Next Article in Journal
Methodology for Quantification of Technological Processes in Passenger Railway Transport Using Alternatively Powered Vehicles
Next Article in Special Issue
Only the Friendly Face? The Consequences of Consumer Education for Green Consumerism in Remanufacturing
Previous Article in Journal
Implementing Ireland’s Food Vision 2030 within the Fresh Produce Sector: An Investigation of the Barriers and Enablers Using Systems Thinking Principles
Previous Article in Special Issue
Environmental and Psychosocial Barriers to Active Commuting to University in a Spanish University Community
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 16
Issue 16
10.3390/su16167238
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Impact of Extracurricular Physical Activity on Achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and Academic Performance: Mediating Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Factors

by
Jorge Zarazaga-Peláez
,
Valentina Barrachina
,
Alejandra Gutiérrez-Logroño
,
Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero
,
Alberto Roso-Moliner
and
Elena Mainer-Pardos
*
Health Sciences Faculty, Universidad San Jorge, Autovía A23 km 299, Villanueva de Gállego, 50830 Zaragoza, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(16), 7238; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167238
Submission received: 18 July 2024 / Revised: 20 August 2024 / Accepted: 21 August 2024 / Published: 22 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Educating for Environmental, Social and Economic Health: The Role of Education for Sustainable Development)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Physical activity has been recognized as an essential element for the health and well-being of children and adolescents. Therefore, this systematic review delves into the study of the relationship between extracurricular physical activity (PA) academic achievement (AA), and its alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) among students aged 3–16 years. This systematic review was guided by adhering to PRISMA guidelines. The review included studies that evaluated PA as an independent variable and its impact on academic performance (AP) through mediation models, structural equations, and multiple regression analyses. The key mediators identified between PA and AA include cognitive function, psychological well-being, and social factors. Cognitive self-regulation, attention, memory, self-efficacy, and self-esteem are key mediators between PA and AA as well as sleep patterns and a healthy lifestyle. In conclusion, extracurricular PA significantly influenced AA, and its influence was mediated by various cognitive, psychological, and social factors. These results support the inclusion and promotion of PA in educational settings, which aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals by improving AA and overall student well-being.

1. Introduction

The fact that physical activity improves the physical, psychological, and social well-being of children and adolescents has been widely studied by the scientific community. On the other hand, the concept of sustainability is on the rise in society. It is for this reason that the aim of this study is to explore the variables on which these improvements depend, in particular academic achievement, and to explore how education can contribute to improving sustainability.
Education systematically addresses societal problems, harnessing its potential to provide solutions to broader challenges, such as the sustainability of the planet. Since the United Nations introduced the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, education has played a key role in advancing these goals [1]. This global commitment is evident as education policies around the world increasingly integrate the SDGs, reflecting an alignment towards promoting sustainable development. For example, several national educational laws have been adapted to incorporate these goals, underlining the universal recognition of education as a catalyst for sustainability [2].
The convergence of physical education (PE), physical activity (PA), and extracurricular physical activity is particularly significant in this context. Physical education refers to structured physical activity performed within the school curriculum [3] while PA encompasses all body movements produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure, including both structured and unstructured activities [4]. Extracurricular PA, on the other hand, includes all physical activities performed outside school hours that complement school activities [5]. These three components are interconnected, and each plays a role in promoting the health and well-being of students, which contribute directly to the achievement of the SDGs.
As some authors have highlighted, the SDGs are presented in a broad and general way, which presents significant difficulties in their practical implementation [6]. Different educational fields have addressed this issue using various strategies. In the field of PE, the aim is for students, regardless of age, gender, or individual characteristics, to acquire the skills, knowledge, and values needed to deal with the challenges proposed in the 2030 Agenda [7].
However, it is essential to broaden this perspective to include the concept of sustainability, considering how physical activities contribute to the social, economic, and environmental pillars of sustainable development.
Social sustainability is reflected in the capacity of extracurricular physical activities to foster inclusion, social cohesion, and the mental well-being of students [8]. By involving young people from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds in sports and recreational programs, an inclusive and equitable learning environment is promoted, strengthening social fabric and reducing inequalities within the educational system [9,10].
From an economic perspective, investing in PA programs has long-term benefits. Students who regularly participate in physical activities tend to have better academic achievement (AA), which can translate into greater job opportunities and higher productivity in the future. Furthermore, a healthier student population contributes to reducing long-term health-related costs [11].
In terms of environmental sustainability, promoting outdoor physical activities and the use of green spaces not only improves the physical and mental health of students but also increases awareness of the importance of caring for the environment. By integrating sustainability principles into these programs, such as the responsible use of natural resources and the conservation of green spaces, and attaching importance to nearby spaces for physical practice [12], students are educated on the necessity of protecting and preserving the environment for future generations.
Sustainability is framed in this context as the integration of more practical and sustainable practices into the education system. However, a review of the existing literature reveals that no clear and universally accepted definition of sustainability exists within the field of physical education [13,14]. Despite this, it is widely recognized that physical education has a strong scientific basis that supports its role as one of the most effective methods for promoting sustainability and advancing the implementation of the SDGs [15]. The intersection between physical education and sustainability highlights the importance of providing students with the necessary skills to contribute meaningfully to sustainable development. By fostering a holistic understanding of health, wellness, and environmental stewardship, physical education can play a fundamental role in achieving the SDGs and promoting a sustainable future.
Extracurricular PA, which refers to all physical activities performed outside school hours that complement in-school activities, also plays an important role in advancing the SDGs [16]. Of the 17 SDGs, extracurricular PA can contribute to at least four of them in relation to the concept of sustainability. Physical activity is important for the physical, psychological, social, and cognitive health of school-age children and youth, directly contributing to SDG 3, “Health and well-being”. Guidelines based on WHO recommendations emphasize the importance of PA, supporting its inclusion in public health agendas to enhance the overall health of children and adolescents [17,18,19]. In addition to health benefits, extracurricular PA has been shown to positively impact cognitive function, leading to improved AA, which aligns with SDG 4, “Quality education”. Studies indicate that regular engagement in PA fosters neurophysiological and neurochemical changes that enhance the brain’s function and structure, improving students’ learning experiences and academic performance [20]. Furthermore, extracurricular PA contributes to SDG 5, “Gender equality”, by promoting inclusive and adaptive activities that encourage equal participation for all students, regardless of gender. Adjustments in sports rules or the introduction of new activities can ensure that gender equality is maintained in both students’ participation and opportunities [21,22]. Finally, extracurricular PA supports SDG 13, “Climate action”, by incorporating sustainable practices such as using eco-friendly materials in sports and promoting sustainable mobility options like cycling or walking. These activities not only enhance physical health but also instill environmental stewardship and sustainable living values among students [23].
Although physical education is not the only context in which young people practice PA, the goals achieved through PA are equally applicable to extracurricular PA. Numerous studies have highlighted the benefits of PA, which are similar to those of PE, including the promotion of healthy lifestyle habits, improved AA, and overall well-being [24]. Therefore, the goals of PE are equally relevant and applicable to extracurricular PA.
Given the critical role that education plays in addressing global challenges and promoting sustainable development, it is essential to understand how extracurricular PA influences AA. Despite the well-documented benefits of PA, there remains a lack of a comprehensive understanding of the specific factors that mediate the relationship between extracurricular PA and AA among school-aged students. Addressing this gap is important for several reasons. First, improving AA through extracurricular PA can contribute to the broader educational goal of quality education (SDG 4) by improving students’ cognitive function and learning outcomes. Second, by identifying effective strategies for extracurricular PA, educators can better promote health and well-being (SDG 3) by ensuring that students develop healthy lifestyle habits that benefit their physical and mental health. Third, promoting gender equality (SDG 5) through inclusive and adaptable extracurricular activities can create equitable opportunities for all students. Finally, incorporating sustainable practices in the EPA aligns with climate action (SDG 13) by instilling environmental stewardship among students. Therefore, this systematic review aims to fill a critical research gap by providing valuable information that can inform educational policies and practices, ultimately contributing to the promotion of multiple SDGs and the creation of a more sustainable and equitable future.
Therefore, this systematic review delves into the study of the relationship between extracurricular physical activity (PA) and academic achievement (AA), and its alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) among students aged 3–16 years.

