porphyra umbilicalis Kützing, 1843 | SW | - | - | - |
Cladophoraceae | Cladophora spp. Kützing, 1843 | - | W | - | - |
Codiaceae | Iotrochota birotulata (Higgin, 1877) | W | - | - | - |
Fucaceae | Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis, 1863 | - | W | SW | SW |
Fucaceae | Fucus serratus Linnaeus, 1753 | - | SW | W | SW |
Fucaceae | Fucus spiralis Linnaeus, 1753 | - | - | - | SW |
Fucaceae | Fucus vesiculosus Linnaeus, 1753 | SW|W | SW|W | SW|W | SW |
Fucaceae | Pelvetia canaliculata (Linnaeus) Decaisne & Thuret, 1845 | W | SW|W | - | SW |
Gigartinaceae | Chondrus crispus Stackhouse, 1797 | SW|W | W | SW | SW |
Himanthaliaceae | Himanthalia elongata (Linnaeus) S.F.Gray, 1821 | SW|W | - | - | - |
Laminariaceae | Laminaria digitata (Hudson) J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 | W | W | W | - |
Laminariaceae | Laminaria hyperborea (Gunnerus) Foslie, 1885 | SW|W | SW|W | W | SW |
Laminariaceae | Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus) C.E.Lane, C.Mayes, Druehl & G.W.Saunders, 2006 | SW|W | SW | - | SW |
Palmariaceae | Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) F.Weber & D.Mohr, 1805 | SW|W | W | W | - |
Rhodomelaceae | Osmundea pinnatifida (Hudson) Stackhouse, 1809 | SW|W | - | - | - |
Sargassaceae | Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt, 1955 | - | - | SW | - |
Ulvaceae | Ulva intestinalis Linnaeus, 1753 | SW|W | W | - | - |
Ulvaceae | Ulva lactuca Linnaeus, 1753 | SW | - | - | - |
Ulvaceae | Ulva spp. Linnaeus, 1753 | W | - | - |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zocchi, D.M.; Mattalia, G.; Santos Nascimento, J.; Grant, R.M.; Martin, J.E.; Sexton, R.; Romano, C.; Pieroni, A. Gathering and Cooking Seaweeds in Contemporary Ireland: Beyond Plant Foraging and Trendy Gastronomies. Sustainability 2024, 16, 3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083337
Zocchi DM, Mattalia G, Santos Nascimento J, Grant RM, Martin JE, Sexton R, Romano C, Pieroni A. Gathering and Cooking Seaweeds in Contemporary Ireland: Beyond Plant Foraging and Trendy Gastronomies. Sustainability. 2024; 16(8):3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083337
Chicago/Turabian StyleZocchi, Dauro M., Giulia Mattalia, Jeovana Santos Nascimento, Ryan Marley Grant, Jack Edwin Martin, Regina Sexton, Chiara Romano, and Andrea Pieroni. 2024. "Gathering and Cooking Seaweeds in Contemporary Ireland: Beyond Plant Foraging and Trendy Gastronomies" Sustainability 16, no. 8: 3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083337