Towards Mitigating Climate Change Negative Impact: The Role of Regulations and Governance in the Construction Industry

Abstract

Climate change is a significant challenge in today’s world. The construction industry is one of the most energy-intensive and raw material-depleting sectors worldwide. Legal regulations, such as laws, building codes, and alternative governance, are effective ways to help mitigate climate change risks. Most of the research focuses on either one country’s policies in the construction industry towards climate change or one type of regulation across various countries. Therefore, the objective of this study is to explore and compare various kinds of regulations, namely policies and laws, green codes, and green building rating systems, in three countries: Egypt, the UAE, and the United States, representing different country profiles from different continents. Sources from credible journal papers, conference proceedings, and theses dissertations were used to explore the most recent practices in these countries. It was found that Egypt is the least effective country in enforcing actions towards the climate crisis. There is a gap between the UAE’s actions and the nationally determined contribution target. Federal setbacks hinders the widespread adoption of green practices in the United States. Therefore, the key to effective approaches to combating climate change is enforcing inclusive laws, including all sustainability pillars, and having inclusive nationwide emissions targets in all sectors.

1. Introduction

1.1. Climate Change Background

Climate change is “a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional, and global climate” [1]. It is also defined as “long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns” [2]. Burning fossil fuels is the main driver of climate change because this action generates greenhouse gases [2]. Greenhouse gases absorb the sun’s heat, which is radiating from the Earth’s surface, keeping it from escaping to space. Therefore, the Earth’s temperature becomes higher [3]. The temperature on Earth is 1.1 °C warmer than it was before the industrial revolution in the 1800s. The last decade, from 2011 to 2020, is considered the warmest on record. That climate change does not only imply a warmer temperature, as the Earth is a system in which everything is interconnected, and any change in one area will affect the entire system [2]. The consequences of climate change include, but are not limited to, water scarcity, intense droughts, flooding, severe storms, and rising sea levels [2]. Since 1992, attempts have been made by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to prevent dangerous interference with the climate system by stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions and their atmospheric concentrations [4]. The most recent and binding endeavor is the Paris Agreement, in which 196 parties entered into a treaty to limit their greenhouse gas emissions to below 2 °C, preferably below 1.5 °C [4]. The distinguishing features of the Paris Agreement are that it sets an obligation to both developed and developing countries to lower their emissions, it obliges parties to report on their actions taken, and it starts a technical review process that ensures the implementation and achievements of the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) [4]. The Paris Agreement highlights that all parties should aim to reduce their emissions: the developed countries should continue to take the lead and support developing countries, and the developing countries should also reduce their emissions [4].

1.2. Construction Industry and Climate Change

The construction industry is an energy-intensive sector. It was responsible for 36% of final energy use in 2018 and 39% of carbon dioxide emissions attributed to energy- and process-related activities. Manufacturing building materials and products accounts for 11% of the aforementioned carbon dioxide emissions [5]. Different construction activities cause pollution, such as land clearing, demolition, the use of dangerous chemicals, and equipment’s engine emissions [6]. In Australia, direct greenhouse gases from the construction industry were 1.9% of the total country’s emissions in 2013, and the carbon footprint of the construction industry was about 18.1% of the country’s total emissions [6,7]. Residential housing construction in Australia accounted for about 21.5 Mt of total CO₂e, while non-residential housing, road, and bridge construction accounted for 8.9 Mt of CO₂e. Heavy civil engineering development accounted for 42.7 Mt of CO₂e [6,7]. Material production and material transportation in the construction process account for about 82–96% of the total CO₂ emissions [8]. In China, the carbon footprint of urban buildings reached 13.57 million tons in 2009, compared to 8.95 million tons in 2005. Specifically, 45% of the CO₂ was from material production, while 40% of the emissions came from building energy [8,9]. In Malaysia, 24% of CO₂ emissions are generated by the construction industry [10]. In India, around 53.4% of carbon emissions come from the construction industry. In Nigeria, construction and manufacturing industries’ emissions increased from 2557 to 23,714 Gg of CO₂e between 2000 and 2015, which is around an 827% increase [10]. In the European Union, buildings are responsible for about 40% of energy consumption and 36% of greenhouse gas emissions [11].

Concrete is the most widely used material worldwide. The primary binder in concrete is Portland cement, responsible for 80% of concrete’s CO₂ emissions [12]. The cement industry’s emissions contribute to 6–7% of the planet’s total emissions of CO₂. These figures are expected to be worse as the demand for Portland cement is expected to escalate by almost 200% by the year 2050 compared to levels in 2010, reaching 6000 million tons/year [12]. The construction industry also accounts for over 30% of natural resource extraction [13]. Aggregates are primary elements of the concrete mix, as they play a role in determining the concrete’s strength [14]. They account for 80 to 85% of typical concrete mixes. They are responsible for the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, as they could cause erosion of deltas and coastlines [14]. Fresh water is essential for mixing concrete constituents; it also affects its strength, workability, and durability. However, freshwater sources are currently under significant strain worldwide due to several factors, such as population growth, improved standards of living, and growing industrialization [15]. The construction sector is among the primary industries that consume water. The construction industry is responsible for 16% of water consumption worldwide [16]. In a construction project, workers’ consumption of water is around more than 50%, the direct water consumption of construction activities is 16.9%, and the indirect consumption of construction activities is around 25.2% [16,17]. In the European Union, the construction industry is responsible for the consumption of around one-third of the freshwater [18]. In China, the construction industry is considered the second-largest consumer of water, accounting for 18% of water consumption in the country [19,20]. The building industry consumes a global average of 30% of freshwater over its entire life cycle [21]. A standard concrete batch plant consumes 100 m³ of water on average daily for mixing the concrete [22], as cited by [15]. According to Miller et al., the global concrete consumption of global water was 16.6 Gm3 in 2012, based on a cradle-to-gate analysis equivalent to the domestic annual consumption of 145 million US residents [23]. Steel is also considered a higher consumer of water as it has a top value for water footprint in both blue and gray water footprint components [24]. Structural materials (steel and concrete) are responsible for 55.77% of the total water footprint of the structures [25].

In addition, the construction industry is responsible for 25% of global solid waste generation [13]. This waste is generated not only in the construction process itself but also in demolition [26]. This large amount of waste is due to the linear economic model of “take, make, dispose” instead of recycling and reusing the waste and disposed materials [13]. The construction industry is considered the largest source of industrial waste in developed countries, which could reach a range of 520 to 760 kg/person/year [26]. In the European Union, construction and demolition waste are among the largest producers. In 2018, 36% of waste was generated from the construction industry out of all waste generated from economic activities and households [27]. So, the construction industry is accountable for over one-third of the total waste generated in the European Union [18]. The US construction and demolition debris totaled about 600 million tons in 2018, more than twice the amount of municipal solid waste generated. Demolition waste is more than 90% of the total generated construction and demolition debris, while less than 10% is generated from the construction itself [28]. Around 145 million tons of construction and demolition waste were sent to landfills, while over 455 million tons were directed to second use. In 2003, nonresidential demolition was the largest building sector contributing to construction and demolition waste, followed by residential renovation [28]. In South Africa, construction waste accounts for 5 million to 8 million tons annually, of which a very small fraction is directed to reuse and recycling. At the same time, a larger amount is disposed of in landfills, occupying space and reaching capacity in many areas [29]. Therefore, the construction industry is considered one of the most significant contributors to climate change.

1.3. Literature Review

It is the responsibility of all countries to take action to mitigate the consequences of climate change. These actions could be through laws, codes, alternative governance, and green building certificates. Different searches were performed to investigate the various endeavors taken or should be taken to govern climate change. The author of [30] analyzed 50 new governance instruments for low-carbon buildings (which are complementary and alternative instruments to building codes and legislation) to understand their strengths and weaknesses in lowering emissions for buildings. The authors stated that these new governance instruments are most effective in high-end new commercial buildings and will be less effective in residential and existing buildings. Therefore, the author recommends three paths for these new governance instruments to accelerate the transition towards low-carbon buildings. The first recommendation is to rethink the purpose of these instruments and analyze how to target more individuals in the construction industry besides leaders. The second recommendation is to restudy the instruments’ position in the regulatory frameworks and move forward to more mandatory and less voluntary applications. The third recommendation is to analyze if the new governance instruments could fill in the gaps in regulations and if positive synergies between both could exist. The authors of [31] studied what suitable regulations and policies could control the actual use of energy in houses. They stated that the existing regulations could more effectively ensure actual energy performance. They noted that building performance and occupants’ behavior are crucial to actual energy usage. Therefore, regulations should consider the actual building performance, actual energy use, and actual occupants’ behaviors and preferences. The engagement of occupants will be crucial to the success of governance strategies and instruments. In addition, they stated that the governance that supports the near-zero renovations is a promising technique to monitor and achieve actual energy performance that closely matches the designed levels.

The author of Ref. [32] studied four action networks from Australia and the United States developed by city governments. Local action networks, alongside policymakers, civil society groups, city bureaucrats, and citizens, lead the transition to low-carbon buildings instead of national governments. He concluded that the main problems that face these action networks are scalability and the focus on leadership within the network. The scalability problem related to expanding the implementation of these action networks outside the city generating them, in his case, Chicago in the United States and Sydney in Australia. He stated that scalability needs power laws, as in the property and rental markets. There are a wide variety of individuals and companies, so a single leading example for the energy performance of a particular company leader will only fit some. The leadership problem is that being a leader may not be attractive to all the participants and may not be worth spending time and money on. However, the strengths of such action networks lie in the knowledge generated about ways to reduce carbon intensity inside buildings and cities and the lessons learned from the different implementations of carbon emission reduction strategies in different countries. The authors of Ref. [33] developed a policy paper to establish sustainable cities through practices and sustainable construction and building approaches to mitigate climate change impacts. They proposed three policy options that form implementation stages in an integrated way. The first proposed option A is to develop national standards for sustainable construction materials and to green existing building laws on a long-term type. The second proposed policy B is to provide finance and awareness campaigns about sustainable construction to impact rapid, short-term implementation. The third proposed option, C, is to establish a national sustainable construction-working group under the National Council for Climate Change to represent different stakeholders in the construction sector and community as a medium-term implementation plan. The author of Ref. [34] discussed the primary recognized green building standards, building certifications, codes, and product standards, highlighting their differences and what to consider when selecting them. The author also highlighted that the main difference between codes and rating systems is that codes are mandatory. Implementing a green code on a broad basis will result in a rapid and extensive impact on the environment.