2. Materials and Methods

The Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement [25] was used to conduct this systematic review.

2.1. Search Strategy and Quality Assessment of Studies

Observational and experimental studies produced up to 15 May 2024 that reported mediation analyses including PA as an independent variable and AA-related variables as outcomes were independently identified. The search was conducted in Medline/PubMed, Web of Science, and ERIC using a search strategy that included the following terms and Boolean operators: (“extracurricular physical activity” OR “extracurricular sports” OR “extracurricular exercise” OR “school sports activities” OR “physical exercise” OR “physical activity” OR “team sports” OR “individual sports” OR “football” OR “basketball” OR “rugby” OR “team sports”) AND (“academic achievement” OR “academic attainment” OR “academic success” OR “school performance “OR” cognition) AND (“ESO” OR “secondary students” OR “SEM” OR “Mediation analysis” “Regression models” “secondary school pupils” OR “compulsory secondary education” OR “high school” OR “adolescent” OR “teenagers” OR “athletes”). Initially, the titles of all pertinent articles were examined, followed by an evaluation of their abstracts and the full text of published papers to determine their eligibility for inclusion. Only peer-reviewed articles were included in this systematic review. The procedure was independently performed by two authors. Any discrepancies regarding the study criteria between the reviewers were resolved through consensus with a third author. Articles written in both English and Spanish were included. Figure 1 illustrates the search procedure.

2.2. Study Selection Criteria

The PICOS method was used to assess the eligibility of the studies [25]. Table 1 lists the relevant inclusion/exclusion criteria used in the current systematic review.

2.3. Data Extraction

For study selection, a review of all relevant article titles was initially conducted, followed by an examination of the abstracts, and, subsequently, the full-text articles. The review process was independently performed by two authors. Any discrepancies between the reviewers regarding study eligibility were resolved by consensus with a third author. Excluded full-text articles, along with the reasons for exclusion, were recorded. Data extraction was independently carried out by two authors using a form created in Microsoft Excel v. 16.88 (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA). Both reviewers independently performed the data extraction from the selected articles.

Quality Assessment

The methodological qualities of the included studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies [26]. This tool assesses 14 criteria for intervention and longitudinal studies, and 11 criteria for cross-sectional studies. The tool does not rely on a strict numerical threshold to classify studies as “good”, “fair”, or “poor”. Instead, the classification is based on a qualitative judgment that considers both the number of criteria met and the importance of criteria not met.
Good: Studies classified as “good” met most of the criteria, with minor limitations that would probably not seriously affect the validity of the results.
Fair: Studies classified as “fair” had some limitations that could introduce bias, but these limitations were not considered serious enough to invalidate the results. This category indicates a moderate risk of bias.
Poor: studies classified as “poor” had several important limitations that introduced a high risk of bias, making the results potentially unreliable.
Each study was assessed independently by two reviewers, and any discrepancies were resolved by discussion or by consulting a third reviewer. The final ranking was based on an overall judgment of study quality, considering both the number and severity of criteria not met.

3. Results

3.1. Study Selection

The electronic searches initially identified a total of 2068 references. After removing the duplicates, 1643 unique records remained. A two-step screening process was employed: first, preliminary screening based on the titles and keywords was performed to quickly exclude studies that were clearly irrelevant to the scope of this review. This significantly reduced the number of records. Following this, the remaining records were screened based on their abstracts, leading to the exclusion of 1323 records that did not meet the inclusion criteria or were outside the scope of the research question. Then, 98 full-text articles were thoroughly assessed for their eligibility according to the predefined criteria. Finally, 15 articles were deemed eligible and included in the final synthesis [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41]. Figure 1 illustrates the entire selection process.

