Integrating Temporal Dimensions in Circularity of the Built Environment Analysis of Two Flemish Industrial Parks

Abstract

This manuscript explores how incorporating temporal dimensions into built environment research can promote a more circular society, adding societal improvements to efficiency-driven measures closing waste or material cycles. The current circularity approaches in industrial environments mainly focus on short-term innovations reducing resource extraction and waste, overlooking long-term circularity potentials of natural resource management such as living soils as a basis for all life. This study addresses this gap by investigating, analyzing, and drawing interplays between regenerative soil cycles and business development cycles in two Flemish industry parks, Kortrijk-Noord and Haasrode. Using diachronic mapping, a qualitative design and action research tool, the study aims to generate a space–time composite of soil and business cycles, integrating archival research, interviews, and policy document reviews. This method visually captures interplays between geology, land valuation, and economic development, demonstrating that integrating soil and business cycles can suggest new pathways for site-specific circular practices on Flemish industry parks, which can inform site-specific project frameworks for circular built environments. As such, the research advocates a paradigm shift in industry park (re)development, from product and material innovation within a ‘time is money’ framework to an integrated ‘time is life’ approach, where time’s historical and social dimensions are part of circular landscape development.

1. Introduction

1.1. Circularity for a Sustainable Industrial Transformation

Transition towards a circular society requires circular economy research to go beyond merely efficiency-driven measures [1,2]. Until the last decade, circularity research for the built environment has mainly focused on technological and market-driven solutions, such as localizing resource flows, slowing material consumption, extending product life, resource extraction, and closing loops [3,4,5]. While these rather technocentric approaches have facilitated incremental improvements, they have received many criticisms for insufficiently addressing the social and environmental externalities crucial in the transition towards a circular society [1,6,7,8,9]. In particular, the critics highlight how these solutions overlook governance settings, local specificities, and the intricate interconnections between social and ecological systems [1,5,6,7,8]. This limited scope often results in strategies that are disconnected from the contexts they aim to transform.

Sustainable development author Frances Westley argued that, as long as technological innovation is driven by profit maximization, it cannot contribute to sustainable development, even when aligned with circular economy models [1,2]. This critique is relevant to the industrial built environment, where efficiency-driven circular economy practices, such as waste reduction and energy recovery, often prioritize economic gains over broader social and environmental impacts. In response, a growing body of researchers advocates for a paradigm shift towards a more holistic, integrated approach to circularity in the built environment that integrates social and ecological dimensions [6,10,11]. For instance, Hahn [1] critiques traditional economic models by repositioning the economy as a subsystem of the social system, itself nested within the broader ecological system. This perspective highlights the need to prioritize natural systems, such as soil and water, as foundational to a sustainable economy [10,12]. This approach aligns with Berkes et al.’s view on the importance of recognizing interdependencies between ecological systems, economic activities, and people [13]. Friant, Vermeulen, and Salomone conceptually expand this view by advocating for a framework that incorporates seven socio-ecological cycles—biogeochemical, ecosystem, resource, power, wealth, knowledge, and care—to better understand how circularity relates to human and planetary well-being [6]. The need to address multiple, interconnected cycles reflects a deeper understanding of circular economy beyond immediate resource loops; yet, translating these into spatial strategies remains challenging. Scholars in urbanism highlight persistent gaps between circular economy theories and their practical implementation, pointing out that strategies often remain dominated by technological and business priorities and lack sensitivity to spatial and contextual dynamics [9,11].

This evolving perspective on circularity, which integrates socio-ecological complexities, is still in its early stages and requires further refinement. While some studies have addressed socio-ecological time dimensions at a conceptual level [6,7], how these are embedded within specific spaces remains vague. This research addresses this gap by focusing on the social time dimension of business development cycles and the ecological time dimension of living soil through case studies of two Flemish industrial parks—Kortrijk-Noord and Haasrode. By contextualizing their transitions, the study uncovers hidden circularity potentials within these two cycles and develops project frameworks that offer practical guidelines for integrating these dimensions into future designs.

Furthermore, this research is rooted in urban landscape design, which approaches circularity as a multi-dimensional, place-specific, and multi-scalar process that integrates relational, social, and ecological agendas [7,14]. This approach provides a valuable framework for navigating complex transitions, emphasizing the need for integrating space, time, and process as a unified whole [11].

1.2. Integrating Socio-Economic and Ecological Time Dimensions in Industrial Built Environment Design

Industrial sites are traditionally perceived as monofunctional zones focused on economic profit, with circularity efforts typically centered on improving efficiency and reducing waste through industrial ecology or energy sharing [15]. However, such strategies often overlook the broader socio-economic and ecological cycles that underpin these systems. For example, key resources like water, soil, and natural habitats are rarely considered in conventional circularity strategies focusing primarily on immediate operational gains.

The industrial parks of Haasrode and Kortrijk-Noord currently function within a predominant linear economic framework that prioritizes innovation, economic growth, and an ‘efficiency-first’ perspective. Conceptually, for this paper, we adopt this as ‘time is money’; it frames time purely as a resource to be optimized, disregarding its socio-ecological implications. While these parks were developed in the 1970s, they are now under pressure to align with sustainability regulations from multiple governance levels, from the Flemish Waste Agency (OVAM) and the Flemish Department for Environment to the intercommunal of Leiedal and InterLeuven to city administrations [16]. Within their planning processes, circularity is pushed as one of the means to achieve sustainability goals. Despite these regulatory pushes, circular projects at these sites often employ generic, technocentric ‘toolbox’ approaches that do not adequately address site-specific socio-ecological contexts or stakeholder engagement [17,18].

This paper explores the interaction of various time cycles within an industrial park, emphasizing the differing timescales of socio-economic business development and ecological processes like soil formation and vegetation growth. Achieving a circular built environment requires aligning these temporalities, which often operate on vastly different schedules. As used in this paper, the concept of time cycles emphasizes the multidimensional nature of time in industrial and ecological systems, highlighting the disparities between economic, technological, ecological, and social timescales. This research investigates which circular strategies could align these varying timescales for creating circular industrial built environment transitions.

Figure 1 illustrates the lifespans and renewal cycles of key built environment resources identified in Haasrode and Kortrijk-Noord. For example, human resource cycles typically range between 5 and 40 years, while lifespans of industrial building components can extend up to 60 years [19]. In contrast, natural territorial resource renewal cycles span a broader spectrum: vegetation renews annually, whereas soil formation may take thousands to millions of years, and trees may take between 20 and 200 years to reach maturity, depending on the species [20]. Given these natural cycles of renewal, harvesting natural building materials can take decades [21].