The authors of Ref. [35] studied the general knowledge and awareness of the Egyptian population about climate change and its effects and their perception of mitigation measures. The results show that more than 70% of the participants were aware of global warming and climate change. Over two-thirds of the participants believe that increasing public transportation, proper material use, and construction direction could be adequate mitigation actions. The authors highlighted that most participants gained knowledge about climate change from social media and the internet. The authors recommended that various initiatives be launched to spread information about climate change more positively and help enhance positive mitigation actions. The authors of Ref. [36] studied the impacts of climate change on buildings in Egypt, considering the higher sea level, the increase in temperature, and the higher carbonation, through the New Alamein City case study. They concluded that as mitigation measures for these climate change effects, thicker concrete covers of 5 cm should be used in coastal cities. In addition, they recommended using rubble mounds and submerged breakwaters to raise of the sea level. Moisture insulation is also recommended for the foundations to mitigate increased groundwater table levels. As a mitigation for the increased temperature, they recommended the use of thermal insulation in buildings. They then highlighted the importance of raising awareness about climate change in the construction industry through nationwide campaigns. They also endorsed that the Egyptian code of practice should include provisions and adjustments that cope with the effects of climate change.

1.4. Study Objective

Therefore, different searches highlighted different actions taken to mitigate the construction industry’s effect on climate change in one country or different policies across different countries. Thus, the objective of this paper is to review and compare the primary endeavors taken by three different countries, which have different country profiles representing developing and developed countries: Egypt, the UAE, and the United States. Then, the main lessons learned and recommendations for effective implementation are explored.

This study is divided into the following sections. The first section is the country profile, where the main traits of the three countries included in this research, namely Egypt, the UAE, and the United States, are discussed, highlighting their climate challenges and the effect of the construction industry in these countries on climate change. The second section is study methodology, where the study methodology adopted is explained in detail. The third section is legislation and strategies, where the primary adopted laws, policies, and strategies in Egypt, the UAE, and the United States are discussed in detail. The fourth section is building codes, where the main developed and adopted green building codes in Egypt, the UAE, and the United States are discussed in detail. The fifth section is green building certificates, where the main developed and adopted green building certificates in Egypt, the UAE, and the United States are discussed in detail. The sixth section discusses the main findings and lessons learned from the research in detail. The last section is the conclusion and recommendations, where the main conclusion from this research is discussed, as well as recommendations for better implementation of green practices.

2. Country Profile

2.1. Egypt’s Country Profile

Egypt, located in the northeast corner of the African continent, is considered a country highly vulnerable to climate change [37]. Egypt’s Nile Delta is one of the world’s three most susceptible climate change hotspots [37]. Most of Egypt’s facilities and population are centered around the Nile River, its deltas, and its northern and eastern coasts, which will exacerbate the effects of climate change in the political, demographic, and economic sectors [38]. Egypt is expected to suffer from different forms of climate change, such as water scarcity, sea level rise, increased frequency, and intense extreme weather conditions, such as sand and dust storms, heat waves, heavy rains, and flash floods [37]. The country is expected to be hotter and drier [37]. The most critical factors making Egypt highly vulnerable to climate change are rising sea levels and the interrelationship between Nile River flow and climate change. The increase in sea level would affect the groundwater quality, leading to soil salinity, erosion of coastal barriers, and migration of inhabitants of those places, losing their homes and jobs [38]. In addition, the Nile Delta is sensitive to rainfall and temperature variations, which would affect Egypt’s food and water security [38]. Although Egypt is considered the 87th most affected country by climate change, it is the 73rd least prepared country to face its effects [38,39].

In Egypt, the construction industry holds the most significant sector share of GDP, accounting for 14% of Egypt’s GDP [40]. Egypt is the largest project market in Africa and the third largest in the Middle East and North Africa after Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates [40]. The construction market size in Egypt is expected to grow from USD 46.85 billion in 2023 to USD 70.09 billion by 2028. The key drivers of building industry growth will be the proliferation of green buildings, active public–private partnerships, and high-end infrastructure [40]. Egypt’s emissions of greenhouse gases represent 0.73% of global emissions. Egypt’s emissions escalated from 134 M tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e) in 1990 to 352 Mt CO₂e in 2019 [41]. The construction and manufacturing sector is responsible for 39 Mt CO₂e, with an increase in emissions of 18.4% from 2005 to 2019. Building sector emissions increased by over 39% over the aforementioned period [41]. Waste handling and management in Egypt accounted for 27 Mt CO₂ in 2016 [42]. These emissions are generated when the waste is disposed of and landfilled rather than recycled. The escalation of waste emissions between 1990 and 2016 was 5.6%, which indicates that recycling is not growing at the same rate as waste generation [42]. Therefore, the construction industry’s critical role in development in Egypt and its negative consequences for the environment make it one of the main contributors to climate change. Figure 1 summarizes the key points in Egypt’s country profile.

2.2. The UAE’s Country Profile

The UAE is located in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula. It consists of a federation of seven emirates. UAE has the third largest economy in the Middle East and is considered one of the wealthiest countries in the region, with a GDP in 2022 of around US $508 billion. It contains 6% of the oil reserves in the world and has the seventh largest natural gas reserves in the world. Oil and gas represent over two-thirds of exports in the UAE and are expected to continue supporting the UAE’s economy [43]. Oil and gas production constitutes more than a quarter of the UAE GDP [44]. However, significant efforts are being made to diversify economic sources [43]. That diversification led to the rise of several non-oil sectors that contribute to the UAE’s GDP, such as manufacturing, commerce and hotels, real estate, and construction [44]. UAE has witnessed rapid economic growth combined with surges in its population in the last two decades, putting it in a prominent position on the global economic scene [45]. The UAE’s population has increased from 0.5 million in 1975 to 4 million in 2005, creating a significant demographic imbalance. The UAE population has increased by 800% during the last 30 years. The UAE’s population grew from roughly 500,000 in 1975 to over 4.1 million in 2005, making it one of the world’s fastest growing countries. The main contributor to this population surge is immigrant workers. Those workers were needed most because the UAE economy was flourishing due to the immense oil boom and colossal infrastructure projects. Immigrant or guest workers represented 80% of the population in 2005, while they were not more than 37% in 1968 [46].

The UAE will suffer from different forms of climate change, such as temperature rise, sea level rise, humidity rise, and extreme events, such as floods, storms, and drought. The UAE is already in a region known for its intense heat and water scarcity, but climate change will exacerbate these conditions [47]. Extreme weather conditions have already been observed in the UAE, such as flooding in 2017 due to heavy rain in Dubai, which caused 581 accidents. Another severe condition happened in 2018 when the temperature reached 51.5 degrees in Mezeira, Abu Dhabi [47]. The UAE has about 1300 km of coastline. About 90% of the infrastructure and 85% of the population are within several meters of sea level in low-lying coastal areas. It is expected that the UAE could lose up to 6% of its developed and populated areas on the coastline by the end of the century due to rising sea levels [48]. Reclamation, dredging, and other operations, such as oil exploration, will endanger coastal ecosystems and development. Coastal areas could witness changes in the intensity and frequency of storms. In addition, when the oceans warm, the higher sea surface temperature will cause thermal expansion and changes in the mean sea level. Changes in sea surface temperature may lead to more intense coral bleaching, which affects the reproduction and migration of different species. Similar incidents were already experienced in the UAE in 1996 and 1998, when two catastrophic coral bleaching and mortality events occurred due to seawater temperature anomalies [48]. Climate change also affects the water supply and demand balance, expanding the gap in water availability. Some areas in the UAE are expected to have more frequent floods, while others will suffer from water shortages and droughts [48]. Salty water would invade underground freshwater, affecting its use in agriculture and affecting the local food supply. The UAE has a high pollution percentage, as its carbon emissions are 80 tons per capita, compared to only 14 tons per head in the United States/year [48].

Comparing the UAE’s performance towards climate change actions to that of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, it is evident that the UAE is doing better than the GCC at reaching the SDGs. However, the United Arab Emirates needs to put more effort into tackling the serious problems regarding CO₂ emissions [49].

The UAE construction market occupies the second highest proportion in the GCC countries after the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with a percentage of 29% [49]. The urbanization and economic growth that the UAE witnessed led to a steep increase in CO₂ emissions [49]. The UAE has one of the highest carbon footprints per capita in the world. Total UAE’s carbon emissions were about 249 million tons in 2019, making it one of the highest carbon footprint countries in the Middle East and among the top 30 largest emitters globally by total volume [50]. In addition, the UAE has an escalating need for desalination and air conditioning, which depend mainly on natural gas, making it one of the largest carbon emitters per capita. Therefore, the UAE has challenges in the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption, fossil fuel consumption, and CO₂ embodied in the exports of fossil fuels and cement production [49]. About 70% of the energy produced in the UAE is consumed by the building sector [51]. Another significant challenge is the shorter life span of the buildings compared to other countries, which increases the generation of construction demolition waste [49]. Construction and demolition (C&D) waste is responsible for 70% of the total solid waste generated in the UAE. In Dubai, 5000 tons of construction and demolition waste are produced every day, representing about 70% of the total solid waste generated daily. Abu Dhabi’s C&D waste represents 71% of the total produced wastes [52]. According to the Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi, 92% of the total greenhouse gases emitted by the waste sector were attributed to solid waste disposal in Abu Dhabi’s landfills [53]. Therefore, significant endeavors are needed to lessen the UAE’s construction industry’s effects on climate change. Figure 2 summarizes the key points in the UAE country profile.

2.3. The United States’s Country Profile

The United States is located on the North American continent. It is considered the world’s leading economic and military power. Its gross domestic product is nearly a quarter of the world’s total [54]. It is the third largest country by size in the world after Russia and Canada and the third largest in population after China and India [55].

The United States would suffer from different challenges due to climate change; the most direct challenge is increases in the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events. When a climate disaster occurs in one region of the United States, it also affects other areas. So, if a wildfire occurs in one region, it will also worsen air quality and health in other areas. The US Northeast region is witnessing increased extreme weather conditions, such as intense rainstorms, rapid sea level rise, and warmer ocean temperatures [56]. There has been an increase of about 60% in rainfall during the heaviest downpours since the 1950s. The southeast region of the United States suffers from rising sea levels and heat waves with increased intensity, frequency, and duration, which lead to higher risks of wildfire. The U.S. Caribbean—Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands experience intense hurricanes and powerful storms caused by warmer air and ocean temperatures. It is anticipated that category 4 and 5 hurricanes will increase in number with the worsening of the climate crisis [56]. Due to flooding risk alone, billions of dollars in properties are likely vulnerable to destruction or being unusable anymore [57]. In addition, as a result of climate change-induced hazards, about one-third of the US housing stock would be at high risk [57].

The construction industry is one of the leading and largest industries in the United States. It has a total employment of 7–8%. It is affected more severely by the business cycle than other US industries [58]. The construction industry’s contribution to the GDP of the US economy is 4%. The US construction industry is $1.8 trillion, compared to $8.9 trillion for the global construction industry in 2023 [59]. The construction industry contributes heavily to climate change in the United States. Buildings are responsible for 39% of CO₂ emissions, 73% of electricity, and 41% of all US energy usage [60]. They are also responsible for 14% of the consumption of potable water and 40% of the consumption of raw materials [61]. Therefore, different initiatives are being taken to lessen the effects of the construction industry on climate change. Figure 3 summarizes the key points of the United States country profile.

3. Study Methodology

To get an insight into the different endeavors taken to mitigate the effects of the construction industry on climate change, three countries with distinctively different profiles were chosen: Egypt, the UAE, and the United States. Egypt represents one of the most vulnerable countries to the effects of climate change, particularly in the Delta region. It is located on the African continent and is a developing country. The UAE, one of the oil-producing countries with a booming economy, exerts efforts to reduce the effects of climate change and is also vulnerable to climate risks. It is located in Asia and is considered a developing country. The United States is a developed country that is usually followed in its initiatives regarding the environment and will also face challenges due to climate change effects. After selecting the countries under study, the main research sections are defined as laws and policies, green building codes, and green building rating systems, which are to be inclusive of all different practices adopted to reduce the effects of the construction industry on climate change. In each section, the web was searched for the most recent and most used practices in each country, focusing on searches published in reputable journals, theses, and conference proceedings. After that, an analysis was performed on these findings, highlighting the main obstacles hindering the widespread application of green practices or the reasons for the inefficiency of these practices. Then, recommendations for better and more effective implementation were discussed and highlighted. Figure 4 summarizes this study methodology.

4. Legislation and Strategies

The task of law-making related to climate change is difficult and complex; however, it is increasing in frequency around the globe. The most crucial climate laws are associated with climate change mitigation that, for example, require cutting carbon emissions, using renewable energy, and achieving certain levels of energy efficiency targets [62]. Climate change legislation can go beyond that, as climate change affects many other aspects, including but not limited to agriculture, fisheries, health, and water scarcity. Therefore, climate change legislation involves many policy fields, affecting all development features and national planning [62]. The speed and scope of climate action are optimistic, although the promises made by significant emitters are inconsistent with the UN’s aim of preventing global warming of more than 2 °C [63].

From 2009 to 2014, the number of climate laws doubled, from 426 to 804. In addition, many countries have emission reduction targets established by laws and policies [63]. Framework laws and policies are of great importance among climate laws [63]. “A framework law is defined as a law, or regulation with equivalent status that serves as a comprehensive, unifying basis for climate change policy, addressing multiple aspects and issues of climate change mitigation or adaptation (or both) in a holistic, overarching manner” [63]. The most crucial elements to creating a good practice law for climate change mitigation and adaptation are information about the country’s emissions and climate change risks, targets that the government is planning to achieve, and policies that the government will establish to achieve its targets [63]. Different types of laws could be adopted to mitigate or adapt to climate change, such as environmental laws, international environmental laws, administrative laws, and international trade laws [64]. The environmental laws that are put in place to regulate climate change are specific to each country. The international environmental laws have two main declarations, which are to preserve and enhance the environment, as in The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (the 1972 Stockholm Declaration), and to focus on sustainable development, as in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development discussed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development [64]. The administrative laws ensure the administration of the environmental laws and their application. International trade laws ensure that trade agreements match environmental policies to simultaneously enhance sustainable development and trade [64].

4.1. Legislative Procedures in Egypt, the UAE, and the United States

The three countries considered in this study are Egypt, UAE, and the United States; therefore, it is important to clarify the legislative procedures for each country as a background for their environmental legislation and strategies.

Legislation in Egypt is grouped into two main categories: primary and secondary. Primary legislation comprises the constitution, laws, legislative decrees, and treaties and agreements. Based on the Egyptian Constitution, the parliament can initiate laws. Secondary legislation can be grouped into three main types: executive, organizational, and control. Secondary legislation is issued by the executive branch (i.e., the president or the cabinet). If the legislation is initiated by less than 10% of the parliament, it is called proposal law. If the legislation is proposed by the Cabinet, the President of the Republic, and more than 10% of the parliament members, it is called a project law. In extraordinary urgent circumstances, the President of the Republic has the right to issue legislation through a legislative decree. The Parliament should review and approve laws issued by the President [65].

The ratification of ordinary legislation in Egypt consists of the following procedures: initiation and drafting of a proposal, review by the parliament, issue by the President, and publishing and enforcement. The deliberation of the new law is initiated by discussing the general bases and principles of the proposed legislation as a whole in parliament. The proposal is considered rejected if the assembly rejects the draft law in principle. However, if approved, a thorough discussion of the draft legislation is discussed article by article, where members of parliament have to vote on each article and then on the whole draft. If the draft is approved by the majority of the members of the parliament, which is not less than a third of the total number of members, the proposal is approved by the House. However, if the votes are equal, the proposal is rejected. It is worth mentioning that some laws require at least two-thirds of the members to approve the draft for it to be considered approved. After the House of Representatives approves the law, it is sent to the President of the Republic for his decision. If the President accepts it, it is published. However, it is referred back to the parliament if he rejects it. In this case, if the House of Representatives could have the approval of not less than two-thirds of the whole house, it could be passed. However, if the House accepts the President’s objection, a committee will be formed to reexamine and modify the proposal. Once approved, the approved law is published in the official gazette [65]. It is worth highlighting that “the principles of Islamic Sharia are the principal source of legislation”, as stated in the Egyptian Constitution [66].

The UAE consists of a federation of seven emirates ruled by federal laws. The Council of Ministers (CoM) drafts federal laws and submits them to the National Federal Council (NFC), which comprises 34 representatives from the seven emirates. The NFC then decides if they will reject or amend proposed federal laws; however, the Federal Supreme Council (FSC) can overrule their decision. The NFC consists of seven emirate rulers and a president elected from the FSC’s members. Therefore, the Federal Laws have to be submitted to the FSC to be approved and ratified by the president and the majority of five members of the FSC, where the rulers of Dubai and Abu Dhabi must be within that majority. When the law is ratified by the FSC, it must be published in the UAE Gazette. If a federal law is urgently needed between the FSC sessions, the FSC president and the CoM should act together to issue laws as decrees. Then, these decrees are referred to the FSC for approval within one week. When approved, these decrees will have the force of law and have to be published in the UAE Gazette [67].

All powers not assigned to the federal government are granted to the seven Emirates by the Emirati Constitution. Therefore, each emirate could consider the relevant Emirate’s body of domestic law. It is worth highlighting that Sharia is maintained as the primary source of Emirati legislation in the UAE constitution. However, it does not directly affect the UAE and cannot be used as a challenging basis for legislation; on the other hand, Sharia should be regarded by legislators when formulating laws [67].

The United States’s legislative branch comprises the House and Senate, known as the Congress. In addition to other powers, the legislative branch creates all laws [68]. Laws are initiated as ideas when a representative adopts a bill. Then, the bill is subject to study by an assigned committee. The bill is voted on, debated, or amended if the committee releases it. If the majority passes the bill, it is moved to the Senate. Another committee in the Senate studies the bill. If the committee releases it, it is voted on and debated. If the majority passes the bill, a conference committee is held between the House and Senate members to determine any differences between the two versions of the bill by the House and the Senate. Then, the final version is returned to the House and Senate for final approval. The Government Printing Office prints the final version in a process called enrolling. The President then should sign or veto the enrolled bill [69].

4.2. Legislation and Strategies in Egypt

Because of Egypt’s high vulnerability to climate change, having adaptation strategies for the impacts of climate change is a necessity. Therefore, Egypt issued different strategies to tackle the consequences of climate change. Its first National Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction was prepared in 2011. Then, it has several other policies and strategies to face climate change, such as the Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt’s Vision 2030, the National Climate Change Strategy 2050 (NCCS), the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2030, and the National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change. In addition, some strategies are sectoral strategies that have action plans for specific sectors, such as Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategy towards 2030, Integrated Solid Waste Management Strategy, National Water Resources Plan (2017–2037), National Energy Efficiency Action Plan II (2018–2022), Integrated Sustainable Energy Strategy 2035, and Low Emission Development Strategy in 2018.

Furthermore, Egypt has issued some voluntary green articles that could be adopted voluntarily. These articles are ECP 304/2-2004 for refrigerating and air conditioning, which aim to save energy and provide comfort and public health. ECP 301/1-2002 for plumbing installation to prevent leakage and to protect public health and the environment. ECP 305/2-2007 for multi-use construction parking to protect the construction from fire. ECP 501-2005 for using sewage water for agriculture to recover sewage water and reuse it safely. ECP 306/1 and ECP 306/2-2005 for improving building envelope energy efficiency [70].

The following subsections detail the main features of the pivotal strategies in Egypt, which are the Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030, the National Climate Change Strategy 2050, the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2030, and the Giza Climate Change Strategy.

4.2.1. The Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt’s Vision 2030

This vision was developed in 2016 in alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals as a unified long-term economic, political, and social vision. Its main target is to lower greenhouse gas emissions by 10% from the energy sector, including the oil and gas sector, by 2030 compared to levels in 2016 [71]. This vision has three main dimensions: social, environmental, and economic. For each dimension, there are certain pillars that need to be achieved by accomplishing the main and sub-objectives. In addition, there are the key performance indicators that evaluate and set targets for the anticipated results. In order to monitor and evaluate the programs and projects that are being carried out to fulfill the target results, there is a strategy and monitoring unit that is responsible for assessing and measuring outcomes and the impacts of the Sustainable Development Strategy [72].

Egypt is committed to reaching the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, and progress has been made across numerous metrics since 2015. According to the Sustainable Development Report 2021, the country achieved an SDG Index Score of 68.6 percent and is placed 82nd out of 165 countries. The progress is not uniform across all goals in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), where major challenges exist in 7 out of the 17 SDGs, which are zero hunger, good health and well-being, decent work and economic growth, gender equality, life on land, life below water, peace, justice, and strong institutions [73].

In the direction of achieving its 2030 targets, Egypt has implemented reforms in different areas, such as economic reform, highways, and infrastructure, to connect remote areas that will boost the economy and public sector reform. However, there are some challenges that face Egypt on the path to achieving the 2030 vision, such as water scarcity, increasing population, political unrest in neighboring countries, and corruption [74]. To ensure better implementation of the SDS 2030, some steps should be taken. The recommended steps involve all stakeholders from the early stages, allowing them to set targets and indicators, enforcing more transparency and information sharing, continuing awareness campaigns, ensuring regular monitoring and evaluation, and encouraging people to report corruption [74].

4.2.2. The National Climate Change Strategy 2050

After Egypt prepared the National Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction in 2011 and the Sustainable Development Strategy and Egypt Vision 2030, there is still a need to unify all aspects of climate change into one policy that could be used as a reference for planning across all sectors in the country [75]. To consolidate all aspects of climate change into one document, integrating different dimensions and all sectors in the country, the comprehensive National Climate Change Strategy for Egypt until 2050 was developed [76]. The National Strategy for Climate Change (NSCC) has mainly five main goals, which are “achieving sustainable economic growth and low emission development in various sectors, enhancing adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change and alleviating the associated negative impacts, enhancing climate change action governance, enhancing climate financing infrastructure, and enhancing scientific research, technology transfer, knowledge management, and awareness to combat climate change” [76].

This national strategy is prepared to set a framework to determine problems in all sectors affected by climate change. Then, it enhances how society copes with risks and their impacts. In addition, it eases the integration of adaptation measures in a coherent manner that supports achieving the country’s desired economic and development goals through reducing carbon emissions. The government allocated funds to projects in different sectors, such as energy, transportation, water, irrigation, and carbon reduction in the petroleum sector, at a cost of $211 billion for mitigation and $113 billion for adaptation till 2050 [77]. Egypt aims to have green projects represent 50% of the country’s investment plan for the years 2024/2025. Egypt also launched green bonds worth $750 for the first time in the Middle East and Africa. Egypt has also invested in different green projects, such as hydrogen and green ammonia production [78].

4.2.3. National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2030

Egypt’s national strategy for risk reduction 2030 (NSDRR2030) considered the international approaches in this area, including the Sendai Framework (2015–2030), the Paris Agreement on climate change, and the UN Sustainable Development Agenda (2015–2030) [79]. The NSDRR 2030 was issued to achieve national development and regional and international obligations and update its disaster risk reduction strategy. Its main vision is to develop a national system for reducing disaster risk while enhancing capabilities and sustainable development achievements [79]. The main objectives of the NSDRR are to review legislation and laws to endorse disaster risk reduction, incorporate the disaster risk reduction concept into sustainable development policies, lessen disaster mortality and losses, and build capacities for disaster management [79]. The main implementation priorities are to enhance disaster risk governance, understand disaster risks, invest in reducing disaster risk, and enforce disaster resilience and post-disaster reconstruction [79]. They categorized disasters into manmade disasters and natural disasters, and the levels for coordinating crises and disasters are divided into three primary levels: strategic level (political), tactic level (planning and monitoring), and executive level (operational). Each level has its own responsible party: for the political level, the national committee for crisis management and Disaster Risk Reduction; for the tactical level, the coordinating committee for crisis and disaster management; and for the executive level, the executive entities like ministries, governorates, and concerned bodies. According to the Egypt Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy, flooding has been considered the most common disaster in Egypt in recent decades due to the extreme rainfall repetitions and the urban communities’ presence in the flood-exposure areas [80].

Analyzing the previous disaster management practices indicates several drawbacks, such as deficiency in the early warning system in most of the disasters, the absence of sufficient preparedness for the expected hazards, a lack of people risk awareness and a culture of emergency, the inefficiency of the infrastructure, and emergency equipment availability [80]. In addition, there is a lack of available data regarding past disaster occurrences; however, some data are collected by international organizations. Although there are good plans for Egypt Disaster Risk Reduction, these plans need to be activated and implemented [80]. When [80] assessed Egyptian Disaster Risk Reduction, they observed the following obstacles: absence of rules and legislation that govern and clarify the responsibilities of disasters and crisis management, lack of specialized administration for managing disasters throughout the various stages of the disaster, and the following up. In addition, other problems include inadequate disaster prevention culture among officials in the government and communities at risk and a lack of efficient funding methods and financial resources to cover emergency and recovery phases. Moreover, the lack of data about disaster risk and the lack of suitable coordination between entities in different disaster risk situations are among the obstacles that face the Disaster Risk Management (DRM) in Egypt [80]. Different steps should be adopted to develop a suitable DRM system. These steps are: first, legislation and rules should be developed to control the DRM systems and determine responsibilities [80]. Second, financial resources and expected crises should be defined, along with the proper procedure for monitoring and control. Third, public risk awareness and data availability should be enhanced [80]. Fourth, specific institutions should evaluate and monitor the DRM mechanism and be supported by laws and rules to ensure efficient application [80].

4.2.4. Giza Climate Change Strategy

Giza Governorate is the first Egyptian governorate to issue a Giza Climate Change Strategy in 2019. Although it is a positive initiative to tackle the geographical differences and climatic challenges specific to the governorate, it lacks a long-term vision and a more profound analysis of adaptive studies on ecosystems and the socioeconomic costs of adaptation plans [81]. It is advised that governorates create action plans for Egypt’s SDS, which mainstreams climate change, instead of creating separate plans based on the country’s current government structure. These action plans would guarantee that the national government would provide the support and resources required at local and subnational levels. Additionally, governorates must improve the knowledge and skills of their staff and their total autonomy, particularly their financial autonomy, to create such action plans [81].

It is observed that these policies are not solely specific to the construction industry. However, they intend to be inclusive of the climate risks that are expected to happen and should be applied in any sector if applicable. It is crucial to include climate change in environmental law to establish a legal framework and require local government leaders to take action to address climate change. However, some experts argue that it might not be practical given the law’s relative weakness in implementation [81].

4.3. Legislation and Strategies in the UAE

It is considered one of the leading countries in the region that acknowledges climate change and advocates for decarbonization [82]. It has made significant efforts to transform its economy from “oil-based to clean and renewable energy sources” [83], taking into account advances in technology and climate-smart solutions [83]. The UAE has been a primary supporter of climate action since the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1989. In 1995, the UAE joined the creation of the Montreal Protocol and became a member of the UNFCC [83]. In 2010, it was the only Gulf Cooperation Council country associated with the Copenhagen Accord [82]. The UAE has taken several initiatives to address the climate change crisis. It formed a ministry to focus solely on climate-related issues, the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment [83]. In addition, it created a Council for Climate Change and Environment to administer partnerships in areas related to climate research, framework development, and support policies in collaboration with the private sector [83]. It created the Energy Strategy 2050, which aims to generate 50% of the electricity from clean energy, such as solar energy, by the year 2050 and eliminate the carbon footprint by 70% by the same year [83]. In addition, it has the UAE National Climate Change Plan 2017–2050 that, along with the UAE Energy Strategy 2050, acknowledges the crucial role of the built environment in climate change action and in attaining sustainability [83]. It was the first country in the region to prohibit gas flaring. It eliminated the lowest-performing 20% of the air conditioning units in the market [82].

Different legislative measures were taken to enhance the recycling rate in the UAE. The National Waste Management Database was introduced by the UAE in 2018, which links waste management agencies in each of the Emirates. In February 2019, the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment released Ministerial Resolution No. 21, which mandates that road construction and infrastructure projects, whether in the public or private sectors, have to use recycled aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) [49]. A significant rise in the recycling rate was observed in the UAE due to the legislation and the advanced CDW recycling centers. The recycling rate increased from 17.2% in 2019 to 71.1% in 2020 [49]. Legislation is one of the most effective techniques for waste minimization in the construction industry [49]. However, more legislation is needed to regulate CDW on construction sites more effectively [49].

Because the UAE follows the federal structure, most of the measures taken are at the emirate level, making these measures more of programs and projects with very little legislation, federal, or sub-national levels [82]. Among the initiatives taken by the UAE emirates to support the National Agenda are the Abu Dhabi Vision 2030, Dubai Urban Plan 2040, Fujairah 2040 Plan, Ras Al Khaimah Vision 2040, Ajman Vision 2021, Umm al Quwain Vision 2021, and Sharjah Vision 2021 [49]. These visions share the same objectives of enhancing sustainability across the Emirates and enriching the environment, society, and economy.

Dubai has a sustainable energy policy with benchmarks to implement clean energy initiatives and a target of reducing energy consumption by 30% by 2030 [82]. Dubai is also committed to solar power, with 1000 MW by 2030. Abu Dhabi was the region’s first to set a renewable energy target. Dubai has targets for efficient water use in the Integrated Energy Strategy 2030 to reduce water demand [82]. Abu Dhabi is also considering the decarbonization of its traditional fuel supplies. Abu Dhabi is mandated to use Estidama, the first obligatory building rating system and building performance standards in the region. The minimum compliance with this system yields 30% savings on water and energy consumption [82]. Abu Dhabi incorporated water efficiency standards into building codes and the Estidama rating system. Installing water-saving devices in homes, public buildings, and offices is estimated to save up to 20% of water consumption related to non-agricultural activities [82]. Recycled water is also utilized under policies and approaches in Abu Dhabi.

The following subsections detail the main features of the pivotal strategies in the UAE, which are the UAE National Climate Change Plan 2017–2050 and Energy Strategy 2050.

4.3.1. UAE National Climate Change Plan 2017–2050

It is an inclusive framework that aims to address the causes and impacts of climate change, plan the shift to a climate-resilient green economy, and improve quality of life. The plan’s main objectives are to manage greenhouse gas emissions while sustaining economic growth, reduce risks, enhance the capacity of adaptation to climate change, and improve the UAE’s economic diversification agenda through innovative solutions [84]. The foundations of the Climate Plan are based on climate-relevant measures from the UAE Green Agenda. Most of the Green Agenda initiatives address climate change mitigation and adaptation, with potential for replication and scaling up [85]. The Climate Plan supports the Green Agenda and the UAE Vision 2021 objectives by transforming climate change from challenges to opportunities for positive economic, environmental, and social consequences. The main objective is to build resilience to climate impacts, leading to a higher quality of life. The Climate Plan addresses policy gaps, including a lack of an overall GHG emissions management system, in addition to a lack of vulnerability assessments at the national level to lead adaptation activities. The Climate Plan’s focus on establishing a greener industry will support Green Agenda programs by enhancing policy tools for private sector innovation and market development [85]. The Climate Plan’s success depends on different pillars that enable accomplishing the key outcomes. These pillars are capacity building, financing, awareness, governance, monitoring and evaluation, and international cooperation [85].

The UAE Council on Climate Change and the Environment (CC&EC) will oversee the implementation of the Climate Plan as an inter-ministerial, inter-emirate governance body. The Ministry of Climate Change and Environment (MOCCAE) will have the role of secretariat to the CC&EC. The proposed governance structure involves multiple ministries and emirates, taking a multi-sectoral and stakeholder approach. The technical working group will include representatives from the government, private sector, and civil society. The CC&EC will have the executive ability to examine and approve Climate Plan implementation actions [85].

4.3.2. Abu Dhabi Vision 2030

It focuses on improving Abu Dhabi’s urban structure to diversify business solutions and growth perspectives for investors. Abu Dhabi Vision has two main elements: economic vision 2030 and Urban Planning Vision 2030 [86]. The vision focuses on achieving a sustainable environment, a high quality of life, a strong and capable government, and a diversified and knowledge-based economy [87].

The authority responsible for developing the Urban Planning Vision is the Urban Planning Council (UPC). The main objective is to have high-quality standards for community planning and infrastructure to cope with population growth and cultural shifts. In addition, it aims to develop sustainable smart cities that will ensure the use of renewable energy sources [86].

The Abu Dhabi Council for Economic Development developed a plan of action to be used as the Economic Vision in the Abu Dhabi Vision 2030. This plan aims to diversify business sectors besides the oil and gas business. This move helps develop a culturally competent and globalized economy that enhances sustainability concepts, innovation, and collaborative public–private partnerships [86].

Abu Dhabi is on track to achieve its 2030 vision goals. It was able to achieve a diversified economy, with non-oil sectors representing most of the GDP. It became a leader in renewable energy and waste management. It improved the quality of life by constructing new schools, hospitals, and other facilities [87].

4.3.3. Dubai Vision 2030

It is a development plan that aims to transform Dubai into a global hub for innovation, business, and quality of life. This plan aims to make Dubai an inclusive, sustainable city that offers its visitors and residents a high quality of life and a better business environment. Therefore, it has three main pillars: a resilient and diversified economy, a sustainable and smart city, and a cohesive and happy society [88].

In the economy, its aim is to diversify its sources beyond oil and gas. Its objective is to have a trade hub that attracts different investments and fosters entrepreneurship. That knowledge-based economy will be driven by innovation, research, and development. Dubai is investing in smart and green infrastructure for sustainable city infrastructure, including efficient transportation systems, renewable energy, and eco-friendly buildings. Therefore, it will be able to reduce its carbon footprint and have a greener and more sustainable environment. In addition, Dubai is implementing initiatives to reduce waste, conserve water, and promote recycling. Moreover, the city is investing in affordable housing, recreational facilities, and community centers in order to foster an inclusive, integrated society [88].

4.4. Legislation and Strategies in the United States

Various climate policies are adopted by different states in the United States. These policies include emission limits, carbon pricing, renewable standards, and attempts to use cleaner transportation [89]. States and regions in the United States have been dealing with climate change for years due to a lack of significant and influential federal action. Although climate change demands an effective national and international response, measures taken by states and regions are crucial in creating and testing novel solutions, delivering near-term emission reductions, and setting the framework for broader action [89].

Standards are also used to enforce green building practices. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) creates guidelines for designing and maintaining interior spaces and refrigeration procedures. ASHRAE Standard 189.1 outlines how to design, build, and operate green buildings, starting with site location, energy efficiency, and recycling techniques [90]. This standard aligns with the International Green Construction Code [90].

Environmental laws have been enacted since the 1970s, when no less than 23 major environmental laws were passed. Each of these laws prevents certain acts; however, these laws have a minor impact on saving the environment [90]. On the contrary, green building laws have three unique regulatory systems [90]. First, it is required that government-owned buildings be constructed according to green building standards; for example, it is necessary to build state schools with green buildings. Second, the government uses voluntary incentives such as grants, tax breaks, or loans to encourage private developers to adopt green buildings. Third, local governments enact laws that mandate that all new construction or renovations that exceed specific square footage have to be built according to a green building standard, whether that building is a public or private property [90]. An example of the third scheme is Boston, which mandates that construction of 50,000 square feet or more buildings have to be LEED certifiable even if not certified [90].

In NYC, Law 97 limits the GHG emissions from structures larger than 25,000 square feet. Building owners must pay fines if the imposed constraints are not met [60]. In 2007, article 37 was updated in Boston to ensure that minimum green building standards could be reached in all new projects and integrate all future and current climate conditions into the formal resiliency checklist [60]. Local law 172 in New York City requires the city to identify which areas are most prone to flooding, and grants are being offered for new properties that comply with stormwater retention and incorporation of green infrastructure in these projects [60].

The following subsections detail some of the policies applied in different US states to reduce carbon emissions.

4.4.1. US Climate Action Vision

President Biden had a campaign to tackle the climate crisis by developing a clean energy economy with reduced costs, good job opportunities, cleaner water, and healthier air. This vision has certain goals. Lowering US greenhouse gas emissions by 50–52% from 2005 levels by the year 2030. Achieving 100% carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035. Reaching a net zero emissions economy by the year 2050 and providing 40% of the benefits of federal efforts in climate and clean energy to disadvantaged communities [91].

Different actions were taken to translate these goals into actions. Congress passed the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the Inflation Reduction Act, which tackled the climate crisis. Different executive actions were taken to restore the environment and public health protection, protect public lands and waters, and advance environmental justice. Investments in clean energy manufacturing facilities, electric vehicles, and batteries were announced [91].

Different governmental efforts were adopted in different sectors of the economy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the production of clean energy. In the building sector, the President’s goal of a zero-emissions federal building portfolio was advanced by 2045, with a reduction of 50% by 2032. Commitments from 25 governors were received to eliminate emissions from buildings, which include the quadrupling of heat pump installations by the end of the decade. Various energy efficiency standards for appliances and equipment were updated to provide consumer savings and cut emissions. Investments were made in the school retrofits through the Biden–Harris Action Plan for Building Better School Infrastructure, which aims to have an energy-efficient retrofit and different improvements that could save money and enhance health and education. Affordable Home Energy was launched to lower the cost of housing decarbonization by 50% within a decade, which will help save energy bills [91].

4.4.2. Carbon Pricing Policy

Carbon pricing is one of the most directly adopted policies to reduce carbon emissions via cap-and-trade programs or carbon taxes [89]. In the cap-and-trade system, there is an emissions cap and an emission allowance that is consistent with the government’s set cap. For every ton of greenhouse gas emitted, emitters must hold allowances. Companies have the opportunity to buy and sell allowances [92]. Therefore, if a company can reduce its emissions at a reduced cost, it can sell any excess allowances to companies facing higher costs [92]. On the other hand, a carbon tax is when there is a price that emitters have to pay for every ton of greenhouse gas emissions, and that price is set by the government [93]. Cap and trade programs are considered and implemented in different states more than carbon taxes; California, Massachusetts, and Washington are among these states [89].

4.4.3. Portfolio Standard Policy

Portfolio standard policy in the power sector is adopted by different states, which requires that a certain amount of electricity be delivered from renewable or clean energy sources. This policy takes one of two forms: a renewable portfolio standard, where a certain percentage of utility electricity must come from renewable energy sources. The second form is a clean energy standard, where electric utilities must deliver a specific amount of electricity from renewable or clean energy sources [89].

4.4.4. Transportation Policies

Transportation policies are also adopted in a few states to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. California and Oregon have adopted low-carbon fuel standards to reduce emissions by requiring a shift to lower-carbon transportation fuels without determining a specific fuel type. This is enforced by requiring fuel providers to decrease carbon intensity in their fuel and allow credit trading to cut compliance expenses [89].

5. Building Codes

Codes differ from standards because “a code is a law”. Codes have little flexibility and respond slowly to the fast-growing sustainability field. Therefore, a modern code is crucial to enable the adoption of green buildings to be legally constructed and to comply with more thresholds [90].

5.1. Building Codes in Egypt

Depending on the construction type, there are different kinds of Egyptian codes for building and construction. Therefore, there are infrastructure codes, structural building codes, building work services codes, complementary work codes, environmental engineering codes, and architectural concepts codes. The code suitable for constructing and designing new buildings and concrete structures is the Egyptian Code of Practice Design and construction of concrete structures (ECP 203) [94]. The Egyptian Concrete Code’s requirements for designing and constructing concrete structures do not account for climate change. Recycled aggregates may be used if they adhere to project and Egyptian criteria and the project consultant approves their usage. If the project consultant approves, it also permits the use of silica fume; however, he must specify the kind and amount of the fume [95]. The code does not refer to any green rating system; similarly, the governmental-developed rating system, the Green Pyramid Rating System, does not refer to the national Egyptian building code. It is crucial to integrate the code and the Green Pyramid Rating System to achieve resilience and encourage green building initiatives within the country [96,97].

5.2. Building Codes in the UAE

Instead of having a green code for the buildings, the UAE cabinet “approved the Green Building and Sustainable Building Standards to be applied across the country”. That initiative started in early 2011. Therefore, it is mandatory in Abu Dhabi for all new buildings to have one pearl rating according to the five-level Estidama Pearl Rating System, and residential villas and government buildings must obtain two pearls. In Dubai, all developments must abide by the green building regulations with 79 specifications to ensure greener construction [98].

5.3. Building Codes in the United States

The United States has developed the following green codes: the International Green Construction Code, the CALGreen Code, and the International Building Code.

5.3.1. The International Green Construction Code

The International Code Council developed the International Green Construction Code in collaboration with ASTM, AIA, and USGBC [34]. It provides a set of requirements to reduce the buildings’ negative environmental impact. It is worth highlighting that it is not a standalone code but an overlay code that complies with ICC codes in a coordinated and consistent manner. It is also a model code developed by independent organizations, not the authority responsible for enacting codes. However, once adopted by a government, it is mandatory to follow its rules, and hence, it is administered by local code officials and building departments. It has been adopted by different states in the United States, such as Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Colombia, Idaho, Maryland, North Carolina, and Texas.

It has criteria for material resources and conservation, site development and land use, energy efficiency, water resource conservation, indoor environmental quality, building operation and maintenance, and provisions for existing buildings. It allocates responsibilities to different entities to be held accountable in case of failure to comply with code requirements [99,100]. The strength of ICC model codes is the coordination of provisions; therefore, the codes could be used as standalone documents or in subsets as well as “a complete set of complementary documents, which will provide users with full integration and coordination of provisions” [61].

Every 3 years, the code will be promulgated to incorporate new technologies and construction methods. If the innovative approaches and alternative materials and techniques are not clearly defined in the code, they could be approved by the code official if they comply with the code intent. This code applies to all residences except one- and two-family dwellings and townhouses; instead, they are under the scope of the International Residential Code [61].

5.3.2. California’s Green Building Standards Code (CALGreen)

It is the first green building code in the United States, which is developed to have a positive environmental impact on the following categories: planning and design, energy efficiency, water efficiency and conservation, material conservation and resource efficiency, and environmental quality [101]. It is considered the first statewide green building code in the United States. It is mandatory to be used at the state level. The International Green Construction Code was the basis for creating this code, so it is considered part of the ICC family [99]. The CALGreen code has passed through multiple modifications since its issuance in 2007. Its first edition was voluntary and was published in 2008. It became effective in 2009. It laid the groundwork for green building chapters, definitions, administration, and five key divisions for sustainable construction. These voluntary green building standards became mandatory in 2010 and effective in 2011. CALGreen ensures that new projects in California are built sustainably. It contained two separate chapters for residential and nonresidential occupancies to make the code more flexible and accessible. In addition to the mandatory provisions, the code includes some voluntary options for more stringent standards.

It has two levels for the voluntary provisions to encourage whoever targets to go beyond the minimum mandatory requirements and adopt a more sustainable design, and level 2 is for even higher standards. Local governments may make these options mandatory to achieve higher sustainability goals. Starting in 2010, two valuable resources accompany each new version of the CALGreen to facilitate the application and enforcement of the required and voluntary measures of the code. These two resources are comprehensive guidebooks and non-regulatory checklists. The guidebook contains explanations for the compliance methods, enforcement suggestions, and the intent for every code section. The code authors develop the checklists, which sometimes must be submitted with plans to guarantee compliance with CALGreen regulations [102].

Different modifications have been made to the CALGreen since its issuance to ensure more sustainable construction is adopted across the state. One of these modifications included triggers for adding or altering existing buildings with an addition of 1000 square feet or a permit value of more than $200,000. Other modifications included water conservation and recycling, the infrastructure of electric vehicles and charging, and intended changes to exclude conflicts with the California Energy Code. In 2018, it was announced that California would fall below 1990 levels of greenhouse gas pollution after the peak of emissions in 2004. California reached its greenhouse gas reduction target ahead of schedule due to its endeavors to reduce emissions and the establishment of CALGreen, which was a significant step toward more responsible and efficient building design [102].

5.3.3. The International Building Code

The International Building Code has been modified to consider sustainability [101]. These modifications rely on the philosophy that a building must be durable and disaster-resistant to be sustainable. Besides, sustainable building should consider energy conservation, indoor environmental quality, site development, water efficiency, and material resources [101]. Therefore, unlike the typical codes that provide the minimum criteria for life safety and do not properly include the level of protection that should be adopted to sustain communities if a disaster occurs, the amendments to the international building code consider the durability and sustainability criteria [101].

It is adopted as a base standard by most US jurisdictions. It is updated every 3 years to incorporate new technologies and innovative construction methods. New materials, designs, and techniques not identified in the code can be used after the building official’s approval if these methods and designs match the intent of the code. The international building code applies to all residences, including townhouses and one- and two-family dwellings. The code is intended to contain provisions that protect public health, welfare, and safety without increasing construction costs and restricting the use of new materials and construction methods. Therefore, the code does not include preferential treatment for certain types and classes of materials and construction methods [103].

6. Green Certificates

Building certification or green building rating systems greatly encourage adopting sustainable, environmentally friendly practices in different building stages, including design, construction, and operation. In addition, they helped raise awareness among tenants, owners, and practitioners about environmental challenges and sustainable practices in the construction sector [104]. Green building rating systems are guidelines and techniques that help reduce the negative impacts of construction throughout the entire life cycle of the building. These rating systems measure building performance per the preset guidelines [105]. Then, the building is granted a certificate with a certain level according to its collected points that demonstrate its level of adopting green practices [104]. There are many green rating systems worldwide, such as LEED, BREEAM, CASBEE, and others. Most green rating systems assess the building’s performance according to site qualities, energy use, water management, and materials used. LEED is the most adopted green rating system based on the number of countries [106].

6.1. Green Certificates in Egypt

Egypt has two voluntary rating systems: the Tarsheed rating system and the Green Pyramid Rating System (GPRS).

Tarsheed was developed by the Egypt Green Building Council and is developed by a non-governmental organization. It has three categories: water, energy, and habitat [107]. Tarsheed is unique in focusing on the previously mentioned three main categories. Therefore, applying Tarsheed helps reduce the CO₂ footprint, reduce consumption costs, and enhance operational efficiency for the building [108]. For a building to be certified, according to Tarsheed, it should achieve a 20% reduction in the three categories: water, energy, and habitat [107]. This rating system depends on a two-level assessment, where the preliminary assessment occurs at the design phase and the final assessment occurs at the construction and handing-over phases [107]. Tarsheed was established in 2015 and then upgraded to include the concept of NetZero in 2018 [109]. Different types of buildings, either new or existing, are covered in Tarsheed. There are Tarsheed Residential, Tarsheed Commercial, Tarsheed School, Tarsheed Healthcare, and Tarsheed communities. According to the collected points, the building could be bronze- or platinum-certified [109]. Tarsheed provides only certification, not consultation and promotion. The developer seeking that certificate must register with the Egypt GBC Council. The developer should train a consultant who will gain experience in the main requirements and concepts of the certificate. Then, the developer should submit his documents proving that he follows the certificate’s requirements [109].

It was developed by the Housing and Building National Research Center and has seven categories: sustainable sites, energy efficiency, water efficiency, materials and resources, indoor environmental quality, management and protocol, and innovation and added value. This rating system depends on a point-weighting system for project scoring [107]. The first version of GPRS was issued in 2011. A new version, V2.0, was published in 2017 with some alterations in categories’ weights to enhance the categories’ importance and contribution to green buildings’ main aim [110]. The collected points from each category are summed to get the final score. According to that score, the building will have a certified silver, gold, or green pyramid rating certificate [111]. The GPRS rating system was based on the US LEED rating system for new buildings, which is one of the critical weaknesses of the GPRS due to the enormous contrasts in culture and environment between the United States and Egypt [110,112]. There is a deficiency in applying GPRS to real projects in Egypt because architects lack awareness and knowledge of principles, criteria, and elements related to GPRS [113]. In addition, there is a gap between what is taught in the architecture curriculum in universities and aspects of GPRS [113].

The main advantage of the Tarsheed rating system is that it allows any construction and architectural professional to be a member of the Egypt Green Building Council. However, the GPRS allows governmental employees to be members [107]. The Tarsheed system considers the local needs of the Egyptian environment, so it follows a simple approach that facilitates adoption. In addition, it depends more on inspection than submissions to obtain a green building certificate [107]. However, the GPRS depends mainly on LEED requirements and criteria, which are incompatible with the Egyptian environment and culture. Lack of collaboration between many stakeholders interested in the problem, including the government, the client, and the developer, is another barrier to the widespread use of GPRS [114]. Lack of experience implementing that system is another issue. The GPRS does not consider the users’ and clients’ financial capacities to encourage the adoption of that rating system. Furthermore, it disregards the requirements and preferences of the user and developer, who serve as the primary pillars in developing architecture systems [114].

6.2. Green Certificates in the UAE

The focus in this section is mainly on Abu Dhabi and Dubai Emirates. Abu Dhabi has the Pearl Rating System, while Dubai has the Al Sa’fat green rating system.

In the UAE, Abu Dhabi mandated the Estidama Pearl Rating System [115]. The Pearl rating system includes the Pearl building rating system, the Pearl villa rating system, the Pearl community rating system, and the Pearl Realm Rating system. The Estidama program is a central part of “Abu Dhabi Vision 2030,” where the Pearls rating system is the only constituent of this initiative; therefore, they are used interchangeably [116]. The Pearl rating system depends on credits to evaluate the final certificate awarded to the building. New buildings and villas must obtain at least one pearl, and governmental buildings must get at least 2 pearls [116]. The pearl rating system has levels from 1 pearl to 5 pearls according to the achieved points for the pearl building rating system, the Pearl villa rating system, and the Pearl community rating system. According to the deserved points, the pearl realm rating system levels are pearl, green, and exemplar [116].

In 2019, the Ministry of Infrastructure Development enforced the mandatory green building guideline for federal buildings in the UAE. Dubai mandated the use of green building regulations and specifications for all new buildings starting in 2014 [115]. These regulations were mandatory for new government buildings and became obligatory for all types of buildings [117]. After that, the Al Sa’fat green rating system was approved in 2016, and the existing green building code was updated to consider green building requirements and their sustainability performance. In 2020, the Al Sa’fat green rating system replaced the Green Building Regulations and Specifications [117]. To get certified, according to Al Sa’fat, the building has to fulfill all the requirements corresponding to the certification level, which is bronze, silver, gold, or platinum, which is different from the point system applied in other green rating systems like LEED [45]. The Al Sa’fat rating system includes five categories: planning and ecology, building vitality, resource effectiveness for water, resource effectiveness of materials and waste, and resource effectiveness of energy [45]. Al Sa’fat rating system puts a high weight on energy, 43% of the points, which is higher than other green rating systems; on the contrary, it puts a low weight on water, which is less than 10%, which is questionable because of the lack of freshwater resources in the UAE [45]. Therefore, it is considered one of the main limitations of this rating system. In addition, the Al Sa’fat rating system has limited differentiation between the certification levels, which have more qualitative differences than quantitative ones. Al Sa’fat also does not offer precise instructions or steps to guarantee a successful building operation after certification, such as a re-certification process based on actual performance [45]. On the other hand, the main strength of the Al Sa’fat rating system is the substantial predicted savings from adopting its energy-related criteria for different types of buildings, namely villas, offices, and hotel buildings [45].