3.2. Quality Assessment

Twelve of the 15 studies were rated as being good quality [28,30,31,32,33,34,36,37,38,39,40,41], while three studies were rated as being of fair quality [27,29,35]. All studies formulated their investigation questions and analyses within the framework of established theoretical models or provided a clear justification for their mediation studies. These justifications were supported by prior evidence, substantiating the proposed relationships between the exposure and outcome variables, exposure and mediator variables, and mediator and outcome variables (Table 2).

3.3. Characteristics of the Included Studies

The 15 selected studies, published between 2014 and 2024, included 75,237 children and adolescents aged 4 to 16 years (Table 3). Nine of the studies were cross-sectional [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27], four were longitudinal [36,37,38,39] (with follow-up durations ranging from 7 months to 3 years), and two were experimental [40,41]. The sample sizes ranged from 138 to 17,328 participants. The majority of the studies were part of larger longitudinal and clinical trials.

3.4. Physical Activity and Academic Achievement Results

This section presents a detailed analysis of the mediating variables between PA and AA based on the results shown in Table 4. In six studies, physical activity was measured using monitors [31,32,35,38,39,41]. Only one study measured PA using both monitors and self-reports [31]. Other studies did not quantify the amount of PA but instead reported on sports participation [37], exercise behaviors [38,39], and self-reported MVPA [31,33] using Likert scale items. Moreover, three studies assessed compliance with PA recommendations [31,32,33]. The experimental studies included two school-based PA interventions aimed at increasing PA as part of the mandatory school curriculum, compared to regular activity, with durations of seven months [41] and six months [40], respectively.
Cognitive processes such as cognitive self-regulation, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, attention, and working memory were identified as key mediators in several studies. Kyan et al. [29] reported that cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) mediated the association between PA and AA in boys, indicating that better aerobic fitness is related to improvements in cognitive functions that influence academic performance. Van Dijk et al. [32] demonstrated that executive function, in particular inhibition and attention, mediated the relationship between PA and AA, confirming that improvements in executive function resulting from physical activity positively impact academic outcomes. However, Aadland et al. [36,41], in longitudinal and experimental studies, did not identify mediating effects of executive function on AA.
Psychological factors such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, and school-related well-being were found to mediate the PA–AA relationship. Suchert et al. [30] identified self-efficacy as a significant mediator, with their results showing that participation in physical activities improves students’ perception of their own abilities, which directly translates into better academic performance. However, studies by Syväoja et al. [31] and Aadland et al. [41] found no consistent evidence that depression and other negative affective states play a mediating role in the PA–AA relationship.
Social factors, including health-related behaviors, sleep patterns, participation in group activities, and fitness and adiposity, were confirmed as mediators. Syväoja et al. [31] found that bedtime mediated the relationship between PA and AA in girls, confirming that adequate sleep plays a crucial role in how physical activity influences academic performance. In addition, Wang et al. [33] reported that a healthy lifestyle mediated the relationship between PE curriculum implementation and mathematics performance, demonstrating that healthy behaviors enhance the effects of physical activity on academic performance. Regarding fitness and adiposity, Ishihara et al. [27] confirmed that CRF significantly mediated the relationship between PA and AA, while body mass index (BMI) showed mixed results, mediating the relationship in girls but not in boys. These findings establish that overall physical fitness and adiposity status play an important role in academic performance, influencing social participation and self-image.

4. Discussion

4.1. Key Findings and SDG Implications

This study systematically examined factors influencing the AP of school-aged students participating in extracurricular physical activities. The key findings were: (1) AP was the only variable to which most studies attributed a statistically significant mediating role; (2) the variables of cognition and body composition showed contradictory results; and (3) evidence was scarce for mental well-being and behavioral mechanisms.
Recent research has indicated that PA results in cognitive advantages, which subsequently enhance AP [42]. It has been proposed that the impact of PA on AA is attributed to PA-induced enhancements in brain regions linked to cognition [38], particularly executive function, due to elevating neurotransmitter levels and modifying the regulation of neurotrophins [43,44]. Furthermore, neuroimaging studies have reported brain changes following individual exercise sessions or regular exercise [45,46]. This theory was corroborated by two of the cross-sectional studies that were examined [32,35]. Nevertheless, longitudinal and experimental research conducted by Aadland et al. [36,41] did not identify significant mediating effects on executive function. The incorporated studies of cognitive mediators varied significantly in their measures of PA, AA, and cognitive testing. More importantly, they differed in study design, with one experimental study reporting no significant findings [41]. Moreover, the cross-sectional designs of the reviewed studies prevent the inference of causality and directionality. Furthermore, PA may influence AA through specific cognitive groups, but not through others [33,34]. Therefore, additional research is required to clarify which specific cognitive functions mediate this relationship, including the interactions among physiological variables. Cognitive functions follow different developmental trajectories [47]; therefore, the connections of each cognitive function with PA and AA might differ depending on age [33,34].
Research has shown that PA enhances personal competence, self-worth, and overall quality of life, which subsequently impact AA. In this study, self-worth, body weight, and personal competence were identified as potential mediators in the PA–AA relationship. Additionally, stress and behavioral problems [33,34] were found to be significant mediators. However, other studies did not support the mediating effects of depression [30] or school-related quality of life [41]. These findings relatively reinforce the view that PA can enhance mood and overall health. Nevertheless, due to the cross-sectional designs of many of the reviewed studies, the directionality of these relationships cannot be determined, and alternative causal pathways should be considered. In addition, PA improves confidence in performing specific activities, which generalizes to other domains [48]. However, it is important to note that these hypotheses were mainly supported by cross-sectional studies and only one longitudinal study, while one experimental study did not confirm the mediating role of school well-being [41]. Furthermore, studies in this field exhibit considerable heterogeneity in their sample sizes, measures, methods, and designs, preventing definitive conclusions. Given these results, the evidence suggests that mental health factors may mediate the effect of PA on AA. Nonetheless, multiple mediators were identified in this study, indicating the need for more longitudinal and cumulative experimental evidence. The specific mental health variables that mediate this association remain unidentified. Additionally, adequate control for age, gender, and socioeconomic characteristics is necessary. Another promising area for future research is the role of peer relationships, social engagement, and feelings of belonging fostered through PA.
Concerning adiposity, the available studies are limited and exhibit heterogeneity in their results and designs. One longitudinal study reported a significant mediating effect in both sexes [49], while a cross-sectional study focused exclusively on girls [27]. However, two cross-sectional studies [28,31] and another longitudinal study [40] indicate a detrimental effect of adiposity on AP. Several factors could explain the inconsistency of these findings, including methodological differences between the studies and the possibility that PA and adiposity are independent predictors of AP, with adiposity serving as a confounding factor rather than a mediator. Obesity may have a more pronounced impact on girls’ self-esteem compared to that of boys’, potentially accounting for the stronger negative association between body fatness and AP in girls [50]. Consequently, longitudinal and experimental studies are necessary to investigate both the direct and indirect effects of adiposity on AP, as well as the potential moderating role of gender.
These findings have significant implications for the SDGs. The relationship between PA and health supports SDG 3 (Health and Well-Being). Regular physical activity promotes the adoption of healthy habits (proper nutrition, improved daily routines, better sleep, etc.) and contributes to better mental health and overall well-being among students, a key aspect in improving AP [51]. Additionally, the benefits of PA on AP are aligned with SDG 4 (Quality Education), suggesting that integrating PA programs in schools can enhance AP and overall well-being. The need for more longitudinal and experimental research to better understand these relationships also relates to SDG 4, emphasizing the need to improve focus and increase quality and equity in education [52]. Finally, gender differences in adiposity and its impact on self-esteem and AP highlight the importance of considering SDGs 5 (Gender Equality) and 10 (Reducing Inequalities), and ensuring that research and policies account for socioeconomic and gender differences to avoid exacerbating existing disparities [53]. Furthermore, promoting PA among students can indirectly influence SDG 13 (Climate Action) by encouraging sustainable lifestyle habits and reducing the use of motorized transport, thereby decreasing their carbon footprint and promoting a healthier and greener lifestyle [54].

