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Article

Physicochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Green Banana Flour from Discarded Cavendish Bananas

by
Mercedes Martín Lorenzo
1,2,
Ana Piedra-Buena Díaz
2,
Carlos Díaz Romero
1,
Elena M. Rodríguez-Rodríguez
1 and
M. Gloria Lobo
3,*
1
Área de Nutrición y Bromatología, Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Universidad de La Laguna, 38206 Tenerife, Spain
2
Unidad Protección Vegetal, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, Valle de Guerra, 38270 Tenerife, Spain
3
Departamento de Producción Vegetal en Zonas Tropicales y Subtropicales, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, Valle de Guerra, 38270 Tenerife, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(15), 6647; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156647
Submission received: 29 June 2024 / Revised: 23 July 2024 / Accepted: 31 July 2024 / Published: 3 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Food)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Fifteen percent of harvested bananas are discarded daily in the Canary Islands at packing houses because of marketing standards, mainly based on their appearance, or are retired to avoid falls in the market price of bananas. This discarded fruit is an environmental issue, and green banana flour (GBF) is an interesting management alternative for it. In this paper, the artisanal process for obtaining GBF was optimized. The study of physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of this gluten-free flour indicated a high contribution of starch, fiber, phenolics, K, and Mg to dietary intake. Storage of GBF at room temperature (20 ± 5 °C) for ten months slightly increased its moisture and acidity and decreased its starch content, phenolic content, and pH. Some color changes were observed after 5 months, but sensory characteristics were still acceptable after ten months. Green bananas storage prior to GBF elaboration showed they were suitable for obtaining good quality GBF even after 7 weeks at 6 °C, but only 4 weeks at 12 °C. Discriminant analysis classified the GBF correctly according to the cooperative origin, time, and storage temperature of the bananas used in its preparation. These results provide information that could be used in other banana-producing regions for reducing the environmental impact of fruit waste and obtaining GBF using a simple and inexpensive technological process.