This discrepancy presents several challenges. From a financial perspective, industrial buildings are typically amortized over a 20-year period, even though their structural components can last for 50 years or more. This short amortization period drives businesses to prioritize new investments over maintaining or repurposing existing structures [22]. Furthermore, financial incentives, such as tax deductions and subsidies, favor new acquisitions, discouraging long-term sustainability practices like reuse and resource sharing [23].

Organizational dynamics in publicly traded companies compound these challenges. Frequent leadership changes, driven by shareholder expectations and market pressures to deliver short-term financial gains, often overshadow long-term asset management, reinforcing a focus on immediate returns over sustained value creation [24,25]. In contrast, family businesses uphold longer perspectives for their business management. Management transfer happens mostly after a full career of approximately 40 years and is often transferred within the family [26].

Natural processes operate on much longer timescales. These extended natural timescales are essential for the long-term sustainability of industrial parks; yet, they are often overlooked in short-term business planning. This disconnect reflects a broader temporal mismatch. In history, these cycles were more interrelated; however, with the acceleration of human-driven processes like production and consumption, these cycles have started to disconnect [27]. This current temporal mismatch can accelerate resource depletion and waste accumulation and misses opportunities for circularity. Aligning these varying timescales is essential to fostering a circular industrial built environment that respects both economic demands and ecological limitations.

1.3. Re-Introduction of ‘Time Is Life’

Drawing on critical concepts of time from post-structuralist, ecological, and feminist perspectives, particularly the work of scholars like Haraway [28], Puig de la Bellacasa [29], and Escobar [30], this research emphasizes the need for care and a deeper understanding of time in human–nature interactions. In urban landscape history and urban landscape design, Jane Hutton’s concept of Reciprocal Landscapes [31] similarly perceives time as intricately linked to life [32], underlining connections between extracted materials, spatial development, and regenerative ‘care cycles’ that were −and should again be− provided to landscapes and society within a circular framework [6,29,32]. Meanwhile, Puig de la Bellacasa highlights the need to ‘make time’ for slower, non-human timelines, such as those governing soil and ecosystems [29]. Haraway’s notion of ‘staying with the trouble’ [28] calls for embracing the complexities of socio-ecological systems, while Escobar further emphasizes the need to design with the interdependencies between biophysical and techno-cultural cycles [33].

Drawing from these critical thinkers’ perspectives on time and care, this paper investigates time in spatial development from two contrasting viewpoints: ‘time is money’, a construct rooted in industrialization, and ‘time is life’, an ideology emphasized by Bhutan’s fourth king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck [34]. He advocated for viewing time as a vital component of well-being and ecological balance; in this case, representing a pre-industrial lens that incorporates regenerative cycles in production rather than purely economic productivity [32,34]. For example, throughout time, in building practices, soil lost its significance as a living system that formed the basis to grow food, building materials, provide habitat, etc. and should be carefully used within its regenerative limits [35]. Under the impulse of mass development and mass extraction, soil became abused and over-extracted by over-tilling and the intensification of agricultural soils, overexploitation of water resources, and over-extracting materials, heavily polluted and sealed by the spatial development of, in this case, the industrial parks [6,35]. The conventional industrial production saying ‘time is money’ underscores the relentless pursuit of efficiency and profit maximization, often at the expense of environmental considerations [1]. The present legislation, regulations, and norms underlying the financial and economic system are, in this regard, largely an obstacle for sustainable development [1,7]. Nevertheless, as Escobar highlights in “Repair: Sustainable Design Futures”, engaging with the dominant logics of ‘unsustainability’ is essential to pave the way for a truly circular future [33] (p. 10). This engagement extends beyond addressing the spatial qualities of industrial areas; it requires a profound examination and transformation of business logics. Furthermore, Escobar’s emphasis on understanding interdependencies in socio-ecological systems complements the need in urban landscape design to move from linear unsustainable time concepts (‘time is money’) to more cyclical, life-sustaining, regenerative perspectives (‘time is life’).

This research adopts visualizations as a research method to reconcile these seemingly contradictory notions of time by using diachronic mappings of the two sites. These mappings illustrate the historical stages of development and how these stages interact with underlying cycles of soil and business development. By uncovering hidden socio-economic and ecological dynamics, this research proposes practical guidelines for integrating these insights into future industrial park designs. Through this approach, the study aims to develop a more holistic, site-specific approach to circularity in industrial built environments, addressing both socio-economic and ecological time dimensions to help guide a long-term transition toward a circular society.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Industry Parks Kortrijk-Noord and Haasrode

This paper comparatively analyses two Flemish industrial parks (Figure 2) to draw lessons from site-specific research on two mostly overlooked resource cycles, soil and business development cycles, in circular built environments.

Haasrode Industry Park, encompassing both a research park and an industrial zone, is a notable product of the 1970s economic, infrastructural, and spatial planning strategies. Developed on former agricultural land southeast of Leuven and strategically located along the E40 highway, the park offers convenient access by car and trucks from across the country. Spanning approximately 190 hectares, Haasrode employs around 5000 people, primarily in research and development roles [36]. The park’s character has been significantly shaped by its proximity to the Catholic University of Leuven and the broader industrial innovation network in the region. It predominantly hosts high-tech companies and spin-offs, alongside long-established multinational firms such as Siemens, Nikon, and Terumo, operating on-site for decades [36].

On the other hand, Kortrijk-Noord is a major regional and intermunicipal industrial park in West Flanders, covering the territories of both Kortrijk and predominantly Kuurne. It is now the largest and oldest industrial park in the region, spanning 254.9 hectares, accommodating approximately 200 companies and 5200 employees. The majority of these companies are concentrated in the manufacturing, wholesale, and logistics sectors, which are the dominant industries in the park [37].

2.2. Qualitative Design Research

This paper adopts a qualitative case study approach, combining design and action research in real-world contexts [38]. The diachronic mapping serves as a tool to generate, capture, and co-construct all captured (qualitative) data, in one frame over time, on the respective sites.