4.2. Limitations and Future Research

In the present systematic review, interesting results were observed, but they should be interpreted with some caution given the limitations found.
Firstly, the synthesis of evidence was limited to narrative descriptions due to the variety of mediators and analytical techniques employed in the reviewed studies. Additionally, the non-homogeneous statistical approaches prevented the comparison of the magnitudes of the mediating effects, and the evidence often relied on tests of statistical significance, highlighting the need for future studies to compare the magnitudes of these effects. The variability in covariates across studies also makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions, emphasizing the need to examine significant moderators.
Related to the above, an example of a limitation found is the difference in how physical activity was measured among the students. Some studies used monitors, others used self-reported questionnaires, some only considered sports participation, and very few combined multiple systems to obtain more reliable data. In addition to the heterogeneity in measurement, in most cases, the information was not obtained in real time, and perhaps other means of collecting this information should be incorporated to increase its reliability. Furthermore, in the studies that analyzed body composition, BMI was used. It is important to note that BMI is used in adults, and in school-aged children, it should be calculated based on the child’s age and percentiles.
Finally, most of the studies were cross-sectional in design, which prevents establishing causal relationships and limits the interpretation of preliminary events. For example, the studies did not account for adherence to physical activity, which is a key aspect in obtaining its benefits.
Future research should focus on addressing the limitations identified in this study. For example, a longitudinal and experimental approach to investigating the relationship between the impact of extracurricular physical activity on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and academic performance would help clarify whether there is a true connection between them. Additionally, it is recommended that these studies use qualitative techniques, such as interviews or focus groups, to obtain more reliable data. Furthermore, if more specific data, such as body composition, are collected, it would be advisable to include a qualified dietitian or the appropriate professional in the research team.