1. Introduction

Although banana production in the Canary Islands is the most important agricultural activity in the archipelago, generating more than 12,000 direct jobs and 5000 indirect jobs, it continues to present challenges in terms of sustainability [1]. Optimizing the use of resources such as water and energy, together with efficient waste management, are key aspects to minimize the environmental impact and ensure the long-term viability of this agricultural activity in the Canary Islands.
European standards for banana fruit establish quality categories, which are mainly based on external characteristics (shape, size, absence of skin defects, color, etc.) [2]. In 2023, approximately 440,000 tons were produced in the Canary Islands (Spain), and approximately 15% of the bananas harvested were discarded daily [3]. In summer, the increased variety of fruit offerings diminishes the market share of commercially available bananas, resulting in a periodic surplus of marketable bananas. Disposal of this organic waste must comply with EU, national, and regional environmental regulations, as the practice of organic waste management in landfills is now prohibited. This holds particular significance in the Canary Islands, given the limited land availability, influenced by both effective land area and its utilization for purposes such as tourism and agriculture.
In recent years, there has been a notable emphasis on banana waste management initiatives in the Canary Islands, with particular attention directed towards the conversion of green bananas into compost and goat silage. It is important to note, however, that the potential for human consumption of these fruits remains significant, given their valuable nutritional and functional properties. Green bananas are recognized for their abundant reserves of resistant starch, potassium, assorted minerals, phenolic compounds, antioxidants, and phytosterols [4,5,6,7,8]. Nevertheless, the astringent nature of green bananas has historically restricted their consumption in their fresh state, thereby leading to their predominant commercialization in the forms of flour, starch, and as snacks or dried fruits.
The production of green banana flour (GBF) has garnered considerable attention due to its potential application in the food industry. This is attributed to its high content of resistant starch and bio-accessible phenolic compounds, which have the potential to inhibit starch digestion and subsequent intestinal glucose absorption. These attributes may contribute to the regulation of glucose homeostasis, reduced energy consumption, and increased satiety. Consequently, the low glycemic index of GBF demonstrates promise for nutritional intervention in diabetes mellitus and obesity [7,9].
The rising demand for gluten-free foods from people with celiac disease has sparked interest in the production of gluten-free flours for human consumption. These flours have been suggested as an ingredient in the bakery industry for making breads, biscuits, cakes, cookies, pasta [6,10,11,12,13], and baby foods [8].
Similarly, the affordability and consistent availability of green banana waste in the Canary Islands provide significant advantages for green banana flour (GBF) producers. The potential benefits of utilizing local GBF in the Canary Islands encompass several key aspects. These include the ability to extract additional value from discarded fruit, mitigate environmental pollution and waste management costs, create employment opportunities, and generate supplementary income for numerous families and local communities.
The technological process used to obtain GBF is quite traditional, although the processing conditions and quality of the GBF obtained may vary [12,14,15,16]. Therefore, further efforts are needed to determine the effect of the technological processes used in GBF preparation on its sensory, physicochemical, and nutritional properties.
This research aimed to determine the physicochemical characteristics of GBF to effectively take advantage of the nutritional value and the functional properties of nonmarketable green bananas. The steps used in the artisanal production of GBF, and the addition of organic acids to improve the preservation of GBF, were studied and optimized. The contribution to nutrient intake, as a result of the consumption of GBF, was estimated, and the potential use of GBF in food product elaboration was considered. The effect of the storage of GBF at room temperature without light on some physicochemical characteristics was studied. The storage conditions (temperature and time) of the green bananas used for GBF were also tested. Finally, correlation and multivariate analyses were applied to classify the GBF samples according to the cooperative provenance, time and temperature conservation, and ripening stage of the bananas used in the study. Innovative initiatives, such as utilizing discarded bananas, have the potential to enhance the intrinsic value of this fruit, mitigate environmental pollution, and generate employment opportunities. This, in turn, can yield supplementary income for numerous households and local communities in banana-producing regions.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of Banana Flour

Green Cavendish bananas (Musa acuminata, Colla), considered waste, were used in this study. Banana flour was made using the pulp of green bananas (stage 1–2 of the Von Loesecke ripening scale) [17]) from four banana cooperatives located on the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain). Briefly, 45 kg of bananas from each cooperative were hand-peeled with a knife, and the banana pulps were sliced transversally and submerged in tap water at room temperature for 30 min. Then, these banana slices were removed from the water, air-dried for several minutes on filter paper, placed in perforated trays, and dried at 55–60 °C overnight in an air convection oven. Finally, the dried slices were milled using an electric grinder (Figure 1). Approximately 7 kg of flour was packed in polyethylene bags and stored at room temperature (20 ± 5 °C). Four GBF samples were obtained.

2.2. Optimization of GBF Production

The majority of banana fruit waste originates from conventional or integrated pest management (IPM) crops, potentially resulting in the presence of pesticide residues in the fruit skin and subsequently in green banana flour (GBF). To eliminate pesticide residues in GBF, it is imperative to peel the fruit. The peeling process is contingent upon the cultivar and ripeness of the fruit. In several countries, green banana flour is primarily derived from cooking bananas, which can be easily hand-peeled even when green. Conversely, the Canary Islands produce dessert bananas, which can only be hand-peeled when ripe, not while green. Moreover, the ripening process increases sugar content, odor, aroma, and acidity [18,19], while diminishing starch and resistant starch content, thereby imparting desirable attributes to the flour [20,21,22]. Currently, no chemical devices are commercially available to facilitate efficient peeling, and no physical or chemical methods have been developed for this purpose. Hence, several heating treatments, such as immersion in hot water, exposure to water vapor, or the application of microwaves, were tested to evaluate the ease of manual peeling with a knife. Two temperatures (60 and 80 °C) and three times (1, 2, and 3 min) were assayed in the three heating treatments considered. Likewise, the freezing of whole bananas for 2 and 3 h and overnight was evaluated. After peeling, the effect of the immersion of banana pulp in antioxidant solutions (citric acid, ascorbic acid, and the combination of both) was assayed. These antioxidants were selected for being widely used in the food industry, innocuous for human health, and cheap. According to preliminary studies, immersion for ≥45 min increased water absorption, leading to pulp softening and greater difficulty in the drying process. Thus, several slices were immersed for 30 min in the following solutions: water, ascorbic acid (0.5%), citric acid (0.5%), and citric acid (0.5%) with ascorbic acid (0.5%). Pulp color was measured before and after immersion. A comparison of transverse and longitudinal slicing of banana pulps and drying temperatures (55–60 °C and 60–65 °C) was also performed in a Selecta® model Dry-Big drying stove , Cham, Switzerland (270 L capacity, 40–250 °C temperature range; Figure 2). Finally, the dried banana was ground in different mills (Figure 3), such as coffee mills (Braun®, Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain, model KSM 1/11, 75 g volume), manual cereal mills (FAVEGA®, Zaragoza, Spain, model Sprint, 150 g volume), or electric grain mills (Ama®, San Martino in Rio, Italy, model Magic, 50 L volume), to obtain a fine powder.
The preservation, chemical composition, and sensory characteristics of the GBF obtained from bananas immersed in water or a citric acid solution (0.5%) were studied. Twenty-four kilograms of bananas from each cooperative were hand-peeled with a knife. The banana pulp was sliced transversally and submerged in tap water or a citric acid solution (0.5%) at room temperature for 30 min. Then, the optimized procedure described in Section 2.1 was followed. Eight GBF samples of approximately 2 kg each were obtained.

2.3. Analytical Methods

The total phenolic content (TP) was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu assay. Briefly, 0.1 g of flour was weighed into a polyethylene tube, and then 25% methanol was added and mixed. This mixture was centrifuged, and the volume was adjusted to 10 mL with 25% methanol. One milliliter of this extract was mixed with 1 mL of 50% Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA). After 5 min, 2 mL of 10% Na2CO3 solution was added, and the extract was left for 10 min in the dark. After centrifugation, the absorbance was measured at 750 nm. Gallic acid was used as the calibration standard (4–40 mg GAE L−1), and the results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g dw (mg GAE 100 g−1).
Antioxidant activity was determined by the DPPH method (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl) [23] and by the method based on the radical ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) [24]. The DPPH solution (0.1 mM in methanol) was diluted with methanol to obtain an absorbance of 1.00 ± 0.01 at 517 nm. The ABTS radical cation (ABTS·+) solution was produced by reacting an ABTS stock aqueous solution (7 mM) with 2.45 mM potassium persulphate and incubating it at room temperature in the dark for 16 h. The ABTS·+ solution was then diluted with ethanol to obtain an absorbance of 0.700 ± 0.005 at 734 nm. Then, 0.1 mL of the extract was mixed with 2 mL of DPPH or ABTS·+ solution. This mixture was shaken and incubated in the dark for 30 min (DPPH and ABTS), after which the absorbance was measured at 517 nm (DPPH) or 734 nm (ABTS). A blank was prepared in the same manner and measured at 0 min. The antioxidant capacity was calculated using a calibration curve prepared with Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid) within a range of 200–800 μM, and the results were expressed as mmol Trolox equivalents (TE) per kg (mmol TE kg−1).

2.4. GBF Preservation at Room Temperature

The moisture, starch, pH, acidity, TP, and color parameters (L*, a*, b*, C*, H° and ΔE) were determined for the four GBF samples obtained after submergence in tap water. These were immediately analyzed after being prepared and after 5 and 10 months at room temperature (23 ± 2 °C) without exposure to light to evaluate their conservation.

2.5. Influence of Green Banana Storage Conditions on the Physicochemical Characteristics of the GBF Produced

Green banana samples were kept in cold rooms at two temperatures: 6 and 12 °C. Ten bananas were removed at 0, 2, 4, 5, and 7 weeks to prepare the GBF according to the procedure described in Section 2.1 to evaluate the influence of the storage conditions on the quality of the obtained GBF. The parameters analyzed in the GBF were moisture, starch, and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS methods).

2.6. Food Preparation and Acceptance Study

The gluten-free GBF produced using this optimized technological process was used to prepare different products, such as pasta, muffins, bread, cookies, and biscuits, to determine its applicability in the food industry. Sensory evaluation of the elaborated products was carried out within the framework of different sociocultural and gastronomic events. A total of 25 untrained participants aged between 12 and 60 years participated in the evaluation; 11 of them had celiac disease or consumed a gluten-free diet, and 14 consumed a diet with gluten. Five simple questions (yes/no) were posed to the participants to detect the presence of unacceptable odor, color, texture, and taste in the food products. Additionally, participants were asked whether they would purchase the product. The percentages for all the participants and groups of participants (according to the consumption or not of gluten) were calculated to establish the degree of acceptance of the bakery products.

2.7. Statistical Analyses

Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS version 25.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Significant differences were calculated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by post hoc Duncan’s test (p  <  0.05). Correlation analysis was carried out to detect relationships between variables. Linear discriminant analysis was applied to classify the GBF samples into homogeneous groups according to cooperative properties, the GBF storage time at room temperature, and the conservation time of the green bananas used in their preparation, differentiating between the two storage temperatures (6 °C or 12 °C).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Optimization of GBF Production

Bananas were peeled, chopped, treated, and ground in different ways in an artisanal-type processing plant to select the most suitable, easy, effective, and low-cost procedure for obtaining GBF. Concerning peeling, green Cavendish varieties of bananas are not easily peeled by hand, as they are when ripe, or as it occurs to cooking bananas. There were no differences among the tested thermal treatments for bananas and untreated bananas when the duration of treatment was 1 min. All the heat treatments improved the ease of peeling when the treatment time was progressively increased from 1 to 3 min. However, undesirable changes in the texture of the banana pulp (“cooked” on the surface) hindered subsequent oven drying. Freezing was also discarded because it required a long time and did not improve the subsequent peeling. Moreover, all these treatments imply an energy cost. Consequently, it was concluded that manual peeling (without previous thermal/freezing treatment), although more laborious, was the best option for an artisanal process. Development of efficient mechanical, physical, or chemical peeling methods for Cavendish varieties would be desirable, as it would reduce labor and costs. However, at present there are not methods available.
The environmental and economic sustainability of GBF production could be significantly enhanced by eliminating the necessity for peeling. This would entail the utilization of the entire fruit in the production process, thereby minimizing waste. However, it is imperative to note that only fruit sourced from zero-pesticide crops would be deemed suitable for this purpose. Conventional fruit production, by contrast, necessitates the discarding of peelings to preclude the presence of pesticide residues in GBF. It is noteworthy, however, that these discarded peelings could serve a secondary purpose by facilitating the extraction of antioxidants for application in the food and cosmetic industries [25], or as a source of potential anticancer drugs [26].
To prevent pulp oxidation, peeled bananas were immersed in ascorbic acid solutions, but a pinkish color, which was even more apparent when citric acid was also added, was observed. Thus, banana pulp immersed in ascorbic acid solution had higher (p < 0.05) a*, b*, and C* values and lower (p < 0.05) L* values than did the control pulp. This pinkish color could be attributed to the formation of pigment-type anthocyanins because of the chemical reaction between ascorbic acid, which has a marked antioxidant capacity, and phenolic compounds in the banana pulp. Therefore, the treatment with ascorbic acid was discarded. In contrast, immersion in water did not cause sensory changes in the bananas, while the addition of citric acid had little influence on the chemical composition (Table 1).
Logically, the GBF had higher acidity and ash content than did the flours prepared without the addition of citric acid. In addition, higher values of b* were detected when citric acid was added. Some papers [27,28] have studied the effects of antioxidants, such as ascorbic, citric, and lactic acids, or sodium metabisulphite, prior to drying bananas. Anyasi et al. [27] reported that organic acid (10, 15 and 20 g L−1) pretreatment mitigated the browning effect of banana flour. Bertolini et al. [28] concluded that the antioxidant treatment of fruits with citric acid (0.3%) does not change the pasting profiles of flour produced from banana pulp. However, it resulted in a slight increase in viscosity, suggesting that the starch structure could be modified by acidification. In our study, no advantage for the use of citric acid solution was observed since simple immersion in water was sufficient to avoid oxidative darkening of the banana pulp.
Regarding the stage of slicing (transversal and longitudinal) and drying of the pulp, temperatures ≥60 °C produced gelatinization on the surface of the banana pulp, as indicated by Menezes et al. [29], which reduces resistant starch content. Furthermore, drying was less effective since some moisture remained inside the slices. Drying (55–60 °C) was slightly faster in transverse slices than in longitudinal slices. However, the operator needs more time to place the slices of banana pulp in the oven tray. Thus, the choice of the cut type depends on the availability of personnel and/or the reduction in the drying time, but we prefer to choose longitudinal slices.
For the last step, milling, the manual cereal mill allowed grinding a greater volume of dehydrated banana slices than did the coffee mill (150 g vs. 75 g, respectively), but considerable physical effort was required for the operator. Therefore, this approach is not practical for large volumes. Accordingly, an electric mill was chosen due to its ability to efficiently process a volume of 50 L, its cost-effectiveness, and the minimal physical exertion required by the operator.

3.2. Physicochemical and Nutritional Characteristics of the GBF

Table 1 shows the results of the proximate analysis (moisture, ash, proteins, starch, fiber, and pH), color parameters (L*, a*, b*, C*, and H°), minerals and trace elements (P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn), TP, and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS methods) for the GBF samples analyzed according to the addition or absence of citric acid (0.5%). All the GBF samples presented good sensory characteristics with the absence of unpleasant odors, colors, and tastes. As in other flours, GBF has considerable nutritional value because of its relatively low moisture content (≈7.2 ± 1.7%). All these data fell within the ranges described in the literature for GBF made using different methods, banana varieties, and ripening stages [8,11,15,24,28,29,30,31,32]. Nevertheless, the GBF produced in this work had more starch (82.0% dw) than previously reported, which could be explained by the fact that the bananas used in the preparation of the GBF were at stages 1–2 of the Von Loesecke ripening scale. A considerable fraction of the starch present in green bananas is resistant to digestive enzymes in the human digestive tract [6,33,34]. Likewise, considerable amounts of protein, dietary fiber, and ash were found in the GBF. Among the minerals, K was the predominant mineral in the bananas and GBF. In addition, the Mg, P, and Ca concentrations were quite high. Among the trace elements, the medium–high contents of Fe and Zn must be emphasized, with lower quantities of Cu and Mn. The GBF had a slightly acidic pH (5.7) and a yellowish color. The TP content was 142 mg of GAE 100 g−1 dw, and the antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS methods) was 3.4 mM TE kg−1 dw and 4.71 mM TE kg−1 dw, respectively. Fatemeh et al. [35] reported that the banana variety (Cavendish and Dream), ripening stage (green and ripe), and plant parts (pulp and peel) influenced the TP and flavonoid contents as well as the antioxidant activity (DPPH) of bananas. Therefore, Cavendish banana flour and green bananas contained more TP and flavonoids than did the Dream variety and ripe bananas, respectively, while peel bananas had higher antioxidant compound contents than did the pulp. This could explain the differences found in the data reported in the literature. Our TP data fell within the range reported by these researchers [33,35] and were higher than those published by Campuzano et al. [20] and Savlak et al. [32].
Table 2 shows the contribution to nutrient and bioactive compound intake in relation to the dietary reference intake (DRI) proposed by the Food and Nutrition Board [36] when one serving (60 g) of GBF is consumed. Similar to other fruits and vegetables, the contribution to protein intake, considering both quantity and quality, was not important. As with other flours, GBF is very rich in carbohydrates, mainly starch; the consumption of a serving represents 38.4% of the RDA established for that nutrient. It is important to highlight that approximately 40% of the starch in green bananas is resistant starch [31,34], to which functional properties are commonly attributed. Moreover, a high contribution to fiber intake was observed, with values above 10% of the minimum recommended for males and females (Table 2). On the other hand, although the contribution to vitamin C intake was low (<5% of the RDA for adult males and females), a high contribution of phenolic compounds with marked antioxidant activity was observed. There is no recommended dietary intake (RDI) for phenolic compounds. However, the American Cancer Society [37] has established 100 mg day−1 of flavonoids as an adequate amount for the prevention of cancer and other degenerative illnesses. In addition to considering the quantity of phenols, it is also important to consider the bioavailability of the phenolic compounds present in the foods as part of the diet. The consumption of one serving of GBF largely contributes to the total phenolic intake recommended (86% of adequate intake). In relation to the mineral and trace element intakes, high contributions were found for K and Mg, with values ≈19% and ≈25% of the RDI for adult males and females, respectively. Only the contribution of Cu (≈17% of the RDA) can be attributed to the trace elements analyzed in this paper. Our results agree with those reported by do Prado Ferreira and Teixeira Tarley [30], who showed that GBF can provide a considerable intake of Mg, Cu, Fe, and proteins, making its inclusion in the daily diet highly relevant.

3.3. Physicochemical Changes in GBF during Storage at Room Temperature

Figure 4 shows the changes in the physicochemical parameters of the GBF stored at room temperature without light. The TP and pH significantly decreased with increasing storage time. In addition, GBF showed greater (p < 0.05) mean moisture and acidity and lower (p < 0.05) starch content after 10 months of storage than at time 0. The moisture increase could be explained by the absorption of the humidity from the surroundings, while the starch decrease is due to its partial hydrolysis. On the other hand, the acidity of GBF increased as a consequence of the organic acids generated in fermentation processes, and the phenolic compound concentrations decreased as a result of the action of air oxygen.
Significant changes in the color parameters were instrumentally observed after 5 months of storage. The mean L* values increased with storage time, while those of a* and b* decreased, leading to the recognition that after this time of conservation, the color did not evolve, so no differences (p > 0.05) were detected between 5 and 10 months. In addition, no appreciable differences in sensory characteristics were found between the freshly prepared flours and those stored at room temperature for 5 and 10 months.

3.4. Physicochemical Changes of the GBF According to the Storage Conditions of the Green Bananas Waste Used in Their Preparation

After harvest, the metabolism of the banana continues, so changes will occur in the physicochemical characteristics of the bananas and, consequently, in the corresponding GBF. Therefore, green bananas considered as waste must be stored before GBF is produced. Moreover, improving their conservation will allow the gradual processing of large volumes of bananas without affecting GBF quality. This study was conducted to determine the optimal temperature for green banana storage to maintain adequate characteristics for the preparation of GBF.
Two storage temperatures were tested (6 °C and 12 °C, Figure 5). As expected, more marked changes were observed in the GBF produced from green bananas stored at 12 °C than at 6 °C. In this sense, it was not possible to obtain flour of good quality from bananas stored for more than 3 weeks at 12 °C because they already had the typical yellow color of ripe bananas and the starch content was very low. This is one half of the period reported by Brat et al. [38] at 12°C, probably because of the banana variety (Cavendish vs. plantain). It was observed (Figure 5) that when the time of banana conservation increased, a decrease (p < 0.05) in the starch content occurred since it was gradually transformed into sugars. In contrast, an increase (p < 0.05) in its antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS) was observed as the bananas ripened, which could be explained by the increase in reducing sugars during storage. Moreover, the flours made from bananas stored at 12 °C had banana aromas and were much darker and slightly sweeter than those obtained from the bananas stored at 6 °C. When the storage temperature was 6 °C, the shelf life of the bananas to make GBF of good quality was 7 weeks. It is important to note that although the banana skin turned completely dark during storage at 6 °C, the pulp remained with no perceptible color change.