Design research encompasses a broad range of methodologies to generate knowledge. This paper uses design to explore and address the complex societal challenge of circular economy transition through envisioning and investigating past decisions and future possibilities [11,38]. Design thinking focuses on transformative action, acknowledging that circular economy can be approached in multiple ways [39]. This process involves action research, a research method where the researcher actively engages in gathering insights specific to the local context, acknowledging the nuances of that environment. This approach frequently generates knowledge through co-creation processes and spontaneous interactions with stakeholders and experts.

This paper’s design research involved desktop and archival research, expert interviews, site observations, interpretative readings, and drawing. This iterative process offered site-specific insights into the two industry parks’ current operational dynamics [40].

Desktop research was conducted to compile available geodata from the regional data repositories, Geopunt [41] and ‘Databank Ondergrond Vlaanderen’ [42], to create a comprehensive set of geolocalized context layers depicting both the current and historical situations of the two industrial parks. These contextual layers include road infrastructure, green space, water structures, building typologies, urban geomorphology over time, and land-use plans. Additionally, underground context layers were integrated, such as soil composition, aquifers and their fluctuation over time, groundwater extraction data, and pollution information.

To supplement this data, historical maps such as the Ferraris map (1777); the Atlas der Buurtwegen (1840); and historical aerial photographs from 1971, 1979–1990, and 2021 were utilized to construct axonometric representations of the historical states of the industrial parks. The review of historical documents on business practices and land use provided further context, linking historical customs to specific sites. Archival research was also conducted during six half-day visits at the end of 2021 and the beginning of 2022 in the archives of Interleuven and Leiedal. This archival research offered valuable historical insights into the spatial development of the industrial parks through the analyses of building permits and correspondence between business owners and municipal authorities [18]. Figure 3 illustrates the evolution of a company’s management in relation to the development of its built environment.

Additionally, expert interviews were held [18]. For Kortrijk-Noord, these took place during the Winter School: ‘Regenerating Flemish Industry parks’ that was organized by REFLIP in February 2024. The greenery managers of Leiedal and the company WAAK participated, together with two biologists, three company owners, municipal and provincial policymakers, and the park managers. In relation to landscape and soil, unstructured interviews were conducted to explore the evolving cycles of landscape management and decision-making within the industrial park. The questions focused on how decisions regarding vegetation and water management were aligned with seasonal rhythms and how biodiversity practices were, or were not, gradually integrated, reflecting ongoing adaptation over time. Additionally, the interviews addressed opportunities for subsidy projects, such as actions taken in response to the Green Deal, initiatives for greening [43] and de-sealing parking spaces [44], and compliance with the new ‘Hemelwaterverordening’ (Rainwater Ordinance) [45]. Finally, we inquired whether there was a cross-border action plan for rainwater harvesting. For business operations cycles, we conducted company visits to specifically inquire about the history of each company and its spatial development over time. By examining how the company has evolved, including which parts of the building have been repurposed or modified, we aimed to understand the temporal aspects of its growth and adaptation. This approach helps in analyzing how different time cycles—such as business cycles, technological advancements, and spatial transformations—interact and influence the overall evolution of the company’s physical and operational structure.

For Haasrode, expert interviews were conducted at various times. Initially, 17 bilateral online interviews were held between December 2020 and spring 2022, inquiring into similar themes [18]. This was followed by an on-site participatory workshop on May 5, 2022, organized by REFLIP. Later, a student design studio titled Future Forming Haasrode took place in the fall of 2022. This studio included various feedback and exchange sessions, such as company visits and lunch speed dates between students and company owners, involving employees on the industrial site, experts, and a jury. These questions and interactions served as a starting point for discussions, guiding the conversation toward relevant information. The collected responses were incorporated into on-site sketches and later refined in the diachronic mapping.

2.3. Visualizations as a Research Method

Recent publications, such as ‘Free the Map’ (2024) [46], ‘Diagrams of Power: Visualizing, Mapping, and Performing Resistance’ (2019) [47], ‘Shifts in Mapping: Maps as a Tool of Knowledge’ (2021) [48], and ‘An Atlas of Agendas: Mapping the Power, Mapping the Commons’ (2013) [49], emphasize the use of alternative mapping methods and data visualization in revealing hidden attributes, such as power relations and stakeholder dynamics, within spatial contexts. In circularity research, visualizations typically use flow or system diagrams to analyze, synthesize, and communicate complex material flows [9,18,50]. Time, on the other hand, in circularity research for the built environment is typically visualized at the building scale, focusing on the ‘life cycle’ of buildings and their materials, from design and construction to end of use [51]. However, conventional diagrams tend to isolate material flows from broader social and ecological contexts, overlooking interdependencies between spatial and temporal scales.

To address these limitations, scholars call for incorporating qualitative methods that capture circularity’s relational dynamics and socio-ecological dimensions [7,52]. Complementary to quantitative analyses, qualitative analyses tend to give a more critical and site-specific reading of the social and spatial impacts of different circularity strategies [7]. For example, Fisk’s historical Mississippi River cartography integrates layered histories of landscape change, illustrating both retrospective and prospective transformations [53]. This diachronic approach informs the present study, which aims to create a single visual narrative that merges past, present, and future contexts. By illustrating the stages of site development, such as changes in land use, infrastructure, and social or economic patterns, this study reveals how these factors interact with underlying soil and business development cycles. Understanding these interrelations is essential for conducting a comprehensive, spatiotemporal analysis of circularity in the built environment [54].

2.4. Diachronic Mapping

This research employs diachronic mapping as a ‘metabolic transect’, a fieldwork method from landscape design that plots physical conditions such as soil type and built fabric along a cross-section. This approach is further enriched with data on material flows, highlighting the interdependencies between spaces and flows [11]. By incorporating time as a fourth dimension, this mapping technique allows for chronological tracking of data points, events, or phenomena, revealing patterns and trends over time [54,55]. By incorporating subsoil, air conditions, existing buildings, (infra)structures, and users into a single visualization, these maps depict the dynamics and cycles of resource flows, acknowledging the processes that have shaped the site over time [11,56]. These visualizations move beyond static representations, encouraging dialogues about past constructions and future transformations [57].

This study applies diachronic mapping to two specific locations within Kortrijk-Noord and Haasrode industry parks (Figure 4), where soil cycles intersect with business development cycles in space. An axonometric drawing and a deep section of these sites were drawn during the various periods of 1777, 1840, 1971, 1990, 2023, and prospectively for 2040. These drawings provide a simultaneous observation of subterranean and aboveground processes. As shown in Figure 4, these images layer geospatial and qualitative resource data to uncover the interactions between urban development, industrial cycles, and soil use (or misuse) over time.