5. Conclusions

This systematic review highlights the complex interplay of factors influencing AP among school-aged students who participate in extracurricular physical activities. The review identified that AP is consistently influenced by extracurricular PA, with most studies attributing a significant mediating role to this variable. However, evidence related to cognitive and adiposity variables yielded mixed results, and evidence on mental well-being and behavioral mechanisms is scarce.
Based on the findings of this research, we know that students who engage in extracurricular PA improve their executive function, a key aspect of AP. Additionally, physical activity is essential for the development of healthy habits, which also enhance academic performance. As observed in the reviewed studies, AP is related to aspects such as improved sleep quality, proper self-perception (self-concept), and reduced stress, all of which provide a healthier and more balanced study environment. These results suggest that, although physical activity has clear benefits for AP, the specific pathways and mediating factors of this relationship require further investigation.
The results of this review have significant implications for educational policies which aim to promote the SDGs. The positive effects of physical activity on mental well-being and AP support SDG 3 (Health and Well-Being) and SDG 4 (Quality Education), respectively. Gender differences in the impact of adiposity on AP highlight the importance of SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 10 (Reducing Inequalities). Additionally, promoting physical activity outside the school setting can contribute to SDG 13 (Climate Action) by encouraging sustainable lifestyle habits.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.Z.-P., V.B. and A.G.-L.; methodology, J.Z.-P., V.B. and A.G.-L.; formal analysis, A.R.-M., E.M.-P. and O.V.-G.; investigation, J.Z.-P., E.M.-P. and O.V.-G.; data curation, A.R.-M., E.M.-P. and O.V.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Z.-P., V.B. and A.G.-L.; writing—review and editing, A.R.-M. and O.V.-G.; visualisation, J.Z.-P., V.B. and A.G.-L.; supervision, A.R.-M., E.M.-P. and O.V.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data is not unavailable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. United Nations. Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. N. Y. United Nations Dep. Econ. Soc. Aff. 2015, 1, 41. [Google Scholar]
  2. Baena-Morales, S.; Barrachina-Peris, J.; García-Martínez, S.; González-Víllora, S.; Ferriz-Valero, A. La Educación Física para el Desarrollo Sostenible: Un enfoque práctico para integrar la sostenibilidad desde la Educación Física. Rev. Española Educ. Física Deportes 2023, 437, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Trudeau, F.; Shephard, R.J. Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2008, 5, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Westerterp, K.R. Physical activity and physical activity induced energy expenditure in humans: Measurement, determinants, and effects. Front. Physiol. 2013, 4, 90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Fierro-Suero, S.; Fernández-Ozcorta, E.J.; Sáenz-López, P. Students’ motivational and emotional experiences in physical education across profiles of extracurricular physical activity: The influence in the intention to be active. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 9539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Bali Swain, R.; Yang-Wallentin, F. Achieving sustainable development goals: Predicaments and strategies. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 2020, 27, 96–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Rieckmann, M. Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives; UNESCO Publishing: Paris, France, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  8. Pomohaci, M.; Sopa, I.S. Extracurricular sport activities and their importance in children socialization and integration process. Sci. Bull. 2017, 22, 46–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Holt, N.L.; Sehn, Z.L.; Spence, J.C.; Newton, A.S.; Ball, G.D. Physical education and sport programs at an inner city school: Exploring possibilities for positive youth development. Phys. Educ. Sport Pedagog. 2012, 17, 97–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Farias, C.; Hastie, P.A.; Mesquita, I. Towards a more equitable and inclusive learning environment in sport education: Results of an action research-based intervention. Sport Educ. Soc. 2017, 22, 460–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Duijvestijn, M.; de Wit, G.A.; van Gils, P.F.; Wendel-Vos, G.W. Impact of physical activity on healthcare costs: A systematic review. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2023, 23, 572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Barrachina, V.; Marcen, C.; Mainer-Pardos, E.; Arbones-Arque, I. Proximity Sports as a Sustainable Strategy for the Promotion of Physical Activity at an Early Age: The KIA Project. Sustainability 2023, 15, 12043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Baena-Morales, S.; González-Víllora, S. Physical education for sustainable development goals: Reflections and comments for contribution in the educational framework. Sport Educ. Soc. 2023, 28, 697–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Brandt, J.-O.; Bürgener, L.; Barth, M.; Redman, A. Becoming a competent teacher in education for sustainable development: Learning outcomes and processes in teacher education. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 2019, 20, 630–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Baena-Morales, S.; Prieto-Ayuso, A.; Merma-Molina, G.; González-Víllora, S. Exploring physical education teachers’ perceptions of sustainable development goals and education for sustainable development. Sport Educ. Soc. 2024, 29, 162–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Llanos-Muñoz, R.; Vaquero-Solís, M.; López-Gajardo, M.Á.; Sánchez-Miguel, P.A.; Tapia-Serrano, M.Á.; Leo, F.M. Intervention programme based on self-determination theory to promote extracurricular physical activity through physical education in primary school: A study protocol. Children 2023, 10, 504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Caspersen, C.J.; Powell, K.E.; Christenson, G.M. Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: Definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep. 1985, 100, 126. [Google Scholar]
  18. Janssen, I.; LeBlanc, A.G. Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2010, 7, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Tremblay, M.S.; Kho, M.E.; Tricco, A.C.; Duggan, M. Process description and evaluation of Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines development. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2010, 7, 42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Doherty, A.; Forés, A. Actividad física y cognición: Inseparables en el aula. J. Neuroeduc. 2020, 1, 66–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Hortigüela Alcalá, D.; Hernando Garijo, A. El trabajo coeducativo y la igualdad de género desde la formación inicial en educación física. Contextos Educ. Rev. Educ. 2018, 21, 67–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Rodríguez, L.R.; Gómez, E.M. Propuesta de igualdad de género en Educación Física: Adaptaciones de las normas en fútbol. Retos Nuevas Tend. Educ. Física Deporte Recreación 2018, 33, 293–297. [Google Scholar]
