Empowering Rural Food Security in the Eastern Cape Province: Exploring the Role and Determinants of Family Food Gardens

Abstract

Food insecurity remains a pressing issue globally, exacerbated in regions like sub-Saharan Africa, where rural communities face significant challenges in accessing nutritious food. The Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is particularly vulnerable, with high levels of poverty and limited infrastructure contributing to food insecurity among its rural households. In response to these challenges, family food gardens have emerged as a promising strategy to enhance local food production, improve dietary diversity, and foster economic resilience within these communities. Despite the potential benefits of family food gardens, empirical evidence of their effectiveness in mitigating food insecurity at the household level in the Eastern Cape Province is scarce and remains limited. Understanding the factors that influence the success of these gardens, including socio-economic, environmental, and institutional determinants, is crucial for optimizing their impact and scalability. Hence, this study sought to comprehensively explore and investigate the role of family food gardens in improving food security within rural households in the Eastern Cape Province. It seeks to identify the determinants that contribute to the success of these gardens and their potential to alleviate food insecurity. The study made use of a descriptive research design, and the study utilized purposive sampling to gather data from 130 rural households via structured questionnaires. Data analyses incorporated in the study included the Household Dietary Diversity Score and logit regression model to explore the impacts and determinants of family food gardens on food security. The study findings underscore the significant positive contributions of family food gardens to rural communities. They serve as vital sources of fresh crops and vegetables, supplementing household nutrition and providing temporary employment. Constraints identified in the study include financial limitations, theft, water scarcity, inadequate fencing, and limited market access. The study insights highlight the fact that socio-economic and institutional factors such as age, gender, household income, and access to credit are critical influencers of family food garden success. These empirical results offer practical implications for policymakers, governmental agencies, and local communities seeking to promote sustainable agricultural practices and alleviate food insecurity. The research highlights how essential family food gardens are for improving food security among rural families in the Eastern Cape Province. The findings suggest that a joint effort is needed from the government, policymakers, NGOs, and local communities to overcome challenges and make the most of social and economic resources. By working together, these groups can enhance the role of family food gardens, making them a more effective solution for local food production and a stronger defence against food insecurity in the region.

1. Introduction

The global population is on the rise and is anticipated to surpass 10 billion by 2050, leading to a need for increased food production and reserves [1,2]. These trends in population growth and urbanization put more pressure on already strained farming systems. Developing countries are strongly affected by this trend. This is demonstrated in Asia and Africa where more than 92% of the world’s malnourished people are living; 552 and 226.4 million, respectively [3]. Food insecurity is a growing global concern, with around 842 million people, or about 12% of the world’s population, suffering from undernourishment [4]. About 1.4 billion people live on less than $1.25 a day, and one billion of them are in rural areas where agriculture is their main source of income, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia [5,6]. In South Africa, rural households frequently face challenges in securing enough food, despite considerable efforts from both public and private sectors to support their needs [7,8]. Limited access to food is the key issue in food security, and the global food crisis has worsened food insecurity, particularly in developing nations like those in Africa. Many of these countries continue to face significant challenges in achieving food security [9]. South Africa is one of the most unequal countries globally, with extremely high levels of absolute poverty [10]. South Africa is recognized for having strong national food security, thanks to its robust food production and import systems [11,12] but massive income disparities within the economy have seen rural dwellers in rural areas among the poorest [13]. Moreover, South Africa is mostly characterized as food secure at a national level but food insecure at a household level [14].

Rural residents in South Africa experience significant food insecurity and malnutrition, driven by high unemployment, income inequality, and limited asset ownership. The country faces serious nutritional issues, largely due to low incomes and inadequate education on food choices [15]. As a result, many rural households face ongoing food shortages, poor nutrition, and low-quality food. There is an urgent need to address this crisis and improve food security and nutrition in these areas.

Food security is a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for active and healthy life [16]. Thus, household food security exists when food is available, accessible, affordable, and utilized, and there is stability within the household. Food insecurity refers to the uncertainty or restricted access to enough nutritious and safe food [17,18]. Food insecurity in Africa has reached an all-time high, affecting 38.3 million people [19].

The increase in food insecurity is driven by severe shocks such as localized shortfalls in cereal production, worsening conflicts and insecurity, reduced cross-border trade, high food prices, and macroeconomic challenges exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic [20]. This issue impacts many developing countries, including South Africa, where one in four people suffers from malnutrition due to food shortages, low wages, and high food prices [21].

Eastern Cape as the second largest province within the Republic of South Africa is severely impacted by widespread food insecurity and poverty, especially in the rural areas. Therefore, there is a continuous need to increase food production and develop different strategies to enhance food production. For years, the country has implemented various strategies to boost local food production and improve food security in rural areas. Despite these efforts, the global food insecurity crisis continues [22]. Community food gardens have been identified as one of the possible ways of enhancing food security and a solution to some issues surrounding poverty alleviation and local income generation [23], although their impact and relative cost-effectiveness have not been well researched and documented [24,25].

Community gardens are defined as small portions of land available in rural and urban settlements within walking distance of the family homestead. These are widely used to grow vegetables and crops for home consumption and surpluses for markets [26]. These gardens are one of the most important sources of food in many rural areas in developing countries and are contributing significantly to meeting daily household needs for better nutrition and health. Community food gardens help rural households by ensuring they have direct access to food, reducing their grocery expenses, and generating extra income from selling surplus produce. These gardens can significantly advance efforts to reduce hunger and poverty, supporting the first two Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Effective involvement at the rural household level is crucial because this is where food insecurity is most common and severe [27]. These interventions such as community food gardens will play a significant role through a direct contribution of food supply for consumption, creation of employment, and income generation from selling food surpluses for rural dwellers. This approach will improve food security for rural households and motivate them to become involved in community food gardens, helping to improve their situation. Community food gardens are crucial for providing food, conserving resources on the farm, and remain a key food production method for many rural families [28].

Although community food gardens significantly boost food security, they face challenges such as socio-economic issues, institutional barriers, farm conditions, and external factors. Food insecurity remains a major concern for rural households, particularly in the Eastern Cape, where high poverty levels exacerbate the problem [29]. Many rural households in the province struggle with food insecurity because of insufficient food supplies, limited purchasing power, and poor access at both national and local levels. Addressing this issue requires major changes in the agricultural sector to meet the growing food demand.

However, community gardens are perceived as a strategy to enhance food security, especially in rural areas where food insecurity is dominant and can be fostered through suitable agricultural extension. Community gardens have been identified as one of the possible ways of improving food security and offer great solutions to some issues surrounding poverty alleviation and local income generation [23,30]. Reducing the determinants of food security is an imperative approach for rural households to achieve food self-sufficiency and poverty reduction among rural households. Therefore, the study aims to explore and investigate the contribution and determinants of community food gardens as a promising approach to food security in rural households in the Eastern Cape Province.