These axonometric drawings from different time periods were arranged side by side, forming a circular composition. In this way, the drawing embeds the thickness of the ground on the outside of the circle, inspired by the book ‘Terra Forma’ [58], giving it as much room and visibility as the axonometric built environment on top. The processes happening aboveground are as crucial as those occurring within the ground to foster a circular society. Figure 5 shows this circular composition of the axonometric drawing. It traces the historical evolution from pre-industrial to industrial development, illustrating the shift from the ‘time is life’ paradigm—where livelihoods were intrinsically connected to the landscape in a regenerative cyclic system—to the modern ‘time is money’ mindset, where land use and business development are often decoupled from their physical environment in a technology-driven, productionist society [29]. Figure 5 offers a simplified version of this transition, though, in reality, these transitions are more nuanced, complex, and intertwined.

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 6 presents the complete diachronic mapping of Kortrijk-Noord and Haasrode, merging their past, present, and possible future contexts. The subsequent sections break down these mappings into three parts: the first covers historical drawings from 1777 and 1840; the second focuses on the industrial development stages, featuring three axonometric views from 1971, 1990, and 2023; and the final part explores the future through project frameworks that integrate new insights into local circularity potentials. This structured approach helps reveal the interactions between soil and business development cycles, identifying site-specific circularity principles for guiding future circular transformations and spatial planning (Appendix A provides in

Table A1. The table outlines the land use changes in Haasrode and Kortrijk-Noord from 1777 to 2024, detailing their impacts on soil health and how business activities influenced these changes. It highlights the shift from sustainable agricultural practices to industrialization, from ‘time is life,’ where businesses depend on healthy land, to ‘time is money,’ describing the resulting soil degradation, contamination, and ecological decline and a disconnection between the businesses and their environment.

	Haasrode		Kortrijk-Noord
	Impact on Soil	Type of Business	Impact on Soil	Type of Business
1777	Incorporating practices of resource reuse, such as reusing casks for beer maturation, the Norbertine abbey’s agricultural activities were centered on self-sufficiency, combining farming, forestry, and brewing [72]. Circular land management techniques promoted soil health and biodiversity, including crop rotation and alternating fields. By cultivating diverse plant species and employing organic methods, the abbey supported natural nutrient cycling and maintained a balanced ecosystem [74].		Farmers with small-scale proto-industries process flax into linen at home. They were farmers in the first place and used small plots for flax production for extra income. The cyclical process of flax farming (growth, bloom, rest, renewal) and crop rotation maintained soil fertility and supported a biodiverse ecosystem. They adopted a circular use of by-products (e.g., linseed oil, fuel, animal feed) [59].
1840	After the dissolution of the Abbey, the fertile land was used for mixed farming and livestock management. Over time, agricultural intensification introduced synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, leading to soil degradation [62]. Using synthetic chemicals and heavier machinery caused soil compaction and reduced biodiversity, while the shift to monoculture practices further deteriorated soil health [75].		A shift from small-scale family production to centralized industrial manufacturing facilities in Northern France led to an industrial re-orientation in Kortrijk-Noord towards a specialization in flax processing, a well-known industry requiring little investment [59]. At the same time, the region had to deal with an agricultural crisis. Introducing chemical fertilizers increased agricultural production but reduced soil biodiversity and fertility [62]. Agricultural practices became more extractive.
1970	Soil sealing (lawns, concrete surfaces, buildings) decreased infiltration and biodiversity. Monofunctional buildings and esthetic green spaces replaced agricultural lands.	The expropriation and transformation of agricultural land into Haasrode Industry Park are beginning. It is modeled after American science parks and focuses on global, knowledge-intensive R&D companies [36].	Soil sealing (asphalt, concrete, buildings) caused a decline in soil health. Sealed surfaces prevent natural nutrient cycling, reducing biological activity and ecosystem vitality.	Industrial manufacturing park. Many businesses grew out of former flax-based family enterprises. The focus shifted gradually to large-scale production, logistics, and manufacturing within a family enterprise structure [26].
1990	Topsoil removal and sealing during construction disrupt rainwater infiltration. Installment of ‘Protection Zones for Water Extraction Areas’ [41]. In contradiction with landfill operations and fire suppression at the industrial park contributing to unnoticed soil contamination [77,78].	Continued industrial development. Most office buildings are constructed at this time. Financial incentives created favorable (unsustainable) investment conditions [24].	An intensification of the industrial built environment and sealed soil creates negligence and a less regulated environment regarding pollution and water extraction.	Incremental expansion of local family businesses; reorientation of businesses linked to the declining flax industry; reuse of buildings. Kortrijk-Noord forms an industrial ecosystem (manufacturing, packaging, maintenance,…).
2024	Soil and groundwater contamination remain significant issues; however, interest in the industrial open landscape’s potential stays low. Fear for creating biological value [76]. Limited rainwater infiltration due to legal restrictions. Contaminated sites pose future risks to drinking water quality.	Research and innovation campus. Local authorities have increased focus on circularity and climate neutrality. Multinational companies: “What’s in it for me?” [76].	Groundwater depletion and soil contamination (manganese and nitrate pollution) are tucked beneath the concrete surface. Vulnerability to climate extremes (heavy rainfall and droughts). Shallow, unsaturated soil zones are susceptible to pollution [42]. Improved awareness, governments in search for adapted policies [67].	Regional industry park. Many businesses still originate from 1970. Repair and adaptive reuse, frugality in family business, proto-circular practices [65]. Confronted with opaque (European) rules and regulations.

a clear overview of these identified land use changes over time.).

Figure 6 already highlights how the built environments of the industrial parks have evolved over time, reflecting changes in land use and infrastructure. The outer ring of the drawings represents the subsurface, showcasing distinct differences in soil composition and aquifers (in blue) between the two sites. This section begins with an in-depth analysis of Kortrijk-Noord (Section 3.1), followed by the findings for Haasrode (Section 3.2).

3.1. Case 1: Kortrijk-Noord

3.1.1. Cyclic Proto-Industries (1777–1840)

Figure 7 shows a part of the diachronic mapping of Kortrijk-Noord between 1777 and 1840. During these times, the rhythm of agricultural and urban development was in sync with the cycles of natural growth; bloom; rest; and renewal of above- and belowground natural systems, soil characteristics, and water management [32].