  23. Woodcock, J.; Edwards, P.; Tonne, C.; Armstrong, B.G.; Ashiru, O.; Banister, D.; Beevers, S.; Chalabi, Z.; Chowdhury, Z.; Cohen, A. Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: Urban land transport. Lancet 2009, 374, 1930–1943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Galindo Melo, H.E.; García Díaz, J.A. Relación Entre La Práctica De Actividad Física Extracurricular Sobre El Rendimiento Académico De Los Educandos De Básica Secundaria. Ph.D. Thesis, Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios, Bogotá, Colombia, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  25. Liberati, A.; Altman, D.G.; Tetzlaff, J.; Mulrow, C.; Gøtzsche, P.C.; Ioannidis, J.P.; Clarke, M.; Devereaux, P.J.; Kleijnen, J.; Moher, D. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Ann. Intern. Med. 2009, 151, W-65–W-94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. National Institutes of Health. Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies. 2014. Available online: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-pro/guidelines/in-develop/cardiovascular-risk-reduction/tools/cohort (accessed on 16 March 2024).
  27. Ishihara, T.; Morita, N.; Nakajima, T.; Okita, K.; Sagawa, M.; Yamatsu, K. Modeling relationships of achievement motivation and physical fitness with academic performance in Japanese schoolchildren: Moderation by gender. Physiol. Behav. 2018, 194, 66–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ishihara, T.; Morita, N.; Nakajima, T.; Okita, K.; Yamatsu, K.; Sagawa, M. Direct and indirect relationships of physical fitness, weight status, and learning duration to academic performance in Japanese schoolchildren. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2018, 18, 286–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Kyan, A.; Takakura, M.; Miyagi, M. Mediating effect of aerobic fitness on the association between physical activity and academic achievement among adolescents: A cross-sectional study in Okinawa, Japan. J. Sports Sci. 2019, 37, 1242–1249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Suchert, V.; Hanewinkel, R.; Isensee, B. Longitudinal relationships of fitness, physical activity, and weight status with academic achievement in adolescents. J. Sch. Health 2016, 86, 734–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Syväoja, H.J.; Kankaanpää, A.; Kallio, J.; Hakonen, H.; Kulmala, J.; Hillman, C.H.; Pesonen, A.K.; Tammelin, T.H. The relation of physical activity, sedentary behaviors, and academic achievement is mediated by fitness and bedtime. J. Phys. Act. Health 2018, 15, 135–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Van Dijk, M.L.; De Groot, R.H.; Savelberg, H.H.; Van Acker, F.; Kirschner, P.A. The association between objectively measured physical activity and academic achievement in Dutch adolescents: Findings from the GOALS study. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2014, 36, 460–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Wang, Y.; Ma, X.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, L.; Yang, Z.; Yang, T.; Li, Y. Relationship of physical education curriculum implementation and mathematics achievement in Chinese youth. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 2019, 90, 133–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Zhang, Y.; Niu, L.; Zhang, D.; Ip, P.; Ho, F.; Jiang, Y.; Sun, W.; Zhu, Q.; Jiang, F. Social-emotional functioning explains the effects of physical activity on academic performance among Chinese primary school students: A mediation analysis. J. Pediatr. 2019, 208, 74–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Becker, D.R.; McClelland, M.M.; Loprinzi, P.; Trost, S.G. Physical activity, self-regulation, and early academic achievement in preschool children. Early Educ. Dev. 2014, 25, 56–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Aadland, K.N.; Ommundsen, Y.; Aadland, E.; Brønnick, K.S.; Lervåg, A.; Resaland, G.K.; Moe, V.F. Executive functions do not mediate prospective relations between indices of physical activity and academic performance: The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) study. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Ishihara, T.; Nakajima, T.; Yamatsu, K.; Okita, K.; Sagawa, M.; Morita, N. Relationship of participation in specific sports to academic performance in adolescents: A 2-year longitudinal study. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2020, 30, 1471–1482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Lima, R.A.; Pfeiffer, K.A.; Møller, N.C.; Andersen, L.B.; Bugge, A. Physical activity and sedentary time are positively associated with academic performance: A 3-year longitudinal study. J. Phys. Act. Health 2019, 16, 177–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Vedøy, I.B.; Skulberg, K.R.; Anderssen, S.A.; Tjomsland, H.E.; Thurston, M. Physical activity and academic achievement among Norwegian adolescents: Findings from a longitudinal study. Prev. Med. Rep. 2021, 21, 101312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Lubans, D.R.; Beauchamp, M.R.; Diallo, T.M.; Peralta, L.R.; Bennie, A.; White, R.L.; Owen, K.; Lonsdale, C. School physical activity intervention effect on adolescents’ performance in mathematics. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2018, 50, 2442–2450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Aadland, K.N.; Aadland, E.; Andersen, J.R.; Lervåg, A.; Moe, V.F.; Resaland, G.K.; Ommundsen, Y. Executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and school related well-being did not mediate the effect of school-based physical activity on academic performance in numeracy in 10-year-old children. The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) study. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9, 245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Lightfoot, J.T. The McArdle’s Mouse Model: Providing Important Insight into Skeletal Muscle Regulation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2016, 48, 1447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Diamond, A.B. The cognitive benefits of exercise in youth. Transl. J. Am. Coll. Sports Med. 2016, 1, 145–151. [Google Scholar]
  44. Chaddock, L.; Pontifex, M.B.; Hillman, C.H.; Kramer, A.F. A review of the relation of aerobic fitness and physical activity to brain structure and function in children. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2011, 17, 975–985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Esteban-Cornejo, I.; Tejero-González, C.M.; Martinez-Gomez, D.; del-Campo, J.; González-Galo, A.; Padilla-Moledo, C.; Sallis, J.F.; Veiga, O.L.; UP & DOWN Study Group. Independent and combined influence of the components of physical fitness on academic performance in youth. J. Pediatr. 2014, 165, 306–312.e302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Valkenborghs, S.R.; Noetel, M.; Hillman, C.H.; Nilsson, M.; Smith, J.J.; Ortega, F.B.; Lubans, D.R. The impact of physical activity on brain structure and function in youth: A systematic review. Pediatrics 2019, 144, e20184032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Best, J.R.; Miller, P.H. A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Dev. 2010, 81, 1641–1660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Lubans, D.; Richards, J.; Hillman, C.; Faulkner, G.; Beauchamp, M.; Nilsson, M.; Kelly, P.; Smith, J.; Raine, L.; Biddle, S. Physical activity for cognitive and mental health in youth: A systematic review of mechanisms. Pediatrics 2016, 138, e20161642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Davies, K.A.B.; Sprung, V.S.; Norman, J.A.; Thompson, A.; Mitchell, K.L.; Harrold, J.A.; Finlayson, G.; Gibbons, C.; Wilding, J.P.; Kemp, G.J. Physical activity and sedentary time: Association with metabolic health and liver fat. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2019, 51, 1169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Hillman, C.H.; Erickson, K.I.; Kramer, A.F. Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9, 58–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Waclawovsky, A.J.; Santos, E.B.d.; Schuch, F.B. Atividade física e saúde mental durante a pandemia da COVID-19: Uma revisão rápida de estudos epidemiológicos brasileiros. Rev. Bras. Psicoter. Online 2021, 23, 143–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Valente, S.; Dominguez-Lara, S.; Lourenço, A. Planning Time Management in School Activities and Relation to Procrastination: A Study for Educational Sustainability. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Lozano, S.J.; Palomares, A.G. “ODS 5. Igualdad de género” y Educación Física: Propuesta de intervención mediante los deportes alternativos. Retos Nuevas Tend. Educ. Física Deporte Recreación 2023, 49, 595–602. [Google Scholar]
  54. Mikiki, F.; Oikonomou, A.; Katartzi, E. Sustainable mobility issues of physically active university students: The case of Serres, Greece. Future Transp. 2021, 1, 777–793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 16 07238 g001
Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart for study inclusion and exclusion.
Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart for study inclusion and exclusion.
Sustainability 16 07238 g001
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
CategoryInclusion CriteriaExclusion Criteria
PopulationHealthy children and adolescents in the age of development, from 4 to 18 years.Adult populations, including those with developmental disabilities, cognitive delays, or deterioration.
Intervention/ExposureStudies that assessed PA exposure using monitor-based measurements or self-reports as independent variables, as well as studies that considered PA participation, sports involvement, exercise behavior, and the integration of PA into study protocols.Studies that did not assess PA exposure using monitor-based measurements or self-reports as independent variables, as well as studies that considered PA participation, sports involvement, exercise behavior, and the integration of PA into study protocols.
ComparatorAbsence of an active control group or other experimental group.Active control group or other experimental group.
OutcomeAA is assessed by curricular grades or a standardized test.Only achievement in the domain of physical education.
Study designInt., Long., and C-S studies that investigated the mediating variables between PA and AA using regression-based models, including mediation analysis, structural equation modeling, or multiple regression analysis.Review articles, validation studies, meta-analyses, conference abstracts, dissertations, monographs, theses, commentaries, or brief reports.
AA: academic achievement; C-S: cross-sectional; Int.: intervention; Long.: longitudinal; PA: physical activity.
Table 2. Quality assessment tool for observational cohort and cross-sectional studies.
Table 2. Quality assessment tool for observational cohort and cross-sectional studies.
Reference1234567891011121314Total
[27]YesYesNoYesN/DCDN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesFr
[28]YesYesNoYesN/DYesN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesGd
[29]YesYesCDYesN/DNoN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesFr
[30]YesYesYesYesN/DCDN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesGd
[31]YesYesYesYesN/DCDN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesGd
[32]YesYesYesYesN/DYesN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesGd
[33]YesYesYesYesN/DNoN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesGd
[34]YesYesYesYesYesCDN/AYesYesN/AYesN/DN/AYesGd
[35]YesYesCDYesN/DNoN/AYesYesN/AYesNoN/ANoFr
[36]YesYesYesYesN/DCDN/AYesYesN/AYesYesN/AYesGd
[37]YesYesYesYesN/DYesN/AYesYesYesYesN/DYesYesGd
[38]YesYesCDYesN/DYesYesYesYesYesYesN/DCDYesGd
[39]YesYesYesYesN/DYesYesYesYesYesYesN/DYesYesGd
[40]YesYesNoYesN/DYesYesYesN/DN/DYesYesYesYesGd
[41]YesYesNoCDCDYesYesCDCDN/DYesYesYesYesGd
CD: cannot be determined; Fr: fair; Gd: good; N/A: not applicable; N/D: not documented.
Table 3. Characteristics of studies included.
Table 3. Characteristics of studies included.
ReferenceCountryStudy Design (Follow-Up)N (% Women)Age [Mean (SD)/R]
[27]JPC-S325 (47.07)12–13
[28]JPC-S274 (41.97)12–13
[29]JPC-S608 (46.25)12–13
[30]GC-S1101 (n/i)14.1 (0.6)
[31]FIC-S970 (53.3)12.5 (1.3)
[32]NLC-S255 (54.5)13.0 (1.08)
[33]CNC-S22,619 (48.7)13.9 (0.64)
[34]CNC-S17,318 (46.6)12.8 (0.5)
[35]USC-S2.452 (57.3)14.4 (1.15)
[36]NOLong. (7 months)1129 (47.9)10.2 (0.3)
[37]JPLong. (2 yrs)463 (49)12–13
[38]DKLong. (3 yrs)902 (55.8)9.86 (0.39)
[39]NOLong. (3 yrs)599 (54.4)13.3 (0.3)
[40]AUExp.1173 (44.5), CG: 589; EG: 58412.9 (0.54)
[41]NOExp.360 (49.2), CG: 171; EG: 18910.2 (0.31)
AU: Australia; CG: control group; CN: China; C-S: cross-sectional; DK: Denmark; EG: experimental group; Exp.: experimental; FI: Finland; G: Germany; JP: Japan; Long.: longitudinal; N: sample size; NL: Netherlands; NO: Norway; R: range, when the mean age was not reported, the data are presented as age range; SD: standard deviation; US: United States.
Table 4. Mediation analysis of the relationship between physical activity and academic enhancement.
Table 4. Mediation analysis of the relationship between physical activity and academic enhancement.
ReferencePhysical ActivityMediatorResults (Subjects)Measurement MethodCovariatesMediation Analysis Rasults
[27]Exercise habit (self-reported questionnaire)BMI, CRF (20-m shuttle run test)GPA (8 subjects)SEMGender, Socioeconomic Level, Motivation, Screen TimeCRF mediated the association between exercise habit and AA. BMI mediated the association between exercise habit and AA in girls, but not in boys.
[28]Exercise habit (self-reported questionnaire)Physical fitness index (50-m sprint, standing long jump, repeated side steps, forward bend, sit-ups, grip strength, handball throw, and 20-m shuttle run). BMI, Learning duration (questionnaire)GPA (8 subjects)SEMGender, Socioeconomic LevelPhysical fitness served as a mediator in the relationship between exercise and AA. In contrast, learning durations and body mass index (BMI) did not mediate the association between PA and AA.
[29]Compliance with MVPA recommendations, minimum of 60 min of MVPA per day of the weekCRF (20-m shuttle run test)GPA (5 subjects)Mediation analysisBMI, SES, MotivationCRF mediated the association between PA and AA in boys, but not in girls.
[30]Compliance with WHO PA recommendations, minimum of 60 min of MVPA per day (self-reported questionnaire, 2 items)Depression (subscale of “depressed affect”, CES-DC), Hyperactivity and inattention problems (SDQ), Self-efficacy (Schwarzer and Jerusalem scale)GPA (2 subjects)Mediation analysisGender, Age, SESSelf-efficacy mediated the relationship between PA and AA, whereas attention, hyperactivity, inattention problems, and depressed affect did not.