The Estidama Pearl building rating system (PBRS) is considered more balanced than Al Sa’fat in terms of credits assigned to each category. PBRS gives 48% weight to the energy and water categories, unlike the Al Sa’fat rating system, which provides much more weight to energy than water [118]. Both systems lack direct measures of climate change impact and future adaptability in their environmental indicators [118].

6.3. Green Certificates in the United States

The focus in this section is on LEED and Green Globes rating systems. LEED is considered the most widespread rating system worldwide. Green Globes is considered an example of other available green rating systems in the United States.

LEED was developed by the US Green Council in 1998. It has undergone various updates to date. It is the most widely used green building rating system, according to the number of countries adopting it [106]. LEED has criteria to assess the environmental factors of a building based on the following categories: sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy and atmosphere, materials and resources, and indoor environmental quality [106]. To get the final score, LEED adds the points from all categories to get the final grade [106]. There are different types of LEED certificates according to the construction type, such as building design and construction mainly used for new construction or significant renovations, interior design and construction for interior spaces, and residential building design and construction primarily targeting new residential buildings or significant renovations. There are also LEED for cities and communities and LEED for building operations and maintenance for existing buildings or existing interiors being operated and occupied for at least one year [119]. According to the collected points, there are rating levels certified if the accumulated points are 40–49 points, silver if the collected points are 50–59 points, gold from 60–79 points, and platinum 80 or more [116].

It is required to be LEED certified in some US states. New Mexico is one of these states where new public buildings over 15,000 square feet and/or their peak electrical demand over 50 kW are required to be LEED Silver certified [120]. New municipal construction over 5000 square feet in East Lansing, Michigan, must obtain at least LEED Silver. In Atlanta, Georgia, not only city-owned facilities and new construction are required to achieve LEED certification, but existing buildings with more than 5000 square feet must also obtain LEED certification every 10 years [120]. In King County, Washington, county projects should seek LEED certification whenever possible [120]. Boston mandates LEED certification for buildings that are 50,000 square feet or more. Even if not certified, the buildings must be LEED certified [90].

Other states rely on incentives to encourage LEED guidelines and certifications. Cincinnati, Ohio, is one of these states where longer abatement terms and/or higher maximum abatements for LEED-certified projects are granted. In addition, the higher the LEED ratings, the higher the abatement maximum and term. This policy is under the Residential Property Tax Abatement program for residential new construction and renovation. In Howard County, Maryland, commercial and multifamily buildings that achieve at least a LEED Silver rating, either under LEED for building design and construction or LEED for operations and maintenance, are granted a property tax credit under the High-Performance Building Credit program. Therefore, new construction buildings are offered a five-year property tax credit of up to 75%. In addition, existing buildings are granted a three-year tax credit of up to 50% [120]. In Nevada, according to the level of LEED certification achieved by new and existing commercial and multifamily buildings, the Green Building Tax Abatements offer tiered partial property tax abatements [120].

Green Globes is another known green building rating system used in the United States. The Green Building Initiative (GBI) distributes it in the US market. Green Globes is initially a “Canadian web-based tool with BREEAM Canada origins”. In 2004, the GBI adapted the green globes to suit the US market [121]. When creating commercial building rating systems, GBI was the first ANSI Accredited Standards Developer to use the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) methodology introduced in 2005. GBI received ANSI approval for its first American National Standard in 2010, ANSI/GBI 01-2010: Green Building Assessment Protocol for Commercial Buildings. This standard was the basis for GBI’s Green Globes for New Construction program. Later, an updated version was released in 2019, and then in 2021, ANSI/GBI 01-2021: Green Globes for New Construction. GBI issued its second standard, ANSI/GBI 02-2023, Green Globes Assessment Protocol for Existing Buildings, in 2023. GBI standards are updated on a two-year revision cycle [121]. It has a numerical checklist of 1000 points for the following categories: project management, energy, site, water, resources, emissions, effluent and other impacts, and indoor environment [122]. The first stage for certification is to conduct a self-evaluation through an online questionnaire [116]. Then, if the project obtains at least 35% of the 1000 points, it is qualified for an assessment by a third party. Rating levels range from 1 to 4 green globes according to the achieved points [116].

7. Discussion

The three countries under consideration in this study have taken different actions toward mitigating the effects of the construction industry on the climate change phenomenon in terms of laws and policies, green codes, and green building rating systems.

7.1. Comparison between Egypt, the UAE, and the United States’s Actions towards Climate Change

7.1.1. Legislation and Policies

Table 1. Main differences between legislation and policies adopted by the three countries.

	Egypt	UAE	United States
Strategies	- Different national strategies and action plans have developed since 2011 to date - They need rules and legislation that govern the responsibilities of disaster and crisis management. - They need specialized administration for managing disasters throughout the various stages of the disaster.	- Different policies are developed to reduce carbon emissions and use renewable energy sources. - The UAE, however, does not have targets to reduce economy-wide emissions or oil production.	- Various climate policies are adopted by different states in the United States. These policies include emission limits, carbon pricing, renewable standards, and attempts to use cleaner transportation. - States and regions in the United States have been dealing with climate change for years, with a need for significant and influential federal action.
Legislation	- Some voluntary green articles related to using sewage water, plumping installation, air conditioning, and refrigerating are issued.	- Measures taken are at the emirate level because of the federal structure of the country - These measures are more programs or projects with very little legislation	- Environmental laws have been enacted since the 1970s, but with a minor impact on saving the environment - Green building laws are more effective Green building laws are used in different cities, such as Boston and New York City.

summarizes the main differences between legislation and policies adopted by the three countries considered in this study: Egypt, the UAE, and the United States.

Therefore, it is evident that although Egypt is one of the countries most impacted by climate change, its policies are voluntary, and it does not have mandatory laws that enforce the implementation of these strategies. In the UAE, different policies are compulsory at the emirate level. However, more efforts are needed to have more inclusive policies that target all economic sectors and to implement less production of fossil fuels, which are the main reason for high carbon emissions. In the United States, there are different obligatory policies on different state levels, which make each state different in its readiness to face climate risks. More effective federal actions are needed to ensure improved implementation of climate policies. In addition to obligatory policies, there are incentivized actions that, when adopted, will benefit users from reduced taxes.

7.1.2. Green Codes

Table 2. Main differences between the green codes adopted by the three countries.

Country	Egypt	UAE	United States
Availability	- No green construction code is available in Egypt.	- Instead of having a green code for the buildings, the UAE cabinet “approved the Green Building and Sustainable Building Standards to be applied across the country”.	- Different green construction codes are available, which are the International Green Construction, California’s Green Building Standards Code (CALGreen), and the International Building Code.
The inclusion of green rating systems as a guide	- No green rating system is included in the construction code.	Green rating systems are mandated to be used in Dubai and Abu Dhabi.	- CAL Green is streamlined with LEED. - Washington, D.C., code update includes a zero energy compliance path referencing LEED Zero.

summarizes the main differences between the green codes adopted by the three countries considered in this study: Egypt, the UAE, and the United States.

Although the construction industry has a crucial role in the country’s development and has high carbon emissions, Egypt does not have a green code for construction. In addition, it does not refer to any green rating system to be used as a guide in the construction code. This hinders most developers and contractors from adopting green practices while constructing in Egypt. In the UAE, each emirate has its own rules. The focus of this study is on Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Both emirates have mandatory green rating systems that ensure better building performance and less environmental impact. The United States has developed different green codes that efficiently implement green practices during construction. Different states adopt green codes as the governing code in construction.

7.1.3. Green Building Rating Systems

Table 3. Main differences between the green building rating systems adopted by the three countries.

Country	Egypt	UAE	United States
Green Rating Systems	Two rating systems are available: the Tarsheed and Green Pyramid Rating System.	- Each Emirate has its own rating system. - This study focuses on the Estidama Pearl Rating System in Abu Dhabi and the Al Sa’fat rating system in Dubai.	- Different rating systems are available; the most well-known and used is the LEED rating system.
Status (obligatory vs. voluntary)	Voluntary	- Abu Dhabi mandated the Estidama Pearl Rating System. - Dubai mandated Al Sa’fat rating system.	- LEED is mandated in some states for specific building types, especially government-owned buildings. - LEED is incentivized in other states.
Incentives	Marketing only	- It is obligatory to use rating systems in Dubai and Abu Dhabi.	- Tax reduction - Marketing.

summarizes the main differences between green building rating systems adopted by the three countries considered in this study: Egypt, the UAE, and the United States.

Egypt has developed two green building rating systems, but both are voluntary to be adopted. In addition, there are no governmental incentives to use any of them. Usually, developers who use one of these rating systems are aware of the environmental risks associated with the construction industry; they also use that as a marketing tool for their properties. As mentioned before, Dubai and Abu Dhabi have mandatory green building rating systems, which ensure better building performance and fewer carbon emissions from the construction industry. The United States has the well-known LEED green building rating system, which is obligatory for use in some states and incentivized in others.

Therefore, from the former comparison, it is evident that Egypt could be considered the least likely country to enforce actions toward mitigating climate change, especially in the construction industry. Climate Action Tracker rates Egypt’s climate action as insufficient [123]. The Climate Action Tracker is “an independent scientific project” that follows up on the climate actions and measures taken by the government and compares them to the targeted aim agreed upon in the Paris Agreement [124]. The Climate Action Tracker indicated that Egypt’s updated National Determined Contribution (NDC) lacks transparency and clarity, which makes it difficult to assess them quantitatively. Egypt did not include an unconditional target in its NDC update, which indicates minimal to no action and will not help achieve the Paris Agreement targets [123]. To receive a 1.5 °C compatible rating for its conditional target, Egypt should reduce its emissions by 25% with international support [123].

The Climate Action Tracker considers the UAE’s actions and policies as “insufficient” as there is a large gap between the UAE’s policies, the 1.5 °C target, and the NDC target [125]. Although the UAE was one of the first countries to submit a new NDC to the UNFCCC with a reduced emissions target, it does not take strict actions in the real economy. The UAE plans to increase the production and consumption of fossil fuels by 2030, which is inconsistent with the plans to reduce warming to less than 1.5 degrees [125]. In addition, it is reported that the UAE will use its COP presidency to enforce new oil and gas deals with foreign countries. Therefore, it is predicted that the UAE will not achieve its NDC targets as the gap is huge between the UAE policies, the 1.5-degree target, and its NDC targets [125]. However, the Climate Action Tracker evaluates the UAE’s most recent 2023 NDC target as “almost sufficient” compared to predicted domestic emissions trajectories. The “almost sufficient” rating means that the UAE’s 2030 NDC target is not yet compatible with limiting warming to 1.5 °C, but it may be with reasonable adjustments.

The climate action tracker rates the United States’s action towards climate change as overall insufficient; however, it is almost sufficient in terms of the NDC target against domestic pathways less than 2 °C [126]. The almost sufficient indicates that the domestic target is not yet consistent with the 1.5 °C temperature limit set by the Paris Agreement but could reach it with moderate improvements as its target is to reduce emissions by 50 to 52% by 2030, below 2005 levels [126].

7.2. Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Countries’ Actions towards Climate Change

Although different endeavors are taken to enhance green practices regarding policies, green building rating systems, or green codes, these endeavors are inefficient, according to the key indicators. The factors that lead to such inefficiency are discussed in this section.

Although the construction industry desires more sustainable construction, most developing countries are reluctant to exceed their clients’ requirements. In contrast, most clients would endorse sustainable practices if they were only within conventional construction procedures [127]. There are main challenges to adopting sustainable principles in construction. One of these challenges is the expensiveness of sustainable practices, especially the initial cost compared to conventional construction [128]. Other challenges are low client demand for implementing sustainable practices [129], ignorance of the essence of sustainability, a lack of government support, and a lack of building regulations that support the implementation of sustainable practices, in addition to the high risk of investment and initial cost [130]. Culture and established practices are among the most significant barriers to adopting sustainable practices. In addition, the need for more effective regulation to motivate the reduction of embodied emissions has hindered the normalization of sustainable practices. Accordingly, the objectives of sustainability are often ignored. Therefore, although many stakeholders are aware of the need for change, a few have the will to accept the financial and reputational risks associated with such adoption [131].

The barriers to green practices could be grouped into five main categories: technological barriers, stakeholders’ attitudes, knowledge limitations, higher costs, and limitations in the market [132]. The main challenges in generating climate science and information to enable more resilient buildings are acquiring accurate climate data, scaling climates, and modeling specifically for geographical localities. In addition, to better address public policy discussion, the crucial role of codes in climate resilience should be highlighted, appropriate performance targets and acceptable risk levels should be identified, and impact analysis should be performed to justify possible alterations to regulations and standards. Building codes are part of the solution to having a resilient built environment; however, improvements should also be made in urban and regional planning [133].

According to [134], the stakeholders that could influence companies in Egypt to adopt an environmental management system are top management, the bid awarded in public projects, the Egyptian environmental affairs agency, and the company’s suppliers. The author of [135] stated that the main obstacles to implementing environmental policies in Egypt are the lack of regulatory frameworks to enforce the laws that have been established, in addition to the inconsistent dependence on non-governmental organizations such as NGOs to support these environmental policies.

Despite efforts taken by the UAE in the climate change field, it is one of the oil-producing countries that is the primary source of fossil fuel consumption. It is argued that the UAE’s decrease in domestic use of fossil fuels is meant to use these hydrocarbons for export, which eliminates their climate mitigation value as the energy ministries and oil companies are not changing the economic development and wealth creation through their hydrocarbon models [136]. Therefore, we find that the UAE has a target to increase the adoption of renewable energy; however, it does not have targets to reduce economy-wide emissions [136]. Although the UAE updated its 2050 energy strategy to enforce the use of 30% clean power and removed the 12% coal power share from its 2050 targets, this strategy has a significant role for fossil gas in 2050, which contradicts the net zero goal that was stated to be achieved by then [125]. The UAE still has high-level commitments to oil rents for the coming 20 to 30 years, which makes us question the feasibility and effectiveness of its climate change policies. One of these policies is to expand renewable energy projects to reach 589 megawatts, up from only 137 megawatts in 2014. It is claimed that this policy is to secure energy related to the escalating domestic demand for natural gas used to enhance oil recovery in water desalination plants and fuel power plants. Therefore, by increasing the domestic use of renewable energy, the UAE is reducing the need to import natural gas and using more oil and gas reserves for export purposes [136].

In some cases, the government itself does not support sustainable practices. This is evident in the United States when there is federal policy gridlock and rollbacks regarding climate change action. However, many US states demonstrated their commitment to climate change through significant actions [137]. That federal setback was evident when President Trump declared the United States’s withdrawal from the Paris Climate Agreement. In response, states and cities proclaimed they were still committed to the Paris Agreement goals, and 25 governors joined the US Climate Alliance [137]. Even though many states have passed climate policies, there are still several barriers to enacting robust and practical state-level climate policies as opposed to symbolic policies that only define objectives without imposing obligations or without enforcing consequences for noncompliance [138], as cited by [137]. The adoption of climate policy is facilitated by democratic control; however, republican leadership usually disapproves of climate legislation [137].

In addition, media coverage influences public opinion towards climate change. Therefore, when it presents climate science as uncertain or does not engage different views, it shifts the public and governmental agenda and interest away from climate change [137]. Moreover, there is a countermovement to climate action from interest groups like fossil fuels, electric utilities, and business lobbies. Therefore, the economic co-dependence between the fossil fuel sector and state governments protects their businesses to improve development agendas and economic growth, which affects the environment and climate action [137]. It is worth highlighting that the United States rejoined the Paris Agreement under the ruling of President Biden [139]; however, the absence of consistency and stringency in policy coverage among the states of the United States makes it challenging to achieve climate mitigation objectives. Therefore, more efforts are needed for a more robust climate policy application [137].

Green building design depends mainly on the environmental aspect of sustainability [118]. The focus of green practices is the environment, which aims to adopt practices that are less harmful to the environment both ecologically and environmentally. In contrast, sustainable practices have three main pillars, which are environmental, economic, and social impacts. Recently, a fourth pillar has been widely considered, which is the institutional dimension. This institutional dimension stems from communication, cooperation, and other interpersonal processes, which should yield rules and information that govern the interaction between members of society [106]. A comparative analysis of various green building rating systems revealed that while the environmental element receives the most attention and consideration, sustainability’s social and economic dimensions are given less weight [140]. The environmental element accounts for around 68.3% of the indicators in various rating systems, while the social dimension is approximately 25.75%. Because most system indicators are related to the product and construction stages, most rating systems focus on evaluating the impact of the building’s embodied effects rather than the building’s entire life cycle [140]. The assessment techniques should help balance sustainability’s environmental, social, and economic aspects to improve practicality and resilience. These systems should be able to consider both multi-level applications and ongoing technical advancement [118].

Therefore, the key to more effective practices towards climate change is to embrace sustainable practices that integrate environmental, economic, and social pillars and are accepted by the institutions to guarantee facilitating procedures and adoption. It is worth highlighting that, according to the project type, the country’s culture, the life cycle and cost life cycle analysis of the recommended green practices, a tradeoff between the three pillars could be viable. Therefore, a detailed analysis should be performed first to decide which pillar would have the greatest influence and positive impact on each project. and a tradeoff could be achieved. In addition, having mandatory practices that are well-defined and inclusive rather than voluntary procedures, which are only sometimes properly implemented, is another essential and effective way to mitigate the effects of climate change. Furthermore, coherent policies that mitigate climate change across all sectors of society are crucial to achieving efficient results on the overall country profile instead of misleading results that indicate a reduction in emissions in one industry while the production of fossil fuels themselves is not altered.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations

In conclusion, climate change is a significant challenge that faces our world today. The construction industry is considered one of the main sectors contributing to climate change, either through high emissions, high energy and resource consumption, or waste generation. Countries take different actions to mitigate the effects of the construction industry on climate change, mitigating its effects. This study focused on three countries, that is, Egypt, the UAE, and the United States, representing developing and developed countries’ actions by exploring their recent laws and policies, green codes, and green building rating systems.

The following observations were found:

• Egypt lags behind in enforcing actions toward mitigating climate change, especially in the construction industry.
• The Climate Action Tracker rates Egypt’s climate action as insufficient.
• Although the UAE has taken serious actions towards the climate crisis in different sectors, it has not taken strict actions in the real economy.
• The UAE plans to increase the production and consumption of fossil fuels by 2030, which is inconsistent with the plans to reduce warming to less than 1.5 degrees.
• The Climate Action Tracker considers the UAE’s actions and policies as “insufficient” as there is a large gap between the UAE’s policies.
• However, the Climate Action Tracker evaluates the UAE’s most recent 2023 NDC target as “almost sufficient” compared to predicted domestic emissions trajectories.
• Federal setbacks sometimes hinder the wide implementation of green practices in the United States.
• The climate action tracker rates the United States’s action towards climate change as overall insufficient; however, it is almost sufficient in terms of the NDC target against domestic pathways less than 2 °C.
• Most actions taken are insufficient as they focus on the environmental aspect of sustainability, ignoring the social, economic, and institutional pillars.
• Resistance among stakeholders towards implementing green practices hinders the widespread adoption of such practices.
• Sometimes, the country’s target to reduce emissions in the construction industry is inconsistent with a broad reduction in fossil fuel production. That lessens the effects of such positive actions in one sector as the country’s overall emissions are unchanged.

Therefore, the key to efficient procedures towards climate change in general and the construction industry in particular is to have consistent, stringent, and inclusive policies enforced through codes or laws for broader implementation. In addition, consider all the sustainability pillars, including economic, social, and institutional, besides the environmental aspect. It is crucial to have policies accepted by all stakeholders with a minimum of resistance. Moreover, adopting national targets to minimize emissions rather than sectoral targets will ensure that sector-specific initiatives do not have a limited impact.

Recommendations:

Based on the previous analysis, to have more efficient climate change policies in general and in the construction industry in particular, the following actions are recommended:

• To incorporate climate change topics and how construction should adapt to that phenomenon in the university curriculum.
• To increase awareness regarding climate change challenges among different stakeholders in the construction industry, such as developers, contractors, consultants, and clients.
• To enforce more mandatory sustainable practices to ensure comprehensive implementation.
• To have an integrated target to reduce emissions through all sectors, from production to consumption.
• To have more coherent, stringent, and consistent policies rather than discrete and scattered ones to ensure more effective results.
• To implement sustainable practices rather than green practices to include all pillars of sustainability, namely environmental, economic, social, and institutional.