The fertile sand-loam and loamy soils, formed millions of years ago and intersected by the Leie and Scheldt Rivers, provided the specific foundation for rich, locally embedded agricultural flax family businesses. Since the 18th century, the agricultural landscape of Kortrijk has been strongly shaped by the flax industry, which, in that time, not only managed the circularity principles of repair, restoration, reuse, and the closing of material loops but also of regeneration. The early flax industry processed flax into linen ribbon. The process consisted of four phases: retting, breaking, scutching, and hatching. By-products from the production process were repurposed into linseed oil, fuel, and later raw materials: the short fibers for coarser yarn, and the chaff was used as animal feed [59]. This process and its by-products enabled farmers and their families to grow into proto-industries to meet their own needs with only a relatively small piece of land. Additionally, trees and shrubs were planted on these agricultural fields, creating a rich biodiverse ecosystem of soil microbes, bird species, and earthworms. The flax plant is a quick grower, requiring only 100 days between sowing in March and harvesting in July. This short growth cycle creates space and time —what Puig de la Bellacasa [29] calls ‘care time’— for processing the harvest into finished products in their home during the winter months while, at the same time, allowing the landscape a period of rest and regeneration.

Around 1840–1850, an agricultural and flax industrial crisis emerged in the region of Kortrijk. The intensified flax and linen industry knew a shift from small-scale family production to centralized industrial manufacturing facilities in Northern France. The downfall of the linen industry in 1850 was caused by three key external factors: competition from mechanized English linen production, loss of key export markets, and the rise of mechanized cotton production in cities like Ghent [59]. This led to an industrial reorientation in Kortrijk-Noord towards specialization in flax processing. This was an industry they knew well and that required little investment, as they could use the natural flow capacities of the Leie River for the retting process. Within the shortest amount of time, the region became the European market leader for fiber processing during the Contemporary Period (ca. 1850–1950) [59,60]. Together with the flax industrial crisis, an agricultural crisis emerged, due to population growth and limitations of traditional farming practices. New agricultural technological innovations, such as the introduction of chemical fertilizers aimed at increasing production, began to disrupt the balanced co-existence with the landscape. These evolved and intensified agricultural practices of fertilizers and pesticides were the beginning of a decrease in soil biodiversity and fertility [61,62].

3.1.2. Industrialization—Since 1970

Today, the industrial park, with its concrete appearance, shows little remainders of the former co-existence between production and landscape. Figure 8 illustrates how the industrial park began development in the 1970s by transforming agricultural lands, gradually expanding until it became almost completely sealed and built today. The site stands as a testament to the region’s transition from agrarian to industrial pursuits [63]. Its fabric is dominated by production and manufacturing sectors, many of which trace their origins to flax agriculture and textile manufacturing, with some family-run businesses still acknowledging this heritage on their websites (e.g., Intertex). These family businesses are renowned for their long-term vision and inherent commitment to circularity in building operations.

Family businesses present a particular paradigm shift in their approach to time and resource management that is more nuanced than simply ‘time is money’ [26]. They prioritize long-term sustainability and generational continuity over short-term profits. For them, investments of time and effort are not merely measured in immediate financial returns but are valued for their contributions to the legacy and longevity of the business. This aligns with the Life Cycle Assessment principles, emphasizing the importance of extending the technical service life and refresh rates of building materials [64]. These family businesses serve as examples of this long-term thinking, often leveraging the built spaces inherited from previous generations to drive sustainable practices.

Additionally, in Figure 8, the adaptive reuse practices of these family businesses are shown. These family businesses are inherently resource conscious or circular. These early manifestations of circularity, documented in historical records, such as the repurposing of buildings and the care for structures built by previous generations, reveal how businesses self-organized and adaptively reused industrial structures, effectively reducing the need for new construction. This is labeled by Verbiest et al. as ‘proto-circularity’, derived from ‘proto-‘ meaning ‘first’, referring to circularity in its ‘earliest form’ [65]. In ‘Today and Tomorrow’ [66], Henry Ford dedicates a chapter to “Learning from Waste”. Ford’s ideas strongly reflect contemporary concepts of the circular economy. However, Ford’s primary motivation was not to save the planet but to integrate production, infrastructure, environment, and community to avoid wasting human labor and capital. His approach was ultimately extractive, focusing on maximizing efficiency and profitability. Despite this, Ford’s methods align with basic principles of circularity, illustrating that economic efficiency and resource optimization can coexist with sustainable practices, providing a compelling case for their broader adoption.

Despite their proto-circular practices in both architecture and operations, the family businesses and enterprises at Kortrijk-Noord have gradually lost their intimate connection with the landscape, buried beneath layers of asphalt and concrete. This symbolizes a broader socio-economic shift in the region from Flanders’ textile sector to particular production and logistics industries. As a result, a significant imbalance has emerged: the soil, now sealed off, is no longer recognized as a living system. Figure 8’s thick black line dividing the aboveground from the underground illustrates this disconnection. Soil sealing disrupts the exchange of air, water, and nutrients [35], leading to reduced biological activity and a sharp decline in soil biodiversity (different soil color in Figure 8 under the sealed surfaces). The loss of soil organisms hampers nutrient cycling and root growth, diminishing the soil’s ability to support healthy ecosystems [61]. Despite these negative impacts, the soil is further exploited for natural resources, worsening its conditions and resilience.

Groundwater continues to be extracted by both companies and nearby farmers for production purposes. What began as unregulated extraction for agricultural use (1971) has evolved into a system governed by legislation (2023). Some companies now hold licenses for groundwater extraction, while others rely on drinking water for their production processes. Additionally, current regulations require new industrial developments to manage their own rainwater buffering, providing opportunities for rainwater to be reused within the companies and slowly infiltrated in the soil. Water use policies are also evolving, with the Provincial Development Agency (POM) and the intercommunal Leiedal commissioning new studies on circular water use and ‘water neutrality’ [67].

While these efforts represent progress, the region remains highly vulnerable to climatic fluctuations, including heavy rainfall and droughts. Excessive—and often illegal—groundwater pumping by nearby agricultural businesses has impacted both shallow and deep groundwater tables, leaving the deep groundwater table in a critical state. Given clay soil’s low percolation rate, replenishing the deep aquifer may take up to hundreds of years. Further compounding the issue, rainwater collected in wadis often contains pollutants that infiltrate the soil, exacerbating groundwater contamination in an already vulnerable supply. The soil structure in Kortrijk-Noord’s surrounding area has an unsaturated zone of less than 10 m, meaning groundwater reaches close to the surface during typical rainfall periods [42]. This shallow unsaturated zone makes the groundwater highly susceptible to contamination, as pollutants can easily disperse through the subsurface, as illustrated in Figure 7 and Figure 8.

Industrial activities on-site, coupled with occasional accidents, also contribute to ongoing soil contamination, spreading quietly beneath the surface. For instance, in 1985, a tank leak (depicted in red in Figure 8) caused manganese pollution that persists to this day. Only recently has the site manager employed chemical oxidation to contain the contamination, which has to be repeated yearly and is costly. Due to the region’s soil and groundwater characteristics, it is likely that the pollution has already spread over a wide area, raising questions about responsibility for managing this contamination and its impact on soil health and the broader environment. The 2023 axonometric drawing identifies contaminated sites labeled by the Flemish Waste Agency (OVAM), with orange indicating areas where pollution has been detected and awaits remediation, and yellow indicating areas of minor pollution where no further action is required [41].

Beyond industrial contamination, long-term agricultural practices in the neighboring landscape have further stressed the region’s soil health. Intensive use of chemical fertilizers has contributed to elevated levels of nitrate in the Leie Basin’s groundwater [68].

3.1.3. Project Frameworks for the Circular Built Environment of Kortrijk-Noord

The transition from the surfaced proto-circular practices in family businesses to a circular industry park could greatly benefit from a reconnection between the long-term family business mindset and the regeneration of the landscape, as illustrated in Figure 9 [69]. Future designers could take into account the following in relation to business development and soil cycles.

• Harness proto-circularity for a circular future in Kortrijk-Noord.

Similar to cities accumulating layers of history [55], these family businesses uphold rich traditions across generations, evident in their adaptive reuse of buildings over time [49]. Their ethos of repair, restoration, and reuse becomes a hallmark, reducing the demand for new construction. This forward-thinking proto-circular approach, deeply rooted in historical practices, could guide the circular reconversion of Kortrijk-Noord.

This approach requires the strengthening of the local repair knowledge system. The network of jobs and skills that already care for the infrastructures of the family businesses today could be enhanced and extended across the park. Emphasizing care for the landscape, as well as maintaining and repairing structures, can extend the lifespans of the current buildings and materials, reducing the demand for new resource extraction, benefiting the long term. Furthermore, this network can introduce new landscape stewards, the greenery managers of today, who educate and engage stakeholders to raise awareness about the importance of soil health and the impact of water use on the landscape. A community that gradually grows around reparative and regenerative practices [70].

• Foster circular ecosystems between industry and nature.

On Kortrijk-Noord, the disconnection between the built environment and the underground needs to be addressed. The project should prioritize restoring soil health by reintroducing practices that allow soil to function biologically, including improving water infiltration, carbon sequestration, and overall biological activity. This can primarily be done by reducing the extensive sealing of the surfaces to open up more permeable areas. Furthermore, the polluted areas should be actively decontaminated. The chemical remediation used today fixates on the pollution in the soil, while a biological remediation, a landscape structure existing of vegetation that absorbs different pollutants from the soil, could harvest these pollutants and remove them for the soil [71]. This would possibly have a positive effect on soil health in the long term, instead of ‘solving’ the issue for a short period of time.

Furthermore, to free up space for natural regeneration in this densely built industry park, future developments should aim for vertical densification, which allows for more intensive use of existing structures while opening up land for natural regeneration. Acknowledging the soil as a living participant on the industrial sites acts as the basis of this regenerative approach.

• Integrate circular water management as a landscape structure.

Building on the current efforts by the Provincial Development Agency (POM) [67], future designs should aim for water neutrality—and ideally, water positivity—by not only eliminating net groundwater consumption but also actively replenishing it. This could be achieved through rainwater harvesting, reuse, and on-site water treatment systems. A landscape-wide structure that crosses private plot boundaries could allow for a natural redirection and slowing down of rainwater and runoff water for natural purification and infiltration, additionally benefiting the overall biodiversity, establishing a natural corridor, reinforcing the living soil. This overarching landscape structure could address legislation such as the ‘hemelwaterverordening’ [56] that now stays on an individual building plot level. This approach can enable organized exchanges with the surrounding agricultural landscape in times of water need, safeguarding the deep groundwater tables and providing time for them to replenish. Furthermore, by creating this open space, the industrial park users could interact again with their landscape and participate in the overall care ecosystem.

3.2. Case 2: Haasrode

3.2.1. ‘Time Is Life’ in Medieval Haasrode

Since the Middle Ages, Leuven and its surroundings were heavily influenced by the Park Abbey Parish, which shaped the landscape through a mix of agriculture, forestry, and water management [72]. The fertile dry sand-loam soils were cultivated to support the abbey’s needs, producing food, clothing materials, and resources for building and brewing as shown in Figure 10. Around what is now Haasrode Industrial Park, this cultivation initially focused on viticulture, followed by hop fields and the excavation of ponds in the lower-lying areas along the Lei- and Molenbeek streams. The abbey engaged in a type of cyclic resource management in the beer brewing process. For instance, wood from the nearby Heverlee forest was used by cooper companies in the area to produce casks for beer maturation. These casks were reused for successive brewing cycles, and wood logging was used to control the water quality of the Dijle to the south of Leuven [73].

The Norbertines embraced various agricultural activities, including animal breeding, grain harvesting, wheat milling, fishing, and beekeeping, making them largely self-sufficient [72]. The agricultural system employed by the abbey worked in harmony with natural processes, aiming for a balanced ecosystem that supported sustainable production. Techniques such as alternating crops, allowing fields to rest, and incorporating diverse plant species helped maintain soil health. In comparison to today’s monoculture, this practice promoted a healthier agricultural soil structure, supported by a diverse community of soil organisms such as earthworms and bacteria, which play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and maintaining soil fertility [74].

After the dissolution of the abbey in 1796, the land was leased and sold to farmers who practiced mixed farming and livestock management until the development of Haasrode Industrial Park began in the 1970s. During this period, agricultural practices evolved significantly, impacting the soil. The use of natural fertilizers and pesticides before WWII gradually shifted to synthetic chemicals and fertilizers, altering the soil biodiversity and fertility [62]. Heavier machinery led to increased soil compaction, and the rise of a monoculture further degraded soil biodiversity and health [75].