1.1. Conceptual Framework of Food Security for Rural Households

This study explores and investigates the household food production theory, focusing on the role of food gardens in bolstering food security within households by enhancing production, and dietary diversity, and reducing reliance on external food sources. It emphasizes the pivotal role of factors such as land and labour availability, along with agricultural knowledge, in shaping household food production dynamics and resilience. By scrutinizing these determinants, researchers gain valuable insights into how households navigate challenges and meet their dietary needs, fostering self-sufficiency.

Food security is a multifaceted and dynamic concept comprising various dimensions, including availability, affordability, accessibility, consumption, utilization, and stability. Moreover, it encompasses elements of agroecosystem sustainability and resilience, increasingly pertinent in contemporary policy dialogues [31]. Recognized as a paramount concern alongside budgeting and resource allocation, food security remains subject to ongoing evolution and debate. It is imperative to acknowledge that genuine food security encompasses all these dimensions. While influenced by diverse factors at different levels, food security is ultimately defined at the individual level. Furthermore, mere access to food does not guarantee consumption; the amount of food consumed must align with an individual’s entitlement set.

Figure 1 illustrates the food security status among rural households in the study area. Through a comprehensive understanding of these dynamics, interventions can be tailored to address specific challenges and promote sustainable food security outcomes. This study uses a household food production theory to explore how food gardens can boost food security within families. It highlights the importance of food gardens in increasing food production, improving dietary variety, and reducing dependence on outside food sources. The theory also emphasizes the crucial role of factors like land, labour, and agricultural knowledge in influencing how households produce food. By examining these determinants, researchers gain insights into the mechanisms through which households cultivate resilience and self-sufficiency in meeting their dietary needs.

1.2. Aspects of Food Security

Food security refers to the condition where all people, always, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food security is essential for promoting health, reducing poverty, and fostering economic development in rural households in remote areas [33]. This concept encompasses several dimensions, each crucial for understanding and addressing hunger and malnutrition comprehensively in rural households.

Availability: Availability is the cornerstone of food security, encapsulating the tangible presence of food within a designated area or market [34]. This encompasses the entire spectrum of food systems, from production and distribution to storage. It entails ensuring the sufficient quantity and quality of food, whether sourced domestically or through imports, including food aid when necessary. In a food-secure setting, there exists a consistent and dependable supply of food to adequately fulfil the dietary requirements of the population [35]. Key determinants of availability encompass agricultural productivity levels, the robustness of transportation and storage infrastructure, and the intricacies of trade policies and market dynamics. By addressing these factors, societies, especially rural households, can lay a solid foundation for ensuring that food is consistently accessible to all, thus fostering broader food security objectives.

Affordability: Affordability is a critical facet of food security, reflecting the capacity of individuals or households to procure a sufficient and diverse range of food items. Even in instances where food is physically present, its accessibility may remain indefinable if it proves prohibitively expensive for specific segments of society [36]. Several factors contribute to affordability, including household income levels, prevailing food prices, inflation rates, and the presence of social safety nets or food assistance initiatives. By addressing these determinants, communities can strive to ensure that nutritious food remains within reach for all members, thereby bolstering broader food security efforts.

Access: Access is a fundamental pillar of food security, encompassing both the physical and economic dimensions of obtaining food. It extends beyond mere proximity to food outlets, encompassing the broader capacity to acquire food through transportation, infrastructure, and purchasing power. Essential to this concept is individuals’ access to adequate resources—known as entitlements to procure a nutritious diet [37]. Entitlements encompass the range of commodity bundles a person can command within the legal, political, economic, and social frameworks of their community, including traditional rights such as access to common resources [38]. Access is profoundly influenced by various factors, including geographical location, the structure of local markets, income distribution, social barriers, and the efficiency of food distribution systems. By understanding and addressing these determinants, rural communities can work towards ensuring that all individuals have the means to obtain the food necessary for a healthy and nourished life.

Utilization: Utilization plays a pivotal role in ensuring food security by emphasizing the nutritional quality and safety of the food consumed by individuals or households. Utilization encompasses various aspects, including dietary diversity, food preparation, and storage practices, as well as access to clean water and sanitation facilities [39]. Optimal utilization ensures that food is efficiently converted into essential nutrients to support overall health and well-being. Influential factors affecting utilization span cultural norms, education levels, food preferences, and adherence to food safety standards. The process of utilization extends beyond mere food intake to encompass a holistic approach that integrates adequate diet, clean water, sanitation, and access to healthcare, aiming to achieve a state of nutritional well-being where all physiological needs are met [40]. This underscores the significance of non-food inputs in food security, highlighting that merely having access to food is insufficient if individuals are unable to derive its nutritional benefits due to frequent illness or other health challenges.

Stability: Stability is a fundamental aspect of food security, denoting the reliability and predictability of food access and availability across time [41]. It encapsulates the capacity of food systems to withstand and recover from various shocks and stresses, including natural disasters, economic fluctuations, or political instability, which have the potential to disrupt food production, distribution, and access. A stable food system is characterized by its resilience to such external pressures, ensuring that food remains consistently accessible to all members of society, even in the face of adversity [42]. By fostering stability, communities can enhance their ability to meet the nutritional needs of their populations, thereby advancing broader food security objectives and promoting resilience in the face of uncertainty.

1.3. Influencing Factors

Food security, encompassing availability, affordability, access, utilization, and stability, is contingent upon various factors such as household demographic characteristics, environmental conditions, access to water and inputs, social cultures, resource endowment, and access to institutional support, which collectively determine households’ ability to meet their food security objectives. Drastic changes in these circumstances, such as those occurring during periods of drought or social unrest, can severely disrupt food production potential and income generation, jeopardizing food access for affected households [32,43]. These disruptions not only temporarily hinder access to food but also often result in the loss of productive assets like livestock and crops, crucial for food availability. Moreover, they can have long-term implications for households’ future food production capacity, threatening overall food security. Consequently, worsening conditions may lead to food insecurity, with calorie intake potentially falling below the recommended threshold of three meals/day per person in adult equivalent terms. Within the nutritional context, food insecurity impacts overall meal consumption, dietary composition, and nutritional well-being. Utilization, discussed extensively in the literature, involves socio-economic and biological dimensions, with optimal utilization achieved through proper processing, storage, and knowledge of nutrition, health, and sanitation practices [44,45].

Household Demographic Characteristics: Household demographic characteristics play a significant role in determining meal intake per day. Factors such as household size and composition can influence food availability and distribution within the household. Larger households may encounter difficulties in ensuring an adequate supply of food for all members, particularly if resources are scarce [46]. Additionally, socioeconomic factors such as income level, employment status, education level, and household structure have a profound impact on access to food and meal frequency. Also, higher-income households typically have greater financial resources to afford regular meals, while unemployment or low income can contribute to food insecurity and a reduction in the number of meals consumed per day [47]. Understanding these demographic dynamics is crucial for designing targeted interventions to improve food security and ensure adequate nutrition for all members of the household.