[31]MVPA days per week with ≥60 min of MVPA (self-reported questionnaire)CRF (20-m shuttle run test). Body fat percentage (InBody 720). Bedtime (self-reported questionnaire).GGPA (11 subjects)SEMAge, Gender, SES, Learning Difficulties, Pubertal StageCRF mediated the association between MVPA and AA. Body fat percentage did not influence the associations between PA and AA. Bedtime mediated the association between self-reported MVPA and AA in girls, but not in boys.
[32]Total PA, steps per week. MVPA per week, steps per week with a cadence of ≥100 steps/min (Accelerometers, ActiPAL3)EF: inhibition and attention (d2 Test of Attention)GPA (3 subjects)Multiple linear regressionGender, Nationality, Academic Course, School Level, SES, Pubertal Stage, Self-esteem, DepressionEF influenced the association between PA and AA.
[33]Implementation of PE curriculum in school (self-reported)CRF (PACER of 15 m). Interest in PE (self-reported, 3 items). Maths self-confidence (self-reported, 3 items). Healthy lifestyle (self-reported, 6 items, personal hygiene and diet habits)Maths AA (test books)SEMGender, SES, School Location, BMICRF mediated the association between the implementation of the PE curriculum and AA in maths. Interest in PE and healthy lifestyle mediated the association between PA and AA through interest in PE and maths self-confidence.
[34]MVPA, min/day (Chinese version of the Children’s Leisure Activities Study Questionnaire)Socioemotional and behavioral functioning (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, parent-reported)AA, score (adapted School Achievement Form by Teacher Oliviero Bruni)SEMGender, SES, AgeBehavioral problems, hyperactivity and inattention, and peer problems mediated the association between MVPA and AA.
[35]Active play during Recess, minutes (ActiGraph GT1M)Cognitive self-regulation EF: Inhibition and attention (Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task, HTKS)Literacy achievement Maths and literacy (Identification of letter-word and applied problems; Woodcock-Johnson III Psycho-Educational Battery Achievement Tests)SEMAge, Gender, SES, Learning Difficulties, Pubertal StageCognitive self-regulation mediated the relationship between active play and literacy achievement EF mediated the relationship between active play and AA in maths and literacy.
[36]Total PA, cpm (Accelerometer, ActiGraph GT3X)EF as a single latent factor: Inhibition, flexibility and working memory (Stroop Test task and colour-word, CV, total verbal fluency, Digits Backwards from WISC-IV; Trail Making Test Part B, TMT-B)Scores in numeracy, reading, and English (Norwegian National Standardised Tests, NDET)SEMAge, Gender, SES, Pubertal Stage, Body FatEF did not measure the relationship between PA and AA.
[37]Sports participation (self-reported questionnaire)CRF (20-m shuttle run test)GPA (5 subjects)SEMCRF mediated the associations between PA and AA.Gender, SES, Cultural Activities, BMI, After-school Habits, Screen Time, Exercise HabitsCRF mediated the associations between PA and AA.
[38]MVPA, min/day (Accelerometer, ActiGraph GT3X)Waist circumference, cmGPA (2 subjects, national standardised tests)SEMAge, Gender, SES, Learning Difficulties, Height, Pubertal Stage, Physical DisabilitiesWaist circumference mediated the association between MVPA and AA.
[39]Total PA, cpm. MVPA, cpm (Accelerometer ActiGraph GT3X+ and GT3X+bt)Waist circumference, cm. Sleep duration, hours (self-reported)GPAMediation analysisGender, BMI, SESNeither waist circumference nor sleep duration mediated the relationship between PA and AA.
[40]Activity and Motivation in Physical Education (AMPED), a school-based PA intervention to improve motivation in PE lessons and maximise MVPA opportunities. Duration: 6 monthsMVPA in PE, cpm. MVPA in leisure time (accelerometer, ActiGraph GT3X+), Maths engagement (School Engagement Scale)Maths AA (National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy, NAPLAN)Simple and multiple mediation modelsGender, Age, SES, Body WeightNeither maths engagement, MVPA in leisure time, nor MVPA in PE mediated the associations between PA and AA in maths in single or multiple mediation models.
[41]Active Smarter Kids (ASK) intervention, with three components (165 min/week): Physically active educational lessons (3 × 30 min/week) in subjects; PA breaks (5 min/day school); PA tasks (10 min/day school). Intervention and control school children. control participated in 90 min/week of physical education prescribed by the curriculum and 45 min/week of PA (total of 135 min/week). Duration: 7 monthsEF as a single latent factor: Inhibition, flexibility and working memory (Color and Word Stroop Test; Total Verbal Fluency; Trail Making Test, TMT; Digits Backward and Forward, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, WISC-IV); Classroom behavioral self-regulation (Teacher Report Form of the Child Behavior Rating Scale, CBRS) School-related well-being (Kidscreen-27 Questionnaire)AA in numeracy (Norwegian National Standardised Tests, NDET)SEMBMI, SES, Pubertal StageNeither EF, classroom behavioral self-regulation, nor school-related well-being influenced the impact of the intervention on AA.
AA: academic achievement; BMI: body mass index; CRF: cardiorespiratory fitness; cpm: counts per minute; EF: executive function; GPA: grade point average; MVPA: moderate to vigorous physical activity; PA: physical activity; PE: physical education; SEM: structural equation modelling; SES: socioeconomic status.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zarazaga-Peláez, J.; Barrachina, V.; Gutiérrez-Logroño, A.; Villanueva-Guerrero, O.; Roso-Moliner, A.; Mainer-Pardos, E. Impact of Extracurricular Physical Activity on Achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and Academic Performance: Mediating Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Factors. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7238. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167238

AMA Style

Zarazaga-Peláez J, Barrachina V, Gutiérrez-Logroño A, Villanueva-Guerrero O, Roso-Moliner A, Mainer-Pardos E. Impact of Extracurricular Physical Activity on Achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and Academic Performance: Mediating Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Factors. Sustainability. 2024; 16(16):7238. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167238

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zarazaga-Peláez, Jorge, Valentina Barrachina, Alejandra Gutiérrez-Logroño, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero, Alberto Roso-Moliner, and Elena Mainer-Pardos. 2024. "Impact of Extracurricular Physical Activity on Achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and Academic Performance: Mediating Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Factors" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7238. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167238

APA Style

Zarazaga-Peláez, J., Barrachina, V., Gutiérrez-Logroño, A., Villanueva-Guerrero, O., Roso-Moliner, A., & Mainer-Pardos, E. (2024). Impact of Extracurricular Physical Activity on Achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and Academic Performance: Mediating Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Factors. Sustainability, 16(16), 7238. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167238

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop