Affordances of Technology for Sustainability-Oriented K–12 Informal Engineering Education

Abstract

The need for sustainability-oriented K–12 engineering education that expands beyond the classroom and the increased accessibility of educational technologies create an opportunity for examining the affordances of educational technologies in low-stakes informal engineering education settings. In this paper, we share our experiences of using novel technologies to develop sustainability-oriented mental models in K–12 informal engineering education. Through the use of technologies including Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), Minecraft video games, Tinkercad (browser-based application for computer-aided design (CAD)), and physical computing, we have designed and tested approaches to introduce students to engineering design and engineering habits of mind with an overarching theme of developing sustainability-oriented mental models among K–12 youth in informal engineering education spaces. In this paper, we share our approaches, and lessons learned, and outline directions for future research.

1. Introduction

The goal of Kindergarten to 12th-grade (K–12) engineering education in the United States and several other countries, e.g., Italy [1], India [2], and Singapore [3], goes beyond preparing young people for an engineering workforce of the future. An equal responsibility of K–12 educational experiences is to support students in developing engineering ways of thinking and habits of mind that are essential for a 21st-century citizenry irrespective of whether they become engineers or not [4]. Further, compelling recent work points to the importance of teaching sustainability not just in siloed subject areas but across subject areas and within contexts of interdisciplinary projects [5,6,7]. Given the current climate crisis, there is a need to support individuals in developing sustainability-oriented mental models at a young age and think of sustainability as a value to uphold in their use of engineering and technology [8,9].

Essential to developing a mindset for sustainable engineering practice are skills such as collaboration, systems thinking, spatial abilities, understanding and working with tradeoffs, and understanding emerging ecological practices [10]. Sustainability-oriented mindsets are increasingly recognized as important in engineering education worldwide, particularly after the introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 [11]. Historically, sustainability in engineering has concentrated on technical challenges and has taken a very end-of-the-line approach, such as how to properly manage and decrease pollution [12]. There is a growing acknowledgment of the need to shift to a more comprehensive systems approach to better address sustainability by taking into account the “complex, systemic interconnections and cause-and-effect relationships” [13].

Further, we know from prior work that low-stakes technology-based engagement with youth has long-term impacts on their confidence to work with technology, problem-solving, and more broadly engineering [14]. The easy availability of low-cost and appropriate educational technologies and the need for sustainability-oriented K–12 engineering education create an opportunity for examining the affordances of educational technologies in low-stakes informal engineering education settings. K–12 informal engineering education refers to learning experiences that take place outside of the regular school curriculum and are aimed at engaging students from primary to high school. Such experiences exist in a variety of settings, including museums, science centers, afterschool programs, clubs, camps, and internet platforms, where students participate in hands-on, experiential learning activities that may increase their understanding and interest in engineering and related STEM professions. Informal education can emphasize real-world applications, flexibility, and creativity while supplementing learning with specialized resources and professional assistance [15]. In this study, we share relevant literature, findings, discussion, and recommendations along the line of inquiry:

How can educational technologies be utilized in informal educational settings to develop sustainability-oriented mental models in K–12 students, particularly those without a pre-existing interest in STEM and sustainability?

2. Motivation

As we describe above, there is a need to engage youth in sustainability-oriented engineering education experiences at a young age. A focus on developing mental models oriented towards sustainable practice is important and so is introducing such concepts across areas or disciplines, as opposed to being in a siloed environmental science unit. There has been a growing emphasis on the use of technology in learning, and researchers are constantly introducing new technological elements to augment student-learning efficacy [16,17,18,19]. Well-designed technological interventions can have significant learning benefits over one-way lectures alone [20,21,22].

Hence, in this paper, we share our experiences of using novel technologies including Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), Minecraft video games, Tinkercad (browser-based application for computer-aided design (CAD)), and physical computing to develop sustainability-oriented mental models in K–12 informal engineering education. Through the use of multiple technologies, we have designed and tested approaches to introduce students to engineering design and engineering habits of mind with an overarching theme of developing sustainability-oriented mental models among K–12 youth in informal engineering education spaces.

Studies have shown that educational technologies can afford immersive and engaging learning for youth. For instance, according to Deterding et al. [23], the immersive nature of VR increases learners’ engagement by creating a sense of presence in virtual environments. Chang and Wei [24] found that AR lessons inspired and engaged students more than traditional teaching techniques. These interactive and dynamic technologies have the potential to enable students to actively participate in learning, enhancing understanding and retention [25]. AR can add visuals, audio, and text to reality. VR can immerse students in novel and engaging simulations [26].

McNally and Andrade [27] share that Minecraft has the potential to be a “game-changer” in terms of teaching and engaging with nature. Hobbs and Behenna [28] identify connections between real-world processes and environments. According to Harrison and Gesthuizen [29], many novice builders start by building a home for personal and decorative purposes. Further, exploring a virtual city [30] can help students receive significant insight into sustainable living concepts, problems, and opportunities.

Research on pre-service teachers showed Computer-aided design (CAD) to be helpful for long-term retention of learning. As stated by Doğan and Kahraman [31], Tinkercad’s spatially based graphical user interface has the potential to positively affect students’ interests, attitudes, and motivations. According to Mohapatra et al. [32], Tinkercad’s advantages include its affordability, user-friendliness, and ease of usage. Researchers and practitioners have used Tinkercad to engage learners in a wide variety of contexts. For example, Cherry [33] taught students how to create 3D characters using Tinkercad for short film animation. Kuo, Laiy, and Kao [34] allowed students to print their Tinkercad dessert designs using 3D Food printers. Ng [35] used 3D CAD and printing to improve students’ understanding of solid volume in math lessons. Further, Madar et al. [36], developed C3d.io, a tool that allows students to view their Tinkercad designs as prototypes in VR and share the latest version with peers via the web.

Thus, educational technologies have the potential to support learners in being more environmentally conscious and responsible by affording unique opportunities to learn about engineering and sustainability which otherwise might not be possible for all young learners. Jones et al. [37] note that traditional education is potentially lacking in real-world context and practical applications, making it difficult for students to apply theoretical knowledge in a significant manner. Using educational technologies intentionally can help provide real-world contexts for such learning in low-stakes and playful environments.

3. Approach

In this paper, we share five cases of using educational technologies for sustainability-oriented engineering education in informal educational settings. We focus on informal educational settings (like afterschool clubs) because such settings are often not self-selected for students who have an existing interest in STEM and sustainability. Instead, most such settings (including ones we have partnered with for over three years now and present evidence from in this paper) are spaces for youth to spend time often after school before they are picked up to go home. Thus, we share examples of low-stakes engagement with youth (upper elementary to middle school) in spaces that have not already been hard-coded as “STEM” or require the students or their parents to explicitly opt into being part of a STEM educational experience. By presenting these examples, we aim to show how educators can use the affordances of novel technologies to develop sustainability-oriented mental models in K–12 engineering education.

Framework

We have employed sustainability-centered contexts and motivations across our several projects aimed at introducing K–12 youth to STEM concepts and supporting them in developing efficacy for and a sense of belonging within STEM. The projects range from interrogating the affordances of mixed reality (AR & VR) technologies for systems thinking and collaboration, video games for collaboration and understanding farming practices, CAD for engineering design communication, and physical computing for interdisciplinary learning. In all of our projects, participants provided informed consent through child assent and parental consent forms, and the studies were approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the university.

A common theme across the projects has been using accessible technologies to develop sustainability-oriented metal models in K–12 youth. From our work, we have learned that each of the technologies has several affordances to support this goal, which we synthesize below in Figure 1. Affordances, in the context of educational technologies, refer to the possibilities and opportunities that these technologies provide for supporting and enhancing learning activities and outcomes. For example, features like interactivity, accessibility, and the ability to simulate real-world scenarios, can make complex concepts more understandable and engaging for students [27,38,39,40,41]. While these affordances are certainly not exhaustive, we hope that the framework, the examples we share, and the lessons we have learned that we share in this paper, can support educators in adopting similar tools.

In the Sections below, we first provide examples of the implementation of each of the technologies as individual cases grounded in prior work that has informed our motivation and implementations. Following this, we share a discussion along the lines of the framework presented in Figure 1, key takeaways from our implementation attempts, and lessons we learned that would inform our future iterations of employing these technologies for sustainability-oriented K–12 engineering education.

4. Cases

4.1. Augmented Reality

By incorporating AR, educators can overlay digital information onto the real world, providing interactive visualizations. Many studies have found that AR can support learning. Compared to instructor demonstrations, text, and photos, AR offers students a more vivid, engaging, and distinctive visual learning experience [42,43]. Using AR has been reported to improve motivation, engagement, mental effort, and information acquisition [38,44,45,46,47,48,49]. While some research purports AR’s ability to promote self-regulated learning [50], few studies provide evidence of increased self-efficacy among learners [48,51].

AR has been used in various ways in science and engineering education. In biology, AR apps have been used to show and explore virtual models of biomolecular activities and interactions [52,53] or anatomical structures [54,55,56]. In chemistry, AR brings up new possibilities, such as digitally improved chemistry laboratories [57,58], manipulable molecules [59,60,61,62], and modeling of complicated chemical processes [63]. AR can support engineering education by improving students’ spatial skills [64,65], knowledge acquisition [66], understanding of unseen ideas in engineering physics [67], and motivation [68].

Example of Implementation

The AR platform, CoSpaces Edu (an online platform that allows students to build 3D creations and animate them with code, see Figure 2), and MERGE Cube (a physical cube that serves as a digital canvas for AR) are tools that we have used in our studies to help students develop sustainability-oriented mental models, including systems thinking and collaboration skills, in informal educational settings [69,70].

CoSpaces is a web-based mixed-reality tool that enables users to create and interact with multimedia content (CoSpaces Edu, n.d.). It allows learners to create virtual simple or advanced interactive environments [71]. Further, it allows students to code with CoBlocks simplifying programming for beginners with its visual block-based language. The MERGE Cube (see Figure 3) is a patterned cube that can be scanned into virtual objects using AR technology. Below (see

Table 1. Design and implementation process of sustainable engineering city design activity [70].

Duration	Tools	Stages of the Design
Phase 1 (approximately two weeks)	#1—One iPad per dyad #2— MERGE Cube #3—CoSpaces Edu #4—Paper and colored pens, video about sustainability, presentation slides	General discussion on sustainability Preliminary survey with questions on sustainability Explanation of activity + instructor example Watch role models describe their work with sustainability in videos
Phase 2 (approximately two weeks)	#1—One touchable laptop and iPad per dyad #2— MERGE Cube #3—CoSpaces Edu #4—Pens, paper, presentation slides, point system per dyad	Instructor provides a recap of sustainability and activity Instructor explains the point system Students plan a city on paper in teams of two (referred to as dyads) Students collaboratively work through laptops and iPads in the same city.
Phase 3 (approximately three weeks)	#1—One touchable laptop and iPad per dyad to design #2— MERGE Cube #3—CoSpaces Edu #4—Pens, paper, point system per dyad	Students learn to code on the CoSpaces Edu platform (JavaScript) Students present their cities Students discuss their ideas of sustainability as a group with the facilitators Students collaboratively work through laptops and iPads in the same city.

), we share how we have used the AR capabilities of CoSpaces along with MERGE Cube in a multi-week activity to engage students in sustainability-oriented speculative engineering design. The following activities engaged upper elementary and middle school students at an after-school club in a city where more than 70% of students enrolled in the public school system are high-needs and over 50% are from low-income backgrounds.

In our implementation, first, we introduce students to the concepts of sustainability, sustainable city design, and the AR platforms CoSpaces Edu and MERGE Cube, allowing them to visualize sustainability’s importance in urban design and comprehend the impact of design decisions on city sustainability and experience design trade-offs that engineers often make.

We then prompt the students to create their own sustainable city utilizing the CoSpaces Edu platform and MERGE Cube (see Figure 4).

We introduce the following points system (see Figure 5 and

Table 2. Point system items and corresponding scores [70].

Elements	Points
Green Spaces	+100
Bike	+10
Tree	+200
Windmills	+200
Solar Panels	+100
Bridges	+5
Houses	−50
Apartments	−100
Other Buildings	−100
Cars	−25
Trains	−15
Buses	−15
If the downtown area is close to housing	+55 points
Decorative items (for ex: outdoor furniture like benches, sculptures, lampposts, etc.)	0 point

) to the students to give them requirements to work towards while balancing needs with resources and actively participating in tradeoff decisions. Students worked in teams of two, fostering collaboration and negotiation, which we have learned from prior work can lead to constructive but sometimes demotivating experiences based on team dynamics [70].

The purpose of the point system was to teach students the concept of engineering constraints within the context of sustainable city design. They were given design objectives (Figure 5) and a list of sustainability elements with associated scores (Table 2). Their design choices earned positive points for sustainable decisions and negative points for high energy use. For instance, apartments, which use more resources, were scored −100, while houses were −50. However, apartments can house more people. Different transportation options also had varying environmental impacts. The point system helps students start developing a simple understanding of how engineering trade-offs are made when making decisions about housing and transportation [70].

Next, students utilized CoSpaces Edu to code and explain the sustainable characteristics of their city plans, which engaged them in programming (see Figure 6).

After finishing their projects, students demonstrated their MERGE Cube worlds and described their design decisions (see Figure 4). Using CoSpaces Edu on computers and iPads, participants can drag and drop various items such as buildings, roads, trees, and solar panels onto their MERGE Cube, symbolizing their sustainable design choices. In Section 5, we share our key takeaways and lessons learned from this work.

4.2. Virtual Reality

VR can be described as a computer-generated environment that provides a user with the sensation of being surrounded by an actual environment. While there has been excitement around VR among architects, professional animators, and 3D designers since its inception in the late 1980s [39], VR has not quite met its purported promise in education so far [72]. Yet, in recent years, academic and educational institutions have given major attention to VR. VR systems can be used to examine and experience products, complex systems, and processes through a VR headset [73]. It can aid in understanding and communicating with three-dimensional (3D) virtual representations, visualizing physically far-off areas, and visualizing theoretical concepts. For example, Taxén and Naeve [73] created the VR-based education system CyberMath to teach complicated mathematical subjects. Their findings indicated that VR has the potential to be an effective tool for discovering and comprehending mathematics, as well as other complex engineering ideas and concepts. Researchers have also demonstrated the promise of using VR for 3D modeling in engineering education [74].

Example of Implementation

In our study, students participated in an immersive learning experience in informal educational settings by using VR headsets in conjunction with the Wander app. The Wander app allows learners to explore places around the world [75]. This activity (see

Table 3. The activity of exploring sustainable city.

Explore Sustainable Cities
Name: My city: _________________
Check off the items you are able to find. (Keep in mind that some of these may not exist in your city!): Trains Buses Green spaces Bikes Trees Windmills Solar Panels Bridges Houses Apartments Trash cans Cars If there are additional elements you find that aren’t listed above, note here:	Questions: Which of the elements that you checked off do you think are sustainable? And why? Which of the elements that you checked off do you think are unsustainable? And why?

) allowed students to visually explore different cities around the world. The goal was to identify sustainable and unsustainable artifacts in the cities. After identifying the unsustainable items, the students were encouraged to discuss and provide real solutions to make these regions more sustainable. This practice not only improved their comprehension of ideas pertaining to sustainability but also encouraged critical thinking and problem-solving skills as students traveled through realistic representations of global urban environments.

4.3. Video Games

Video games like Minecraft are sandbox games, in which players can construct and experiment with sustainable solutions in a collaborative digital environment, making them a promising tool for game-based teaching [40]. Minecraft’s adaptability enables users to adopt many modalities of gameplay and learning [76], including reframing their identities as engineers, architects, and builders [77], aligning with a constructionist paradigm of learning [78].

Several studies have investigated applications of Minecraft in educational settings [79,80,81,82,83,84]. For example, researchers have interrogated how Minecraft can be utilized to help children learn math [85], science [86], computer science [87], arts [77], sustainable planning [88], languages [89], and social studies [79]. Previous research has shown that certain programming in Minecraft can help enhance spatial abilities in STEM education [90] and information literacy [91]. According to Hjorth et al. [92], Minecraft promotes critical thinking about geographical ideas by illustrating different environments and simulating different weather conditions such as snow, rainfall, and sunlight, all of which influence resource growth and harvest.

Example of Implementation

In our study, students engaged with Minecraft Education Edition in informal educational settings. Minecraft Education Edition is a version of the game designed specifically for use in educational settings. Teachers can control the game and ensure a sense of community among students by limiting violence, chat, and character damage from falls, fire, and drowning [93]. The Minecraft version we used contains various worlds and classes that teach learners about sustainability, such as sustainable farming and cities [30]. Sustainable City contains six lessons that investigate how students’ choices might alter the environment. Students can learn about sustainable approaches to food production, water treatment, green building design, and more. Students, for example, can construct environmentally friendly homes that incorporate solar electricity, compost, and rain barrel systems. Sustainable farming comprises lessons that cover agricultural vocabulary and agricultural practices, as well as research and inquiry strategies. Students can select a farming method to study in-depth and display it in the Minecraft environment (see Figure 7).

For the implementation, students were required to design and manage a sustainable farm within the Sustainable Farming environment (see

Table 4. Activity—Create a sustainable farm including both animals and plants.

Plants (Fruit/Vegetable/Flower/Tree)	Animals (Cows/Sheep/Chicken)
Items you can add to your farm Seeds Hoe Blocks/fences Buckets of water Dirt Lots of torches

, Figure 8).

Students used tools for composting, irrigation, and crop rotation, and learned about renewable resources and efficient land use. For crops, they constructed fields and gardens, used composters to make organic fertilizer, set up irrigation systems with water buckets, and practiced crop rotation to keep the soil healthy. For animals, students built shelters and barns, created pastures, and cared for livestock like cows, sheep, and chickens. They learned to feed them on schedule, keep their living spaces clean, and use sustainable breeding practices. This activity helps students understand and explain the roles of producers and consumers, define sustainability and its value, understand the journey of food from farm to grocery store, recognize the significance of purchasing locally, and promote sustainable food production and consumption.

As a result, this approach introduces students to complex ideas in an interactive environment, teaches problem-solving skills, and shows how sustainable farming benefits the environment and communities.

4.4. Computer-Aided Design

Three-dimensional CAD design involves modeling items with accurate dimensions and depths in virtual environments [94]. The creative and educational potential of 3D CAD modeling and 3D-printing CAD models makes them a promising platform for young learners to practice engineering design [95]. They can design and print their 3D artifacts in schools, makerspaces, and libraries [27,96,97], allowing them to further develop their creativity, spatial thinking, and problem-solving abilities. Moreover, 3D printing is widely used in various industries, including engineering, science, architecture, healthcare, food, and fashion [98,99].

A literature study of multiple research articles [100] on the application of 3D-printing technologies in K–12 education revealed in 2019 that 3D printing has gained significant popularity for introducing students to engineering. It can develop skills including computational thinking [100] and design thinking [97] and has other inherent benefits of enhancing student self-esteem, cooperation skills, fun, and self-expression [27,96]. Encouraging students to engage in 3D printing presents challenges including those of access to computers and printers, which furthers the digital divide between students who can have access to such technology and those who do not. Students can also struggle with the software’s orientation, viewpoints, floating shapes, and camera control [27,99,101].

Tinkercad (see Figure 9), which was launched in 2011, is a free online 3D modeling and design program that can be used via a computer browser and is extensively used in K–12 STEM education settings. Goyanes et al. [102] suggest that this application is beneficial in educational settings as it integrates various fields (mathematics, design, technology, art, etc.) while producing shapes. The software allows users to effortlessly build prototypes, houses, toys, home decorations, Minecraft models, jewelry, and other creations so students can create 3D designs to address environmental issues.

Example of Implementation

In the first session of the workshop, we introduced students to the Tinkercad environment and its tools, making them familiar with basic features such as navigating the workspace, drawing shapes, and manipulating objects. To practice these skills, students began by designing personalized nametags. The next session focused on sustainable farming. Students created a 3D model of their understanding of a sustainable farm in Tinkercad, which included solar panels, rainwater harvesting systems, crop fields, and animal spaces. We encouraged them to think creatively about how to include different sustainable techniques in their farm.

The third session included sustainable city design, including green buildings, public transit, renewable energy, and trash management. They then began creating a simple 3D model of a sustainable city, utilizing the fundamental concepts of urban sustainability that they had recently learned. In the last session, students were assigned a more challenging project: constructing a comprehensive sustainable city utilizing a points system (see

Table 5. Point system elements and corresponding scores.

Elements	Cost	#	Total	Elements	Points	#	Total
Green Spaces	$50			Green Spaces	+100
Green roofs	$15			Green roof	+100
Pedestrian Walkways	$20			Pedestrian Walkways	+30
Energy-Efficient Lighting	$20			Energy-Efficient Lighting	+50
Bike	$5			Bike	+10
Tree	$10			Tree	+20
Wind turbine	$20			Wind turbine	+200
Solar Panel	$25			Solar Panel	+50
House	$50			House	−50
Apartment	$100			Apartment	−200
Other Building	$100			Other Building	−100
Car	$10			Car	−25
Train	$20			Train	−10
Bus	$15			Bus	−15
Total				Total

), similar to the AR activity we described earlier. This approach gave specific criteria and points for implementing a variety of environmental elements, such as green roofs, bike lanes, public parks, and energy-efficient buildings, as indicated in Figure 10 and Figure 11. Throughout the workshop, students discussed their designs, received feedback, and had discussions about the sustainable aspects they included and how their designs could help to create a more sustainable future. This reflective practice was intended to complement their existing knowledge and design skills, further enhancing their understanding of sustainability in informal educational settings.

4.5. Physical Computing

Physical computing combines software and hardware to create interactive systems that interact with their surroundings [103]. It incorporates STEM practices with technology design, scientific research, and engineering, allowing students to make links between the digital and physical worlds. This enables students to design physical items and solutions to challenging real-world challenges [41]. Physical computing often utilizes low-cost microcontroller boards like the Micro:bit to support users in creating projects that combine coding with the control and use of physical objects. E.g., in the implementation example we share below, along with a larger team, we use Micro:bit technology and plug-and-play sensors to facilitate hands-on learning experiences by supporting students to code and collect and analyze environmental data for growing their own food.

Example of Implementation

The greenhouse project (see Figure 12) was conducted in several informal and formal educational settings and involved creating a low-cost, portable tabletop greenhouse with 3D printing, laser cutting, microcontrollers, and plug-and-play devices to help students conduct scientific research in environmental and plant science [104]. The greenhouse’s frame and outside parts were created using laser cutting, while holders for electronic components were made using 3D printing. Key components include temperature, humidity, and light sensors, an OLED display demonstrating real-time data, an LED strip indicating environmental conditions, a relay-controlled light bulb, and fans. Speakers, LED lights, soil moisture sensors, tiny humidifiers, and heat mats are among the additional components used for sustained longer-term learning. Microcontrollers power and control all the electronics, and Crowtail shields provide a plug-and-play interface for connecting devices without the need for wiring. Using Microsoft’s MakeCode platform, students automate the greenhouse using sensor data to respond to the needs of the plants (e.g., temperature, humidity, and light changes). Data can be retrieved, downloaded, or streamed to platforms such as Thingspeak for further analysis and visualization.

A project-based curriculum (see

Table 6. Smart Greenhouse curriculum.

Greenhouse Curriculum
Module #	Task Details
1	Introduction to micro:bit and MakeCode: Students practice block programming, connecting micro to Chromebooks, downloading applications, and programming LED strips in various colors and patterns.
2	Introduction to temperature and humidity sensors, OLED displays: Students start with reviewing plant science principles such as temperature and humidity, establishing variables, configuring data gathering functions, and showing real-time data on the OLED screen.
3	Greenhouse construction: Students work on assembling pieces, designing greenhouse details, and adding various devices inside and outside the greenhouses.
4	Introduction to data literacy: Students explore several data graphs, review their applications, program the micro:bit for data logging, export data to Google Sheets, and plot using CODAP.
5	Introduction to light Sensors and automation: Students learn how to detect light levels (lux) and then program a relay and light sensor to operate a light bulb using the data they acquired.
6	Setting up fans and relays: Students learn how to program in order to control airflow inside the greenhouse.
7	An open-ended scientific investigation: Students create research questions, configure the greenhouse, carry out experiments, and gather data to answer their questions.

) was created for a middle school science out-of-school workshop, consisting of seven modules spread across two and a half weeks. In this informal setting, students build, program, and experiment with the smart greenhouse to grow plants. This curriculum allows teachers to assist students through data analysis and interpretation while encouraging hands-on learning and exploration.

5. Discussion

5.1. Impact of AR on Sustainability-Oriented Engineering Education

We have observed that designing sustainable environments on the CoSpaces Edu and MERGE Cube AR platforms supports students’ development of sustainability-oriented mental models by delivering immersive, interactive, and hands-on experiences. In this context, sustainability is assessed by evaluating students’ ability to apply and integrate sustainability concepts into their designs and solutions. This assessment is based on predefined criteria related to sustainability, such as the inclusion of renewable energy sources, efficient resource use, and eco-friendly materials in their virtual models.

To determine the effectiveness of these platforms in encouraging sustainability-oriented thinking, we conducted formative assessments during the program, such as student reflections, design evaluations, and feedback sessions. These evaluations were designed to observe the understanding and implementation of sustainability concepts. In addition, we tracked the transferability of these mental models by examining students’ projects and their ability to discuss and implement sustainability concepts following the instruction. These methods allowed us to understand students’ conceptions of sustainability concepts and their application to activities involving engineering design, which we have detailed in previous work [70,105,106].

Furthermore, our approach also promoted collaborative learning. Students frequently collaborated in groups to build their sustainable surroundings, encouraging the exchange of ideas and problem-solving solutions [70]. This collaborative feature is consistent with Vygotsky’s [107] social constructivist theory of learning, which stresses the role of social interactions in knowledge formation. Students develop knowledge of sustainability concepts and learn to value other points of view as they debate and discuss their design choices. Additionally, the coding component of CoSpaces Edu teaches kids computational thinking, which is an important ability in today’s digital age. By programming the behavior of their 3D models, students learn to think rationally and methodically about how to build sustainable systems. This is consistent with other studies, which emphasize the benefits of combining coding and sustainability education to build critical thinking and problem-solving abilities [108].

Finally, AR systems like MERGE Cube offer a physical, interactive experience that may make learning about sustainability more interesting and memorable. When students utilize MERGE Cube to explore their 3D models, they physically engage with their creations by spinning and moving the cube to see their surroundings from various perspectives. This hands-on experience supports visualization and can help students comprehend the spatial dynamics of sustainable design [109].

Sommerauer and Müller examined how AR affected visitors’ development and retention of mathematical knowledge in an informal setting in a museum. Their research revealed that visitors who engaged with AR exhibits performed better than traditional exhibits on knowledge tests and thought AR was a useful addition. The result showed that museum visitors scored much better on information acquisition and retention tests connected to augmented displays compared to non-augmented exhibits and that they evaluated AR as a beneficial and desired add-on for museum exhibitions [110].

Drawbacks and Future Research Directions for Augmented Reality in Education

While AR technology has shown promise for teaching and learning, several studies have found negative consequences. One of the common problems is that AR is “difficult for students to use”. In our current analysis, based on observations, we are finding that some students initially experienced frustration with the MERGE Cube. They struggled with understanding their design due to the cube’s limited size, which made it challenging to operate. Additionally, students found it difficult to arrange or resize the elements within the AR environment, which further complicated their experience and affected their ability to effectively interact with their designs.

According to Chang et al. [111], usability is a key technical component that impacts instructional efficacy. Poorly designed interfaces can make it harder for students to use the technology [112]. Cheng and Tsai [113] emphasized the need to address usability difficulties in AR technology since user interaction is central to the experience of using AR. Chiang et al. [114] suggest providing students with prompt hints or learning guidance to address usability difficulties with AR. Usability issues might lead to lost time for students, necessitate additional support from the instructional team, and lead to learners feeling frustrated. Dunleavy et al. [105] highlight the need to address students’ cognitive overload in AR learning environments. According to Cheng and Tsai [113], students may face cognitive overload in an AR learning environment due to the large amount of material and complicated activities.

Future research could investigate the integration of AR, MERGE Cube, and CoSpaces to enhance the training of pre-service and in-service teachers. Such studies could examine how teachers may be supported in using these technologies to effectively teach sustainability concepts. They could also examine best practices for teacher professional development, how to best support teachers to integrate innovative technologies into their teaching practices, and the challenges and benefits associated with using them in educational contexts.

5.2. Impact of Virtual Reality in Education

We have observed the efficacy of employing VR for teaching, notably in increasing students’ engagement due to the novelty of the technology and supporting the understanding of complex ideas. For example, Sedlák et al. [115] found that VR can considerably improve students’ geographical knowledge and information retention in environmental education. Furthermore, Cho and Park [116] discovered that students who utilized VR to examine ecological systems demonstrated more interest and a deeper comprehension of sustainability challenges than those who learned via traditional means. Wu et al. [117] found that VR can help people develop problem-solving skills. According to the findings, students who engaged in VR-based learning activities performed better in terms of problem identification and innovative solution ideas. This is consistent with the outcomes of our work, in which students successfully identified unsustainable items and proposed practical alternatives for improvement.

Moreover, VR can enhance student interaction and reduce instruction time in engineering settings. It can allow for easy experimentation without equipment depreciation and needing highly secure settings [118]. VR technology complements traditional learning models like experimental and situational learning by allowing users to simulate various scenarios [119]. According to Scurati et al. [120], VR’s adaptability makes it an effective tool for promoting sustainable behavior. The promise of VR technology in education and the importance of sustainability highlight a research gap in assessing its impact on sustainable behavior.

Another study by Bahrin et al. examined the use of VR in informal educational settings, particularly cultural heritage sites. The study aimed to develop a model for enjoyable informal learning through VR, based on a systematic literature review. Results demonstrated that most participants successfully experienced enjoyable and effective informal learning using the VR prototype, enhancing their engagement and understanding of cultural heritage [121].

Drawbacks and Future Research Directions for Virtual Reality in Education

While VR-based systems have advantages over traditional teaching methods, they also have drawbacks. A VR environment does not mimic the real world in that when learners make an error in the real world they cannot come back to a previously saved situation. There is little room to develop collaboration skills in a VR environment. There is also a valid critique of VR experiences profiting technology companies at the expense of the experiences of disadvantaged individuals and communities whose experiences are often captured in VR. Further, it has been observed that learners who learn laboratory work in VR often lack hands-on skills [122,123,124].

Future studies could investigate how VR technologies engage students in realistic simulations of sustainable practices, their effect on engagement and information retention, and the practical implications for including VR in instructional programs. Research could additionally investigate how VR experiences affect students’ perceptions of sustainability and the ability to engage in environmentally friendly activities in practical environments. There is also a need for more work examining how and if the perspective-taking skills that VR affords support learners’ engineering design practices.

5.3. Impact of Video Games in Education

We have observed that using video games like Minecraft significantly enhanced students’ knowledge about sustainability. The immersive environment of Minecraft facilitated active learning, making abstract sustainability concepts tangible and relatable. Additionally, the collaborative nature of the game fostered teamwork and communication, further reinforcing their understanding of sustainable practices, and promoting critical thinking, and problem-solving skills dynamically and interactively.

Games like Minecraft are beneficial in education since they encourage creativity and prompt responses from the users; hence, they have increasingly been used in humanities and sciences studies during the last decade [125,126]. Minecraft Education offers several educational benefits. It fosters creativity and project planning, improves programming and logic skills through command blocks, promotes teamwork and communication, enhances problem-solving abilities, and helps autistic children develop social skills. Additionally, it teaches resource management and encourages patience and resilience [127].

Opmeer et al. [128] evaluated Minecraft’s potential for teaching sustainable spatial planning. Their study confirmed Minecraft’s effectiveness, highlighting its immersive 1-by-1 scale and the ability to walk and fly within a digital world. Teachers found it an excellent tool for this purpose. Short [129] discussed Minecraft’s use in STEAM education. In biology, it can simulate environments like human organs and ecosystems, and in ecology, it can introduce biomes. Virtual field trips to various habitats can demonstrate environmental processes. In chemistry, students can build molecular structures and explore reactions, while in math, they can calculate areas and perimeters, enhancing their spatial and problem-solving skills.

Also, another study addressed the issue of students’ disengagement in schools by exploring the potential of video games like Minecraft to enhance learning. The research focused on designing and iteratively improving learning areas within an after-school Minecraft club held weekly for eight weeks to teach students topics from the Finnish curriculum. The results indicated that learning with Minecraft positively affected most students’ test performance, as measured by pre-club and post-club conceptual tests. The iterative approach allowed for continuous improvement and adaptation to student needs, ultimately fostering a more engaging and effective learning environment [130].

Drawbacks and Future Research Directions for Video Games in Education

While Minecraft is a powerful tool for creating, collaborating, and distributing content, offering numerous pre-defined elements, it falls short when new entities or functionalities need to be added by inexperienced programmers. To overcome these barriers, creators must demonstrate creativity and flexibility in their approaches. Further Minecraft is expensive, as users have to pay for the application and also the technology (computer, tablet, console, etc.) to access it from. Further, the game still has combative elements, can be highly addictive, and also encourages youth to spend money on add-ons available in the game.

Future research in Minecraft Education could explore its impact on information acquisition, motivation, and cognitive engagement among students learning about sustainable planning. There is also a need for research on the negative impacts of video games like Minecraft within the context of educational engagement. A majority of the prior work highlighting the harmful impacts has been conducted in unstructured settings like when youth play at home. We will likely uncover a different set of challenges in educational engagement.

5.4. Impact of Computer-Aided Design in Education

Bhaduri et al. (2021) defined in their study that CAD software like Tinkercad enhances individuals’ spatial reasoning skills and supports the development of creativity and computational thinking skills. Tinkercad promotes STEM education by facilitating the integration of technology, design, mathematics, and science [131].

Eryilmaz and Deniz [132] investigated the impact of Tinkercad on computational thinking skills and perspectives among secondary school students. The findings revealed that students found Tinkercad to be very inspiring and simple to use. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between the frequency of Tinkercad utilization and gains in computational thinking capabilities, such as creativity, algorithmic thinking, and problem-solving skills. They also investigated the effect of Tinkercad on middle school students’ spatial skills, which are critical for success in professions like engineering. The results showed that students’ spatial visualization skills and mental manipulation of 3D objects improved significantly. These skills are required for comprehending and solving real-world engineering challenges, implying that Tinkercad can be a useful tool for developing spatial reasoning in young children [132].

Further, according to Kell et al. [133], improving students’ spatial skills in secondary school can lead to greater success in creative and scientific endeavors.

Study [132] also investigated the effect of the application of Tinkercad to promote computational thinking skills among secondary students. With its 3D Design menu, Tinkercad not only lets students create designs in three dimensions but also allows them to construct designs using codes through its Circuit and Code Blocks menus. Thus, Tinkercad is a useful tool for enhancing several subdimensions of computational thinking including creativity, algorithmic thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, and critical thinking. For instance, this study [132] found that students’ 3D design work influences their development of creativity. Further, group design projects help students build their collaborative and critical thinking skills, and coding throughout this process helps them develop their algorithmic thinking and problem-solving skills.

Bhaduri et al. (2019) designed and conducted an informal learning curriculum for a three-week summer introductory lesson on 3D modeling and printing for high school students. The aim was to support young people in learning 3D modeling skills using Tinkercad. The study findings indicated that emphasizing curricular coherence as a design goal and providing youth with multiple methods for engaging in 3D modeling can promote interest in 3D printing/modeling, maintain engagement in learning activities over several weeks, and offer opportunities to develop spatial thinking skills [134].

Drawbacks and Future Research Direction of Computer-Aided Design in Education

Computer-aided design, particularly tools like Tinkercad, offers significant educational benefits but also presents drawbacks. According to Eryilmaz and Deniz [132], teachers have identified challenges such as extended time requirements for designing projects and a lack of opportunities for peer learning. Moreover, accessibility remains a concern, with some schools facing limitations due to insufficient computer resources for students.

Additionally, while CAD tools have become more user-friendly, proficiency requirements in hardware configuration and programming continue to provide cognitive load concerns for both educators and learners [135,136]. These characteristics underline the importance of support structures and resources for properly leveraging the educational potential of CAD products such as Tinkercad.

Future studies in the area could include an exploration of how to best support in-service teachers to use the engineering design process and 3D printing to solve real-world problems. This research could examine their best practices, perceptions of technology use for sustainability-oriented engineering education, and the potential and challenges of using CAD for sustainable engineering design.

5.5. Impact of Physical Computing in Education

We have observed that physical computing can enable learners to learn to code while also collecting and analyzing environmental data for real-world applications. This technique not only encourages critical thinking and problem-solving skills but also creates a greater awareness and respect for environmental protection among K–12 students [104].

Physical computing activities enable students to create meaningful learning products by integrating constructivist and computer programming concepts. Learning is most successful, according to constructivist learning theory, when students create knowledge and actively engage in making observable artifacts [137]. Physical computing activities encourage students to solve real-world issues, create meaningful products, and engage with their surroundings. These exercises help students answer the question, “Why do I need this information?”, making learning more meaningful.

Numerous positive results have been observed from physical computing, such as creativity [138], student uptake [139], and motivation [140]. It has even been shown that the physical computing technique helps female students become more confident in their programming abilities [141].

According to Hodges et al. [103], the main advantages of physical computing are as follows: (1) raising student motivation across the board; (2) offering natural connections to the outside world; (3) bringing out creativity; (4) encouraging inclusion and collaboration; (5) fostering a comprehensive perspective of computer education; and (6) engaging the whole learner, both mentally and physically. Hodges and colleagues also remarked that physical computing can be easily linked to different disciplines and advocated for greater research into computational thinking (CT) practices when learners work with physical computing. Physical computing in conjunction with block-based coding (like Microsoft MakeCode) is being used extensively to stimulate students’ interest in the natural sciences [142,143,144], particularly when teaching young children who are new to programming [145]. From the perspective of the student, physical computing is more influential than more conventional screen-based learning because it emphasizes ideas or concepts over limitations or constraints [146]. Students are encouraged to create their own realities using technologies like tangible devices, and it has been found that physical computing platforms foster creativity [147].

Another study explored the potential of using physical computing in an informal setting, focusing on how environmental impacts on well-being can be monitored by sensors connected to small electronic devices. As part of a design-based research (DBR) project, the initial workshop activities aimed to set the stage for future phases that will apply situated cognition principles. These activities enabled students to monitor and analyze their classroom environments and propose solutions to lessen the negative impacts of environmental effluents. The findings suggest that such activities can be engaging and create authentic learning experiences, allowing learners to expand upon their knowledge and apply it meaningfully. However, the study highlights that it is crucial to consider each step of the learning process to meet the needs of diverse learners. It warns against emphasizing collaborative self-directed learning too early without first establishing a solid foundation through guided learning [148].

Drawbacks and Future Research Direction for Physical Computing in Education

Despite the several positive impacts of physical computing discussed above, such as it being creative and engaging, it may not effectively explain fundamental yet complex computing concepts such as variables, conditionals, or intricate control flow [145]. Another drawback is that the circuit knowledge needed for hardware configuration raises the cognitive load for both learners and teachers [149,150]. Moreover, there is a risk that students may perceive the natural world as alterable and hackable without considering potential consequences. Although technology has become more affordable, it is still too expensive for some students and schools, potentially making the gap larger between students who have access to similar technologies at home (and are therefore more skilled at using them) and those who do not.

Future research could focus on assessing the impact of physical computing on students’ computational thinking, creativity, and their ability to address real-world sustainability challenges through prototyping and experimentation. Furthermore, exploring the role of physical computing in fostering collaboration, innovation, and entrepreneurship among students in the context of sustainability education could provide insights into its broader educational benefits and have significant implications for related curriculum development.

6. Conclusions

The increased accessibility of affordable educational technologies and the growing need for sustainability-focused K–12 engineering education provide an opportunity to explore the potential of these tools in informal educational settings that engage all learners irrespective of their interests in pursuing STEM careers. This paper presents our experiences in utilizing innovative technologies to cultivate sustainability-oriented mental models among K–12 students engaged in informal engineering education experiences. Through the integration of AR, VR, video games, CAD, and physical computing, we have developed and tested approaches to introduce students to engineering design and foster sustainability education in informal educational environments, such as after-school clubs. These settings often attract students who may not initially self-select into STEM or sustainability topics, emphasizing the broader impact of these educational interventions beyond traditional classroom settings.

In this paper, we share example cases of using novel technologies like AR, VR, video games, computer-aided design, and physical computing for sustainability-oriented engineering education in K–12 settings. AR technologies, through platforms such as CoSpaces Edu and MERGE Cube, provide immersive and interactive experiences that make abstract sustainability concepts easier to understand, assisting students in comprehending complex systems and their interconnectedness. These technologies can provide a platform for collaborative work and the social construction of knowledge. VR supports these efforts by creating realistic simulations that can deeply engage students and increase information retention. Prior work has shown that VR can increase students’ interest and grasp of ecological systems, making it a valuable adjunct to traditional teaching techniques despite drawbacks. Educational video games like Minecraft Education are powerful tools for developing creativity, teamwork, and problem-solving abilities while teaching sustainability principles. The platform’s ability to simulate real-world situations and circumstances aids students’ understanding of complex interdisciplinary concepts. Minecraft’s hands-on and exploratory nature promotes spatial awareness, logical reasoning, and social skills, making it an effective educational tool. CAD tools like Tinkercad’s 3D design capabilities contribute to STEM education by improving spatial skills, fostering collaborative learning, and providing a platform for design communication. Physical computing can enhance students’ learning experiences by combining coding and environmental data collection and generating greater respect for environmental stewardship. This approach, which emphasizes constructivist-learning concepts, is an excellent way to teach technology-aided real-world problem-solving skills. Collectively, these innovative tools not only increase students’ understanding and awareness of sustainability but also prepare them for the challenges of the digital age, helping to build a more environmentally educated and socially responsible society.

To close, we find it imperative to mention how sociopolitical forces such as the digital divide affect all of engineering and its education. This includes students’ and their families’ backgrounds impacting whether they can access, and thus become proficient, at technology use, gendered and racialized popular culture portrayals of who is good at engineering, and also for whom the technologies in themselves are primarily designed for. Further, it is also important to acknowledge how the technologies and approaches that we describe above are often rooted in the epistemologies of majority and privileged groups in STEM. There is a need for developing technology-enhanced approaches for sustainable development in engineering education that are community-centered and culturally revitalizing.

7. Limitations

While our study demonstrates the educational potential of technologies like CoSpaces Edu and MERGE Cube in developing sustainability-oriented mental models, we must acknowledge that these technologies are not universally accessible. The availability and accessibility of these technological tools can be particularly challenging in under-resourced settings. Therefore, while these tools offer significant educational affordances, their practical implementation may be limited in certain contexts, highlighting a limitation of our work.

8. Recommendations

Based on our findings, we suggest a number of directions for future investigation. First, more research might examine how students’ technical proficiency and sustainability-oriented thinking are affected over time by utilizing cutting-edge tools like Tinkercad and augmented reality platforms like CoSpaces Edu and MERGE Cube. Research might specifically look into how these technologies affect students’ long-term memory of sustainability principles and their capacity to apply these concepts in practical settings.

Moreover, further research is needed to determine the efficacy of these devices in various socioeconomic settings. For example, research might look into the adaptability and accessibility of these technologies in underfunded schools and communities, determining whether similar educational effects can be reached. Investigating potential challenges to using these technologies and developing solutions to overcome them may also be beneficial.

In addition, future studies should concentrate on creating and testing new modules and activities for these platforms to improve specific skills like collaboration, creative thinking, and problem-solving. This could include developing more complicated and multidisciplinary projects in which students must integrate knowledge from many STEM subjects and apply it to sustainability concerns.

Finally, we recommend investigating the use of other new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, in sustainability-focused engineering education. Research could investigate how these technologies help individualize learning experiences, promote student assessment, and provide real-time feedback to improve learning outcomes.