Resource Endowment: Resource endowment significantly influences food security status and meal intake per day. The availability of resources such as land, labour, and capital directly impact food production and access to food within rural households. Results from other studies show that households with sufficient resources are better positioned to produce their food or purchase a sufficient quantity for regular meals, whereas households with limited resources may struggle to meet their dietary needs [48,49]. Moreover, asset ownership, including land, livestock, and savings, plays a crucial role in determining food security status. Asset-poor households often rely more heavily on external support or resort to coping strategies such as reducing meal frequency during times of hardship. Recognizing the disparities in resource endowment is essential for devising targeted interventions to address food insecurity and ensure equitable access to nutritious meals among all segments of the population.

Access to Institutional Support: Access to institutional support is pivotal in enhancing food security and meal intake per day. Government programs, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and community-based initiatives serve as essential pillars in this endeavour. Social safety nets provided by these institutions, such as food assistance programs or cash transfers, offer crucial assistance to vulnerable households, enabling them to afford regular meals and mitigate food insecurity [50]. Additionally, agricultural extension services and training programs play a vital role in building the capacity of households for food production. By imparting valuable knowledge and skills, these initiatives empower communities to enhance their self-sufficiency and increase meal frequency, thereby contributing to overall food security [51]. Recognizing the importance of institutional support is paramount for developing comprehensive strategies to address food insecurity and ensure equitable access to nutritious meals for all.

Environmental Conditions: Environmental conditions exert a profound influence on food production and availability, significantly affecting meal intake per day. Factors such as climate, soil quality, and the occurrence of natural disasters play critical roles in shaping agricultural outcomes [52]. Additionally, access to ample sunlight and water resources is essential for maintaining optimal conditions for plant growth and development. Adverse environmental events, such as droughts, floods, or pest outbreaks, pose significant challenges to food production systems [53,54]. These events can lead to crop failures, resulting in diminished food availability and access and, consequently, reduced meal intake per day for affected households. Understanding and addressing the impact of environmental conditions on food security is essential for developing resilience strategies and ensuring sustained access to nutritious meals in the face of environmental challenges.

Social and Cultural Factors: Social and cultural factors play a significant role in shaping meal intake per day within households. Social norms, cultural practices, and food preferences exert considerable influence on meal patterns and dietary choices [55]. These factors determine the types of foods consumed, meal timing, and portion sizes. Additionally, gender roles and intra-household dynamics can impact food distribution and access within families. In many cultures, traditional gender roles dictate responsibilities related to food preparation and allocation. Consequently, it was observed that unequal distribution of food may occur, leading to variations in meal intake among household members and subsequently increasing food instability and utilization among households [56]. Understanding and addressing these social and cultural factors are essential for promoting equitable access to nutritious meals and ensuring food security for all members of the household.

Access to Water and Inputs: Access to water and inputs is integral to ensuring food security and sustaining meal intake per day within households. Clean water is indispensable for various purposes, including drinking, cooking, and irrigation, which is crucial for food production and thus influences food availability, utilization, and stability. Without access to clean water, agricultural activities and meal preparation become challenging, compromising food security [57]. Moreover, the availability of agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and tools profoundly influences food production and household food security. Adequate access to these inputs enhances agricultural productivity, enabling households to produce enough food. Conversely, limited access to inputs may constrain food production, leading to decreased meal intake per day due to insufficient availability of food [58]. Recognizing the significance of water and inputs and ensuring their accessibility is imperative for promoting food security and sustaining meal intake within households.

1.4. Food Deficit Coping Strategies

Food security represents a complex and dynamic phenomenon influenced by various factors, including duration, severity, and local socioeconomic and environmental conditions. Food insecurity manifests in both chronic and transitory forms, with chronic food insecurity posing a persistent, long-term risk to households’ ability to meet their food needs, while transitory food insecurity refers to temporary declines in food security status [59]. In response to these challenges, households employ a range of coping strategies aimed at reversing or mitigating food insecurity. These strategies, tailored to the unique circumstances of each household [60], often include deficit coping strategies such as financial aid in the form of grants and the establishment of home gardens. Among these strategies, home gardens emerge as a primary coping mechanism employed by rural households, particularly in the study’s context. These gardens play a significant role in enhancing food security status by increasing food availability, diversifying nutritional options, generating income, empowering households, fostering self-sufficiency, and enhancing climate resilience.

Home gardens have transformed the food security status of several rural households in remote areas worldwide, serving as a sustainable and impactful solution to food insecurity [61]. By integrating home gardens into their livelihood strategies, households not only ensure a steady supply of nutritious food but also cultivate a sense of ownership and agency over their food production. This not only strengthens food security at the household level but also contributes to broader community resilience in the face of environmental challenges and economic uncertainties. As such, home gardens represent a versatile and empowering solution to address food insecurity, offering tangible benefits that extend far beyond mere sustenance.

1.5. Contributions of Home Food Gardens to Food Security

Increased Food Availability: Enhanced food availability is a pivotal outcome of food gardening initiatives, as they significantly augment the accessibility of fresh produce within rural households. By cultivating their crops, households diversify their food sources, thereby diminishing their dependence on external markets. This increased availability not only ensures a more reliable food supply but also promotes dietary diversity and nutritional adequacy. Consequently, it was found that food gardens play a crucial role in bolstering the resilience of rural communities against fluctuations in market conditions and external food supply chains [62]. By empowering households to produce a greater portion of their food locally, food gardens contribute substantially to broader food security objectives, fostering self-sufficiency and enhancing the overall well-being of rural populations.

Enhanced Nutritional Diversity: Food gardens serve as invaluable resources for enhancing the nutritional diversity of diets by offering a rich assortment of fruits, vegetables, and herbs. Through the cultivation of diverse crops, rural households gain access to a broader range of nutrients essential for optimal health [63]. This diversity not only enriches the flavour and appeal of meals but also plays a crucial role in addressing micronutrient deficiencies prevalent in many rural communities. By incorporating a colourful array of fresh produce into their diets, individuals can ensure they receive a comprehensive spectrum of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants necessary for overall well-being [64]. Moreover, the availability of such nutrient-rich foods from food gardens contributes significantly to the prevention of malnutrition and the promotion of healthier lifestyles within rural households.

Income Generation: Food gardens offer an effective avenue for income generation within rural households through the sale of surplus produce in local markets [65]. This additional source of income empowers households economically, enabling them to diversify their revenue streams beyond traditional sources. The proceeds derived from selling surplus crops not only bolster financial stability but also afford households the flexibility to procure other essential food items or invest in various household needs, such as education, healthcare, or infrastructure improvements [66]. Moreover, the economic opportunities presented by food gardens contribute to poverty alleviation and socioeconomic development within rural communities, fostering resilience and prosperity among households.

Empowerment and Self-sufficiency: Food gardening emerges as a transformative force, empowering households by equipping them with the essential skills, knowledge, and resources needed to cultivate their food. Fostering self-reliance in food production mitigates reliance on external aid and elevates self-sufficiency within rural communities [67]. Through hands-on engagement in gardening activities, households not only acquire practical expertise but also cultivate a sense of ownership and agency over their food supply. This newfound autonomy enables them to navigate challenges and uncertainties more effectively, thereby enhancing resilience in the face of adverse circumstances. Furthermore, it was observed that food gardening serves as a vehicle for preserving traditional agricultural practices and cultural heritage, fostering a deeper connection to the land and promoting sustainable livelihoods for future generations [68]. In essence, food gardening transcends mere sustenance; it catalyses a paradigm shift towards empowerment, self-determination, and community resilience.

Climate Resilience: Food gardens emerge as essential bastions of resilience in the face of climate variability and extreme weather events. Through the diversified cultivation of crops, they fortify communities against the adverse impacts of fluctuating climatic conditions, safeguarding against crop failures and ensuring sustained food security. By cultivating a diverse array of crops with varying resilience to specific climate stressors, such as drought or flooding, food gardens enhance the resilience of agricultural systems [42]. Additionally, the decentralized nature of food gardens enables communities to adapt swiftly to changing environmental conditions, mitigating the risk of food shortages and enhancing their capacity to thrive amidst adversity [69]. Moreover, the resilience cultivated through food gardening extends beyond mere survival, fostering a deeper connection to the land and promoting sustainable agricultural practices that are essential for building resilience in the face of ongoing climate change. In essence, food gardens serve as critical anchors of resilience, enabling communities to weather the storms of environmental uncertainty and emerge stronger and more resilient than before.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study

The area employed for the conduction of this study is the Eastern Cape Province. This province is ranked as the second largest province in South Africa after Northern Cape Province [70]. Eastern Cape is a rural province within South Africa with an estimated population of 6,562,053 (12.7% of the nation) [15]. The area is economically driven by agriculture, automotive manufacturing, and tourism. The Eastern Cape province suffers from a high poverty rate and unemployment which resulted in the province lying below South Africa’s poverty line (which is ZAR 624 a month) [71]. The study was conducted in two district municipalities of this province, namely: OR Tambo and Alfred Ndzo districts. These districts were selected mainly because (1) the land in these districts belongs to Traditional Authority and (2) the land is mainly used for farming purposes because of the fertile soils and good annual rainfall [72].

Most of the rural households in these districts practice crop, vegetable, and livestock farming [73]. The study made use of a cross-sectional research design. This design is quantitative in nature and takes into consideration the time for the conduction of the research [74]. The study was conducted within a specified timeframe and only considered two districts of the whole province to meet the time set for its execution. The cross-sectional design offers efficiency in data collection to draw robust statistical inferences about the selected sample or population [75].

2.2. Sampling Procedure and Sample Size

The study is quantitative in nature and adopted a quantitative research approach to capture research information from respondents. The study made use of purposive sampling to collect data from rural households. This sampling technique involves selecting participants according to the study criteria [76]. This technique was chosen due to its capability of presenting in-depth understanding of a specific research phenomenon when it comes to seeking context-specific data [77]. The unit of analysis was rural households, and the sample size was 130 households. The sample size for this study was obtained using the Taro Yamane Scale invented in 1967 by Taro Yamane. This statistical method was created with the intention of gathering concise and sufficient information regarding the subset of a population [78]. This statistical formula has been previously adopted by several studies [79,80]. The Taro Yamane formula is as follows (Equation (1)):

$$\mathrm{n}={\displaystyle \frac{z^2. p.q.N}{e^2.\left(N-1\right)+z^2.p.q}} \dots$$

(1)

where: n = sample size (unknown); z = the z-value of a given confidence level (95% for this study which is a z-value of 1.96); N = size of the total population (6,562,053); p = sample proportion (0.5) (based on personal judgment); q = 1 − p which would be the remaining sample proportion (0.5 for this study); and e = margin of error for the precision of data (this study will use a precision of 8.6% which is 0.086).

Substituting the values in Equation (1) will then provide a sample size of 130 as expressed in Equation (2):

$$\mathrm{n}={\displaystyle \frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^2.\left(0.5\right).\left(0.5\right).\left(\mathrm{6,562,053}\right)}{{\left(0.086\right)}^2.\left(\mathrm{6,562,053}-1\right)+{\left(1.96\right)}^2.\left(0.5\right)\left(0.5\right)}} \dots$$

(2)

n = 130

2.3. Data Collection

The study made use of both primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires. The data were collected using a questionnaire on household profiles, food security status, challenges, and factors influencing community food gardens. The questionnaire was pre-tested to check its reliability and test the research instrument’s adequacy, appropriateness, and effectiveness. Pilot testing is a preliminary small-scale study used to evaluate data collection instruments. Its purpose is to identify areas for improvement in these instruments before conducting the full-scale study [81]. For this study, 13 respondents, representing 10% of the total sample size, were selected in the study area for pilot testing and were not included in the main survey. To ensure the collection of relevant, credible, and reliable information, the questionnaire was translated into IsiXhosa, the participants’ native language, to facilitate effective communication. Also, secondary data were used to support and contextualize the results obtained from the study.

2.4. Data Analysis

The collected data were coded and entered into an Excel Version 2406 spreadsheet and then exported to the STATA 15 statistical software package for the purpose of analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate rural households’ profiles, the contribution of community food gardens, and challenges faced using mean, percentages, frequencies, pie charts, and tables. The Household Dietary Diversity Score and Household Food Consumption Score were used to estimate food security status among rural households. Lastly, the logit model measures the socio-economic factors affecting home gardens as a living strategy for rural households.

2.5. Household Dietary Diversity Score

The Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) is a widely used tool for evaluating household nutrition security by examining the diversity of dietary intake [82]. The Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) measures the range of foods consumed by a household or individual over a set period. It includes questions that apply to both individuals and households. Dietary diversity encompasses the variety of foods consumed, access to food, and evaluates whether individuals are obtaining the essential nutrients in their diet [83]. The dietary diversity score concerns the quality of food consumed by the household instead of the quantity consumed. However, consumption patterns may vary due to seasonality.

The HDDS questionnaire is simple and cost-effective in collecting data. The indicators for household nutrient security in the HDDS analysis include dietary diversity, frequency, and food sources. The independent variables for household dietary diversity are the number of meals in a 24 h recall period. Respondents will state the type of foods consumed in a 24 h recall at a household level. The HDDS comprises 12 food groups (

Table 1. The food groups in the Household Dietary Diversity Score.

Food Group	Food Types	Score
1	Any bread, rice, biscuits, fat cakes, or other food made from millet, sorghum, or wheat	1
2	Any potatoes and sweet potatoes or any foods made from roots and tubers	1
3	Any yellow or orange and green vegetables	1
4	Any fruits	1
5	Any beef, pork, lamb, mutton, chicken, hearts, and other organ meats	1
6	Any eggs	1
7	Any fresh fish or dried fish	1
8	Any foods made from beans, peas, or lentils	1
9	Any dairy products: milk, yoghurt, cheese, or any other milk product	1
10	Any foods containing fat, butter, or oil	1
11	Any sugar or honey	1
12	Condiments: tea, coffee, sauces, cool drink, juice	1
Total Score		12

Key: Answering “yes” to any food group attracts a score of 1 for the food group, while “no” attracts a score of 0. Source: Author compilation (2024).

). Each food group represents a numeric code of 1 (if consumed) or 0 (otherwise). A household score ranges from 0 to 12 and equals the total number of food groups consumed by the household. The following represents how an average HDDS is calculated (Equation (3)):

$$Average HDDS={\displaystyle \frac{Sum \left(HDDS\right)}{Total number of households}}$$

(3)

2.5.1. Household Food Consumption Score

The study adopted the Household Food Consumption Score to measure food security among rural households in the study area. The HFCS was employed to complement the HDDS to bring clarity to households’ access to certain food groups [63]. This food group access classification is obtained by aggregating the frequency of consumption of food items in each group. The frequency obtained is weighted with the nutritional value of the food groups by multiplying the aggregate score by the frequency of consumption and its weighting. Summing the weighted food group scores gives a continuous measure of HFCS. The HDDS alone does not analyse household food consumption concerning quantities consumed [84]. Consequently, the HFCS was used to support the HDDS analysis. The Household Food Consumption Score (HFCS) assesses food access by dividing household food data into eight categories: main staples, pulses, vegetables, fruits, meat/fish, milk, sugar, and oil.

Table 2. Food groups in the household food consumption score and their weighting.

Food Item	Food Type/s	Weight
1	Main Staples (maize, rice, and wheat)	2
2	Pulses (beans)	3
3	Vegetables (cabbage, spinach, etc.)	1
4	Fruit (apples, avocado, etc.)	1
5	Meat/Fish (white/red meat and fish)	4
6	Milk	4
7	Sugar	0.5
8	Oil/Fats	0.5

Source: [86].

lists the food groups used to estimate the Household Food Consumption Score (HFCS) along with their respective weightings. The HFCS continuous measure is used to determine a household’s food consumption status based on these thresholds: 0 to 21 (poor), 21.5 to 35 (borderline), and greater than 35 (acceptable) [85]. This study adopts the HFCS because it enhances the ability to calculate dietary diversity and food frequency.

2.5.2. Logit Regression

The study utilized a logit regression model to analyse the factors influencing food gardens, which are seen as a promising solution for food security in rural households. To assess the dependence of binary dependent variables on one or more independent variables, researchers often use models like the linear probability model, binary logit model, and binary probit model. This study specifically chose the logit regression model because “logit” refers to the log-likelihoods, which indicate the probability of an outcome falling into one of two groups based on a continuous predictor [87]. The study chose this method because the outcome is binary, indicating whether households participate in food gardens or not. The logit regression model was preferred as it is suitable for a wider range of survey conditions compared to discriminant analysis. The logit regression model is one of the most extensively used models to investigate the independent effect on binomial outcomes.

The logit models pledge that the projected likelihoods surge but never step outside the 0–1 interval and the relationship between probability (P_i) and explanatory variable (X_i) is non-linear [88]. In this paper, there were two possible outcomes: “food secure” or “not food secure.” A binary regression model was developed to explain this, where Y = 1 represents a state where the household is food secure, and Y = 0 represents a state where the household is not food secure. Assuming that X represents a set of explanatory variables and P is the probability that Y = 1, the relationship can be expressed using the following equation (Equation (4)):

$$P_i=E (Y={\displaystyle \frac{1}{X_i}})={\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+e^{-(\alpha +\beta X_i)}}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+e^{-\left(Z_i\right)}}}$$

(4)

For ease of description, the logit becomes a linear function of diverse explanatory variables:

$$L_i=ln \left[{\displaystyle \frac{P_i }{1-P_i }}\right]=Z_i={\beta }_0+{\beta }_1{X}_1+{\beta }_2{X}_2+{\beta }_3{X}_3+\dots \dots +{\beta }_n{X}_n$$

(5)

where:

• P_i represents the probability of being food secure;
• 1 − P_i signifies the probability of being food insecure;
• L_i is the logit;
• X_i is a vector of relevant household characteristics;
• β_i is a vector of parameters to be estimated.

Also, the logit model was adopted due to its numerical stability, thus encompassing issues with collinearity among predictors [89]. Moreover, this model offers ease of access and efficiency to simplify and compute data in all sizes of datasets [90]. The assessed coefficients do not directly specify the effect of change in the conforming explanatory variables on the probability (P) of the outcome occurring. Thus, the study assessed marginal effects to specify the effect of change in explanatory variables on the probability (P) of the outcome occurring.

3. Results

This section looks at the study findings. The study findings are divided into two sub-sections, namely Section 3.1 which is descriptive results, while Section 3.2 deals with empirical results.

3.1. Demographic Characteristics of Rural Households

This section of results is very important as it provides the profile of the respondents in the study area and what kind of activities the respondents partake in. The results reveal that most food gardeners are females accounting for 73% of the study sample while their male counterparts are 27%. These results correspond to other studies that discovered that most food gardens are dominated by females [88,91,92].

This may be due to that most females are responsible for family care and are involved in food gardens since men migrate to urban centres for better job opportunities. The average age for household farmers in the Eastern Cape is 54 years, and they show potential in farming practices. These results confirm that food gardens are mostly practiced by middle-aged groups [93,94]. This may be due to that older household heads no longer have energy due to old-age diseases which makes them unable to perform farming activities. Furthermore, the majority of young people have no desire to be involved in agriculture as they see it as non-profitable work [95].

Family size is an important element for this study and is taken as a proxy for family labour. The study results reveal that the average family size is five people per household and plays a role in providing labour. The results reveal that 62% of the household heads in the study area are married.The marital status of household heads reveals that married household heads are more likely to participate in home gardening, which is supported by conclusions from other studies [96]. This suggests that married household heads may have a greater interest in home gardening due to the potential benefits of increased household food security and income generation [97]. This was made significant as they assisted through family labour provision.

Food gardeners were found to be literate and educated with secondary education as they spent 13 years in school (in South Africa these years are equivalent to secondary education). This implied that food gardeners were able to read and interpret agricultural information as well as being knowledgeable which played a crucial role in farm decisions and management of food gardening. These results agree with findings that educated households use their knowledge to advance and apply it in their agricultural practices to increase their yields and farm returns [98]. The farming households who were involved in food gardening were landowners and had a family size of approximately 3 ha. This farm size is common in developing countries, especially in Africa, as farming households are practicing farming at a small scale and mostly producing for home consumption while the remaining surplus is sold to generate income [87].

The increased participation in food gardening was a result of households’ membership in farm organizations (69%) and access to extension services (65%) which disseminated agricultural information and training for farming. Farming households who practiced food gardening had no access to financial support, hence they relied on social security to operate the food gardening. The average household income of rural households was ZAR 6596.34. This amount is made up of social grants, remittances, and farm returns which are used to take care of the households and farm operations (

Table 3. Demographic characteristics of rural households.

Variable	Mean	t-Test
Sex: Female	0.731	0.013 **
Age	0.542	0.004 ***
Years spent in school	0.134	0.015 **
Family size	0.540	0.067
Land ownership: owners	0.550	0.156
Marital status: married	0.623	0.010 **
Farm size	0.324	0.007 ***
Access to extension services	0.652	0.043 **
Member of farm organization	0.685	0.134
Household income	6596.34	0.023 **

Note: Significant at 5% ** and 1% *** significance level.

).

3.2. Contribution of Food Gardens

Food gardening is the traditional method in which the rural dwellers are trained by their parents in every upcoming generation and is less expensive. This form of farming is mainly to produce for home consumption and surplus for income generation. Food gardening is the most dominant farming method in rural areas and is very essential for livelihood generation, especially given the economic constraints of Africa and the high prevalence of poverty. This is one of the approaches that can be adopted to reduce food insecurity and hunger in rural areas given the abundance of land available. Figure 2 below displays the contribution of food gardening in rural areas.

Findings reveal that most rural households are involved in food gardening mainly because of its contribution to the households’ food supply. Participation in food gardening increases the availability, access, utilization, and stability of food within the households which are components of food security. This type of farming ensures that rural dwellers have all the necessary food available at their disposal, thus increasing households’ health and nutrition status. These results correspond with other arguments which stated that farming plays an important role in increasing food supply for households [99].

Secondly, the results show that food gardening contributes through income generation from sales of agricultural products. Farming households that sell surplus produce at the farm gate and within their community significantly benefit from the income generated. This income plays a crucial role in supporting the household’s food security and food gardening activities. Additionally, food gardening offers part-time employment opportunities for rural residents during planting and harvesting seasons, which can substantially impact households by providing the necessary income to support their families.

3.3. Food Security Status Among Food Gardeners

This section delves into the food security status of the households in rural areas involved in the participation in food gardens to increase food security among households. The study made use of the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) and Household Food Consumption Score to estimate food security in the study.

3.4. Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS)

In this study, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) was calculated by grouping the 12 food groups and later categorized into three categories namely: Lowest Dietary Diversity (consuming three or fewer food groups), Medium Dietary Diversity (accounting for four or five food groups) and High Dietary Diversity (thus having six food groups or more).

Table 4. Food groups found in the study.

Lowest Dietary Diversity (≤3 Food Groups)	Medium Dietary Diversity (4 and 5 Food Groups)	High Dietary Diversity (≥6 Food Groups)
Milk Cereals Legumes Tubers	Cereals Tubers Meat and fish Milk	Vegetables Cereals Tubers Meat and fish Milk Oil and sugar Pulses

below demonstrates the food groups found in the study area.

The study reveals that many of the households practicing food gardening are found along the category of middle dietary diversity (56%), followed by lowest dietary diversity (24%), and high dietary diversity (20%) as shown in Figure 3. This case might be the result of high inequality and unemployment among households which in turn result in the majority of the households relying on food gardening and social securities in the form of social grants to survive and sustain their households. These results support the conclusion that most of the rural households were consuming 4–5 food groups and were placed in medium dietary diversity score (61% of their findings) [100]. This lowest dietary diversity group was found to be relying mostly on social security for survival.

In contrast, the other two food groups relied mostly on food gardens for food as they were heavily practicing food gardening and relying less on off-farm income. The results obtained further disseminated that households practicing food gardens have adequate food security for those not participating. This reveals that investing in food gardening in rural areas is a suitable approach to achieving food security. This is due to the availability of land for the households at their disposal given their cultural regulations and the necessity for financial support to purchase input as well as mentorship. This approach has the potential to yield positive results and provide a better approach to fighting the huge crisis that the world is facing. The crisis in question is the increasing food insecurity given the growing population in developing countries, especially in Africa.

3.5. The Seven-Day Food Frequency Consumed

Maize is the staple food for many South Africans, and it had a high consumption rate of 71% as many households in the study area use it for their daily culinary purposes. Beans and milk were the second most consumed food with 69%, respectively. Beans are widely used together with maize when cooking staple food and that gives a high consumption rate while milk is used for drinking as households mostly obtain it from livestock. Milk is consumed through drinking and eating when it is sour and is mostly consumed by younger people. The other most frequently consumed foods are rice (65%), potatoes (62%), eggs and cabbage (36%), meat (30%), onion (22%), fruits (19%), and fish (17%). The least consumed food was spinach (12%) given this food item is a seasonal crop. Figure 4 below demonstrates the seven foods frequently consumed by households in rural areas.

3.6. Household Food Consumption Score

The study made use of the Household Food Consumption Score to determine the amount or quantity of food consumed by households. This was motivated by the fact that different people consume different diets all the time and this differs in food consumed by an individual in a season or in a year. The Household Food Consumption Score is the frequently weighted HDDS which, in this case, was estimated as an indicator of dietary diversity and frequency of consumption. The results in

Table 5. Household Food Consumption Scores.

Household Food Consumption Score (HFCS) Category	Lowest Dietary Diversity (≤3 Food Groups)	Medium Dietary Diversity (4 and 5 Food Groups)	High Dietary Diversity (≥6 Food Groups)
0 TO 21 (POOR)	10%	2%	3%
21.5 TO 35 (BORDERLINE)	56%	35%	30%
>35 (ACCEPTABLE)	35.6%	60.2%	63.2%

show that the proportion of households with acceptable, frequently consumed food was 63% in the high dietary diversity group and 60% in the medium dietary diversity group, compared to 35% in the lowest dietary diversity group. The borderline percentages were highest in the lowest dietary diversity group at 56%, followed by 35% in the medium dietary diversity group, and lowest in the high dietary diversity group at 30%. Additionally, 10%, 2%, and 3% of households in the lowest, medium, and highest dietary diversity groups, respectively, fell into the poorest food consumption category. These findings suggest that households with higher dietary diversity are more likely to fall into the acceptable category of the Household Food Consumption Score (HFCS). This underscores that investing in food gardens can enhance the likelihood of many rural households achieving a better food security status.

3.7. Determinants of Food Security Amidst Food Gardeners

The study employed binary logistic regression to identify the determinants of food security among food gardeners in the area. Prior to applying the binary logistic regression model, a collinearity diagnosis was conducted using the variance inflation factor (VIF) test. This test estimates the degree to which variance is inflated. In this study, the tolerance value was below 0.20, and the VIF exceeded 5, indicating the presence of multicollinearity. Nevertheless, it was acceptable for the VIF to lie between 1–10. As a result, none of the variables displayed any multicollinearity. Consequently, the assumptions of non-collinearity were satisfied, and the model was then assessed.

As for this dataset, the p-value = 0.000 (p ≤ 0.01) was significant and the pseudo-R-squared was 0.712. This suggests that the model was a good fit as pseudo-R-squared was 72%. The −2 log-likelihood (251.530) measures how well the model explains variations in the outcome of interest and has a chi-squared (16.632), indicative of how well the model fits the data.

Table 6. Determinants of food security among food gardeners.

Variable	β	Sign.	Exp (β)
Age	−1.243	0.004 ***	0.720
Household income	0.510	0.023 **	0.651
Food Garden	0.876	0.015 **	1.245
Gender	0.693	0.012 **	0.632
Access to credit	−1.247	0.006 **	0.397
Pseudo R-Squared 0.712	Observation 130	−2 Log likelihood 251.530	LR Chi2(8) 16.632 (p = 0.000)

Note: Significant at 5% ** and 1% *** significance level. β—Beta coefficient, Sign—significance level, and Exp (β)—β coefficient exponentiation.

below displays explanatory variables used to determine factors influencing the food security status of food gardeners in the study area.

The variable of age plays a crucial role in this study because it influences the extent of households’ farming experience and their understanding of food gardens. The results of the study indicate that age has a negative coefficient and was statistically significant at the 1% level. These results indicate a negative relationship between the age of the households and their food security. This suggests that each additional year of age for the household head is associated with a decrease in food security by 0.720. This may be because older individuals are often less concerned with healthy eating compared to their younger counterparts, who are generally more focused on their diet and consumption. The elderly group is likely to be food insecure because they do not have the required labour force to produce more food than younger farmers. These results support the conclusion that the age of the household has an influence on food security status in rural areas and reduces the chances of being food secure as age increases [101,102].

The gender of the household had a positive coefficient and is statistically significant at a 5% level. This suggests that there is a directly proportional relationship between the gender of the household and food security status. This implies that with a unit increase in females as the household head, the households are 0.632 times more likely to be food secure. This might be the case as women are always making sure that the household is taken care of and is always consuming food of appropriate quality and quantity. These results support the conclusion that women play an important role in taking care of the household and they have knowledge concerning the nutritious benefits of diverse foods. Furthermore, women’s power to assign household family budgets towards high-quality foods contributes positively towards a healthy diet [103].

The study found that having access to and practicing food gardens had a positive coefficient and is statistically significant at a 5% level. This suggests that the households’ participation in food gardens increases the likelihood of households being food secure by 1.245 times. This is strictly because the farming household can produce enough food to sustain the household and utilize the food produced to feed the household. Also, the surplus produce can be used to generate income which can be used to supplement the household expenditure. These results show that having access to food gardens increases the chances of being food secure as households are able to produce the necessary food products for the household [104].

Access to credit comprises a negative coefficient and is statistically significant at a 1% level. These results show that there is a negative (inverse) relationship between access to credit and food security. This implies that lack of access to credit reduces food production by households by 0.397 times which further reduces the households’ food security status. This is the challenge for rural households as they lack access to credit which results in the households using outdated agricultural techniques. This reduces the food produced and consequently influences the households’ food security status negatively. These results show that access to credit negatively influences household food security [14]. On the other hand, it was discovered that access to credit positively influences food security among rural households in the Eastern Cape Province [15].

3.8. Challenges Faced by Home Food Gardeners

Despite the pivotal role of food gardens in bolstering food security, they encounter a plethora of challenges that impede their efficacy. Financial constraints rank among the foremost obstacles, limiting the capacity of farming households to invest in inputs, equipment, and infrastructure essential for optimal agricultural productivity. Moreover, the pervasive issue of theft poses a significant threat to food gardeners, particularly in regions where security measures are inadequate, exacerbating losses and undermining confidence in agricultural endeavours. Water scarcity emerges as another critical challenge, exacerbated by climatic variability and inadequate irrigation infrastructure, compromising the viability of food production efforts. Inadequate fencing further compounds the vulnerability of food gardens to theft and pest incursions, necessitating investments in robust fencing solutions to safeguard agricultural yields. Following are the observed results from each challenge faced by farming households.

Lack of financial support: According to the study results, lack of financial support is the main challenge facing rural household farmers in Eastern Cape. This may be due to that most small-scale farmers are unable to access credit since they are illiterate and lack collateral [105]. These results reveal that lack of finance is the major problem that limits rural household farming since farmers cannot afford to purchase inputs and adopt innovative technologies in their gardens [87,106]. Moreover, it was contended that informal financial institutions consistently offer loans at high interest rates, creating significant challenges for smallholder farmers in meeting their settlement obligations [107]. This provides an emphasis that formal finance providers consistently prioritize commercial farmers, often overlooking the needs of smallholder farmers. The absence of credit and financial support significantly delays farmers from accepting and instigating adaptation measures and agricultural innovations [108]. Furthermore, the reliance on donor-funded and NGO-led initiatives makes it extremely difficult to sustain these practices once the donor decides to withdraw support.

Theft: Theft is identified as the second challenge faced by rural household farmers and is regarded as a common rural problem caused by lack of access to food. These results confirm that during the COVID-19 pandemic, theft was one of the challenges that affected farmers in South Africa since people were staying at home due to lockdown restrictions [109]. Furthermore, theft remains prevalent, with few perpetrators facing charges. This is due to their frequent release on bail after being arrested, or their evasion of arrest altogether, often with the help of family members [110]. High unemployment in the area was commonly cited as a contributing factor to the incidence of theft.

Water scarcity: Ranking third is the issue of water scarcity. South Africa is the 30th most arid country in the world and faces a severe water crisis [111]. Challenges such as delayed rainfall, extended dry spells following early sowing, and infrequent rains during vegetative stages have been observed as common constraints to crop production in arid and semi-arid areas [112]. According to the study results, most rural household farmers face water challenges due to prolonged drought which consequently affects farming since dams and rivers are drying up. Moreover, some farming households are living far from water sources which negatively affects their livelihood and threatens food security. There is an observed need for smallholder farmers in South Africa to come up with strategies and innovations to conserve agricultural water in their farming [111]. However, small-scale farmers struggle to cope and adapt to drought without the support of government and private institutions.

Lack of fencing: Fencing is the fourth challenge affecting rural household farmers. This is due to the fact that farmers are using cheap materials for fencing which does not last long and exposes their food gardens to theft and livestock invasion. These results align with findings that the absence of fencing in rural households contributes to an increased risk of theft [22]. This illustrates that the lack of fencing makes it more convenient for thieves and livestock to gain unauthorized access to farmers’ produce, leading to potential losses for the farming household.

Lack of market access: The last challenge faced by rural farming households is market accessibility. One of the reasons for this is that small-scale farmers reside in marginal areas which comes with high transaction costs and poor infrastructure. Farmers often struggle with accessing markets due to a lack of necessary skills [113]. These results contend that market access is affected by various factors which include limited knowledge, ineffective agricultural policies, socio-economic factors, and price instability as well as market imperfection [63]. Figure 5 below demonstrates the challenges encountered by food gardeners as they practice farming.

3.9. Implications for Agribusiness and Food Security

The study’s findings underscore significant implications for agribusiness and food security, shedding light on various aspects of rural households’ demographic characteristics, contributions of family food gardens, and food security status. The study findings emphasize the complex interplay between demographic characteristics, agricultural practices, and food security outcomes in rural areas. Addressing these challenges requires holistic interventions that integrate socio-economic development, agricultural innovation, and market-oriented strategies to promote sustainable agribusiness to enhance food security among vulnerable communities.

3.9.1. Demographic Characteristics

The demographic composition of rural households, particularly the prominence of female participation in community food gardens, underscores significant gender dynamics in agricultural labour, corroborated by findings from various studies [88,92]. This gender asymmetry highlights the crucial role played by women in ensuring food security, particularly in regions where male members migrate to urban centres for alternative employment opportunities. The average age of farmers, standing at 54 years, suggests that middle-aged individuals constitute a vital workforce in food gardening activities, compensating for potential limitations in labour among elderly households [92]. Furthermore, the correlation between household size and marital status underscores the significance of stable family units in agricultural decision-making and labour allocation [15].

These demographic insights reveal the intricate interplay between social structures and agricultural practices within rural communities. They emphasize the need for targeted interventions that recognize and harness the potential of female farmers and middle-aged individuals in sustaining agricultural productivity. Moreover, understanding the dynamics of household composition and its impact on labour allocation is crucial for designing policies and programs aimed at enhancing food security and livelihoods in rural areas. By addressing gender disparities, promoting intergenerational knowledge transfer, and supporting stable family structures, policymakers and stakeholders can foster more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems that effectively meet the nutritional needs of rural populations while promoting economic empowerment and social cohesion.

3.9.2. Contribution of Home Food Gardens

Family food gardening stands out as a pivotal approach in bolstering food security within rural settings, offering a plethora of advantages ranging from bolstering food supplies to fostering income generation and providing avenues for part-time employment. The prevalence of family food gardens in addressing household food needs resonates with existing research. The research will underscore the garden’s pivotal role in enhancing various facets of food security, including availability, access, utilization, and stability [26]. The research will underscore the garden’s multifaceted impact on addressing nutritional deficiencies and ensuring consistent access to food resources. Moreover, the economic dimension of family food gardening cannot be underestimated, as it serves as a lifeline for rural households struggling with economic constraints. By facilitating income generation through the sale of surplus produce, family food gardens will contribute not only to immediate food needs but also to long-term financial stability and resilience. This economic aspect underscores the importance of agriculture as a viable livelihood strategy, particularly in contexts where alternative income sources are scarce.

Additionally, the provision of part-time employment opportunities during peak farming seasons underscores the versatility of family food gardening in addressing both food security and livelihood challenges. By creating avenues for rural dwellers to engage in agricultural activities on a seasonal basis, family food gardens not only enhance household food security but also contribute to local economic development and social cohesion. In essence, the complex contributions of family food gardens extend beyond mere food production; they serve as catalysts for economic empowerment, social resilience, and community development. Recognizing the pivotal role of family food gardening in addressing food security challenges, policymakers and stakeholders should prioritize interventions that support and promote sustainable agricultural practices within rural communities, thereby fostering self-reliance, economic prosperity, and holistic well-being.

Family food gardening emerges as a crucial strategy for enhancing food security among rural households, offering multiple benefits such as increased food supply, income generation, and part-time employment opportunities. The prominence of family food gardens in providing household food supply aligns with the existing literature, highlighting their role in improving food availability, access, utilization, and stability [22]. Moreover, the income generation aspect underscores the economic significance of agriculture as a livelihood strategy, particularly in economically challenging environments. The provision of part-time employment during peak farming seasons underscores the multifaceted benefits of family food gardening in encompassing food security and providing livelihood opportunities for rural communities.

3.10. Food Security Status

The study’s comprehensive examination of food security status, assessed through metrics such as Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) and Household Food Consumption Score, offers profound insights into the dietary behaviours and consumption patterns prevalent among rural households. The predominance of medium dietary diversity groups suggests a moderate level of food security, indicative of a substantial portion of households incorporating a variety of food groups into their diets [104]. This underscores the importance of diversifying food sources and ensuring nutritional adequacy within these communities.

However, the reliance on social grants and family food gardens as primary sources of food supply underscores the intricate interplay between socio-economic factors and agricultural practices in shaping food security outcomes. It highlights the pivotal role of social safety nets and community-driven agricultural initiatives in safeguarding against food insecurity and promoting resilience within vulnerable populations. The findings from the determinants’ analysis shed light on the relationship between demographic characteristics and institutional factors, and the food security status of households [102,104]. This highlights the multidimensional nature of food security, influenced not only by agricultural productivity but also by broader socio-economic and institutional dynamics.

Targeted interventions aimed at addressing socio-economic disparities, enhancing access to credit facilities, and empowering marginalized groups, particularly women and the elderly, are essential for promoting sustainable improvements in food security outcomes. By addressing these underlying determinants, policymakers and stakeholders can effectively introduce effective policies to mitigate food insecurity and promote the well-being and resilience of rural communities.

4. Conclusions

This study aims to explore and investigate the role of family food gardens in improving food security within rural households in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, by identifying the determinants that contribute to their success and assessing their potential to alleviate food insecurity. The study made use of a cross-sectional research approach in collecting data from 130 rural households using structured questionnaires. The study revealed that family food gardeners predominantly participate by females, driven by cultural responsibilities and economic needs due to male migration for urban jobs, highlighting their critical role in household food security. The mature age demographic, averaging 54 years, indicates a reliance on sustainable agricultural practices amidst declining physical capabilities, necessitating support systems for continued family food gardening activities. Higher family sizes and marital status correlate positively with engagement in food gardening, particularly among married household heads, who perceive it as beneficial for enhancing food security and income generation. The findings revealed that family food gardens play a crucial role in enhancing household livelihoods by providing a sustainable source of food, generating income, and offering part-time employment opportunities. However, gardeners encountered several challenges including inadequate fencing, water scarcity, limited access to financing, and difficulties in accessing markets. Despite these challenges, family food gardens significantly contribute to improving food security among rural households in the study area, with the majority of households achieving a dietary diversity that includes approximately four to five food group meals. This level of dietary diversity indicates that households are sufficiently food secure, thereby highlighting the positive impact of family food gardens on enhancing nutritional outcomes in rural communities. The empirical results show the influence of socio-economic factors such as age, gender, household income, and access to family food gardens, along with institutional factors like access to credit, on food security among rural households who are involved in family food gardens. These findings highlight the critical role of family food gardening in addressing food security challenges among rural households. Based on the study findings, policymakers, local communities, and NGOs should prioritize understanding demographic trends, educational levels, resource access, and institutional support to promote sustainable agricultural practices. This comprehensive approach is essential for bolstering resilience, economic stability, and nutritional well-being in vulnerable communities, especially across the Eastern Cape Province and similar regions. Therefore, policymakers and NGOs are encouraged to invest in subsidizing farming equipment, improving agricultural extension services, and promoting intra-household knowledge sharing and training sessions to enhance farming capabilities effectively. Additionally, addressing these challenges faced by farming households requires a multi-layered strategy, including improving financial access, education inclusivity, enhancing infrastructure development, ensuring security, and fostering market connections to empower rural farmers and strengthen food security. By enhancing the resilience of family food gardening initiatives and removing barriers to success, these efforts can significantly improve the socio-economic impact of family food gardens, empower farming households, and contribute to broader goals of achieving food security and sustainable development.