By the 1970s, many large agricultural plots were expropriated for the development of the industrial park, transforming the landscape into a mix of lawns, concrete surfaces, and monofunctional buildings. The original plot structure is still visible today, but it now serves as a fragmented and predominantly industrial landscape.

3.2.2. Industrialization—Since 1970

Haasrode, designed after American science parks, was conceived to encourage collaboration between universities and the business sector. The park exemplifies the economic, infrastructure, and spatial policies of that era, the seventies. By transforming agricultural land and offering it at affordable rates, a conducive environment for globally operating, knowledge-intensive companies was established. The park comprises a ‘research park’ with mostly international research and development (R&D) companies and a ‘craft zone’ where local SMEs are located [36].

Fifty years later, the spatial-economic landscape has evolved, and Haasrode now faces new challenges. The luxury of expansive land development—characterized by free-standing horizontal industrial buildings surrounded by ample green space and parking—is no longer sustainable and suitable. With most plots already allocated and under fragmented private ownership, coordinating cross-parcel collaboration for circularity has become highly challenging. Moreover, economists argue that prevailing short-term financing models and depreciation schedules hinder circular practices, discouraging the reuse and sharing of materials, goods, and spaces [24]. A shift in corporate mentality and comprehensive fiscal reforms is essential for fostering more circular built environments [24]. The current privatized configuration and the short-termism and de-localized management of the industrial park complicate the implementation of circular policy plans. On the one hand, multinational firms follow their global sustainability policies, leaving local sustainability managers without the mandate to enforce municipal circularity recommendations [17]. Simultaneously, turnover rates among recent R&D companies, many of which have been on-site for less than 10 years, as shown in Figure 11, presents challenges due to specific requirements such as floor load capacities and clear heights, which hinder repurposing efforts. The static building inventory often fails to meet the ever-changing needs of businesses. Furthermore, many office buildings constructed in the 1980s and 1990s are now difficult to fill due to the reduced demand for office space (e.g., due to remote work). As a result, offices are evolving into business centers with an à la carte rental approach. There is a significant role for the business park manager and local policy makers in facilitating these changes.

Zooming out from the built tissue and its users, a tension between the built environment of the industrial park and the landscape becomes apparent. The sand-loam plateau, part of ‘het Hagenland’, was formed by the Diest formation 5.3 to 7.3 million years ago. This region’s unique geology, with a thick phreatic layer at a depth of approximately more than 10 m and thinner aquitards, makes it a source area for groundwater extraction, protected by regional authorities [41]. However, the planning of the industrial park reduces the potential for rainwater infiltration due to current legal regulations. Not all rainwater is allowed to infiltrate the soil; rainwater that falls on sealed surfaces is re-directed to on-site pre-treatment units before being discharged into the sewage system and thus treated as waste.

The large plot structure of the industrial park provides businesses with flexibility for future expansion while preserving a substantial amount of open space. However, due to legal constraints, this leaves the landscape in a state of stasis, dominated by monofunctional lawns. Haasrode features extensive lawns, some wilder grass fields (often indicating subsurface rubble, as observed during site visits), and functional hedges that offer limited biodiversity. The potential for expansion makes companies hesitant to enhance these spaces, fearing that increasing their ecological value could turn them into ‘nature reserves’ and hinder future growth [76]. As a result, the ecological potential of these areas remains largely untapped, with biodiversity efforts mainly limited to the scarce public domain. Moreover, when new buildings are constructed, the entire (typically fertile and carbon-rich) topsoil is excavated and replaced with concrete foundations. This practice, common in industrial sites, leads to extensive concrete land coverage and soil removal without considering the natural potential of the soil or the need to preserve the water infiltration capacity for future generations.

Figure 11 also reveals past site treatments’ enduring impact on soil and groundwater quality. Two critical points of groundwater contamination were identified due to historical negligence. The first, a former municipal landfill in the southern part of Haasrode, contributed to a historical pollution plume containing heavy metals, chemicals, and PFAS, originating from the 1980s. This plume is projected to reach the groundwater wells near the ‘Abdij van ’t Park’ between 2033 and 2038 [77]. Although the purifying effect of rainwater percolation through the soil may mitigate the full extent of the contamination, the future risk to drinking water remains uncertain.

The second contamination, however, has already shown a more detrimental outcome. In 1985, an industrial fire at the Geldenaaksebaan led to the use of fire extinguishers containing high concentrations of PFAS, which subsequently entered the groundwater. By 2021, this contamination reached the groundwater extraction point at ‘Abdij van ’t Park’, making it the only drinking water source in Flanders to significantly exceed the European standard for PFAS concentration [78]. These findings highlight the long-term consequences of past industrial and land use activities on present day groundwater resources, underscoring the need to consider future impacts over time.

3.2.3. Project Frameworks for the Circular Built Environment of Haasrode

• Harmonizing business agility with spatial inertia.

For the transition towards a circular built environment on Haasrode, the harmonization of business agility with spatial inertia is one of the main challenges. The future design challenge involves balancing the dynamic nature of high-tech business operations with the static built environment, minimizing unnecessary demolitions and material waste while meeting ever-evolving and largely unpredictable business needs. Haasrode features a diverse array of modular business spaces—offices, production areas, and warehouses—many constructed within the last 30 years. Some companies seek additional space, while others occupy oversized premises, resulting in on-site vacancies. Therefore, to align the innovative nature of the business operations with a circular and spatially efficient approach, the envisioned future of Haasrode could embrace a hosting model akin to a hotel or grand business park hotel, offering ‘plug and play’, from the company as an owner to the company as a cooperative investor, user, or guest on the site as shown in Figure 12. This model emphasizes adaptability and flexibility, optimizing the existing infrastructure and fostering circular practices amid changing economic and environmental conditions. There is a significant role for the business park manager and local policymakers in facilitating these changes. They could ensure that buildings are diversified and that the policies support circularity and adaptability. Additionally, Haasrode could adopt alternative business development principles to inspire future circular redevelopment.

• Circular ecosystem between industry and nature for groundwater protection.

Haasrode’s geological characteristics, with its aquifer more than 10 m deep, make it a key area for rainwater infiltration and natural purification. Due to this, Haasrode is protected as an important groundwater protection area, and future landscape design should prioritize water-sensitive urban design practices. For instance, wild grasslands and forests should be incorporated into specific soil types to enhance soil quality and health in relation to water infiltration. This approach will improve carbon sequestration over the years and the water infiltration capacity of the soil, contributing to climate mitigation and adaptation efforts or the design of a comprehensive transportation plan within designated groundwater protection zones. Decreasing reliance on personal vehicles and having only designated zones for trucks, this strategy reduces the amount of sealing and the amount of possible rainwater contamination due to rubbers. Introducing a border landscape to capture the rubber and small particle pollution from the tires of these vehicles and purify it before it is infiltrated in the soil. This strategy could enhance the landscape of Haasrode as a sponge.

• Potential of the open lawns for diversification and multi-species richness.

The vast open lawns at Haasrode possess significant potential to enhance overall biodiversity. Recognizing soil as a living system and introducing diverse vegetation will increase both aboveground and underground biodiversity. By planting a variety of species, the soil’s microbial activity and nutrient cycling will be enriched, supporting a healthier ecosystem while enhancing water infiltration and carbon sequestration. This shift toward multispecies lawns not only boosts visual and ecological diversity but also strengthens soil structure and resilience.

3.3. Reflections on the Introduction of Temporal Dimensions Within Case Study Research

• The value of context-specific approaches in capturing temporal dynamics.

The comparative case study research in this project highlights a crucial lesson: circularity potential varies greatly by context, and standardized, toolbox approaches often fall short in capturing the full range of opportunities for sustainable development. By relying on pre-defined strategies, such tools can miss site-specific dynamics that could unlock deeper circularity [18]. This is where the diachronic mapping methodology proves its value. Unlike quantitative methods, it spatializes, contextualizes, and designs site-specific circularity, enabling a more nuanced understanding of local opportunities that go beyond simply closing material or energy flows.

• The importance of long-term cycles for circularity of the built environment.

Transitioning to a circular society requires a context-specific understanding of past cycles, such as land (mis)use, soil sealing, pollution, and other factors. Circular transformation of the built environment begins with the restoration and care of landscapes we have previously exploited, recognizing the new cycles they now sustain. Integrating living soil cycles particularly is crucial, as it highlights how our daily lives are shaped by processes that have developed over centuries, with our actions today having long-lasting repercussions that extend far beyond our lifetimes [79].

This study highlights the need for a comprehensive, site-specific approach to circularity that encompasses soil health, historical land use, and socio-ecological cycles. Diachronic mapping provides a valuable framework for visualizing long-term impacts that traditional circular economy models often overlook, helping planners and policymakers design interventions that address both immediate material flows and the temporal legacies of past actions. By adopting this temporal awareness in circular design, we can prevent future contamination scenarios like those observed in Haasrode and Kortrijk-Noord.

The projected timeline of the pollution plume reaching the groundwater wells near the ‘Abdij van ‘t Park’ between 2033 and 2038 further emphasizes the need for proactive intervention rather than reactive remediation. Addressing these challenges requires an urgent integration of soil and groundwater health into circular built environment strategies to ensure that today’s decisions do not burden ecosystems and communities for generations to come. Additionally, integrating living soil cycles fosters a more just, multispecies circular society, adding to the multiplicity of users within industrial parks.

• Temporal awareness of business cycles and local collaborations.

Regarding business cycles, this methodology reveals the untapped potential for local collaboration. Encouraging partnerships between businesses and intermunicipal organizations helps reduce material usage in ways that traditional strategies may not address. This research shows that circularity is not limited to construction practices alone; every management decision—whether it is refraining from building, repurposing an old structure, or adopting teleworking—can have significant material consequences. In fact, these actions can sometimes have a greater impact on circularity than circular building strategies themselves. This highlights how small, locally embedded actions can sow the seeds for circularity, even in environments dominated by traditional industrial paradigms. Figure 13 addresses how each industry park has its distinct business cycles and how many business cycles take place during the life cycle of the building structure. This interaction shows the potential for local circular collaboration.

• Qualitative methods in circularity research.

In the context of planetary boundaries, the limitations of the available data are a persistent challenge. Quantitative data on socio-ecological cycles are often inaccessible or incomplete, which hinders the design process [11]. Here, qualitative methods like diachronic mapping offer a way forward by visualizing these conceptual cycles, making them tangible in the design process. This approach ensures that these critical dynamics are not overlooked simply because quantitative data are lacking. Moreover, this method offers a flexible and adaptive framework in an increasingly unpredictable world. The maps it generates are never static—they are never finished and evolve over time, offering fresh insights and informing strategies that can adapt as conditions change.

4. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the necessity of methods that can accommodate the complexity of circularity transitions in the built environment, particularly by integrating time dimensions into research and design processes. By introducing diachronic mapping, the study explored how the temporal dynamics of often-overlooked resource cycles, such as soil and business development, can be key components of circular built environment transformations. The analysis of Kortrijk-Noord and Haasrode provided a nuanced understanding of the dynamic, interrelated processes that shape these industrial sites over time. Furthermore, the analyses offered valuable insights into how qualitative site-specific knowledge and data of spatial development patterns and living soil cycles can complement the current circularity focus on product and material innovation. To enhance these insights, future studies could integrate quantitative methods, such as remote sensing, to more accurately quantify specific land use changes [80,81].

The findings underscore that transitioning toward a circular society requires more than just technological and material solutions; it demands a more holistic, site-specific approach that integrates historical, socio-ecological, spatial, and temporal dimensions. Recognizing soil as a living archive and understanding the rhythms of business cycles allow for the identification of new pathways for circular practices [82]. These insights advocate for a paradigm shift in circular built environment design, one that aligns innovation with the natural and social rhythms that define both the present and the long-term sustainability of our ecosystems. Every site harbors unique, embedded opportunities for circularity, waiting to be uncovered and cultivated. Within this research, these opportunities are translated into project frameworks for the two sites, guiding future designers in circular (re)design of the industrial parks’ built environments through a life-sustaining approach that embraces time for care and growth. Though this study focused on the temporal dimensions of soil and business cycles, many other overlooked resources, such as, for example, biodiversity or financing cycles, remain to be explored, potentially providing additional insights into site-specific circular strategies.

In conclusion, diachronic mapping proves to be a critical tool for integrating time dimensions into the circular design process. It captures the relational dynamics between time, space, and circularity. It transcends the limitations of standardized approaches, offering a flexible and context-sensitive framework that adapts to the unique challenges of each site. By embedding circularity within the historical, ecological, and socio-economic contexts of the built environment, this method opens new pathways for adaptive circular design strategies that account for long-term impacts and future potentials.