3.5. GBF Evaluation in Food Preparation

Some advantages of the GBF were observed in comparison with other gluten-free flours for baked products (oral communication provided by the three cooks). It is noteworthy that, as commented by the cooks, the yield of GBF in the production of food products was greater than the yields of other flours, which means a reduction in flour and, consequently, a decrease in caloric intake. In addition, they also showed that GBF blended very well with the rest of the ingredients used in the recipes, such as eggs, chocolate, butter, and sunflower oil. The tested GBF did not provide sufficient elasticity for the pasta-like doughs. The addition of other flour at a minimal ratio has been proposed to improve the physicochemical and viscoelastic characteristics of GBF [10,13], which could be an interesting option.
The sensory acceptance of the elaborated products was good for both types of participants, those who were celiac or had a gluten-free diet and those who had a diet including gluten. All the participants (100%) highlighted the good texture and fluffiness of the tested food products compared with the current gluten-free products, particularly for sponge or muffin products. In the case of bread, only 14 (six gluten-free consumers and nine gluten consumers) of the 25 participants gave their opinion. All gluten-free participants (100%) found bread with adequate fluffiness against 45% of the participants who usually consumed products with gluten. The high fiber content and gluten absence in GBF provide a “wholegrain” sensation in the mouth and make the dough heavy. To increase bread fluffiness, some authors [9,12] have mixed this GBF with other lighter flours. In all the tested products, 80% of the participants did not perceive a banana flavor (73% of the gluten-free consumers and 86% of the gluten consumers). All the participants detected a dark color in the products similar to that of an integral product, but they manifested that it was acceptable. Likewise, all the participants reported that they would purchase these GBF products.

3.6. Statistical Analysis

In the correlation study, a high number of significant (p < 0.05) correlations were observed between ash and minerals and between ash and trace elements, suggesting that there are common genetic factors controlling the accumulation of these elements in the fruit pulp. All the correlations between the minerals and the trace elements were positive, which indicates that when the concentration of one mineral or trace element increases, the concentrations of others also increase. The complex mineral interactions occurring in soils, water, and plants could influence the correlations observed. The ash content was correlated (p < 0.05) with most minerals, such as P (r = 0.435), K (r = 0.654), Ca (r = 0.812), Fe (r = 0.577), Cu (r = 0.818), and Zn (r = 0.665). Potassium was correlated with the rest of the minerals studied, except Mg, which did not present any significant correlation. A tendency toward the differentiation of the GBF samples according to the cooperative can be seen in the graphic representations of many correlations (most graphic representations are not shown). This suggests that the mineral content of cultivation soil and irrigation water could influence the mineral content of GBF samples. The correlations between K and Ca (r = 0.755), K and Zn (r = 0.850), Ca and Cu (r = 0.903), and Ca and Zn (r = 0.872) can be emphasized because of their relatively high correlation coefficients. The correlations between Ash and Ca and between Fe and Zn are shown in Figure 6A,B. The GBF samples were differentiated according to their cooperative provenance.
Acidity and pH were moderately and inversely correlated (r = −0.951). Within the color parameters, a* was inversely and strongly correlated with L* (r = −0.934). Therefore, L* could be estimated on the basis of the a* value according to the following equation:
L* = (85.36 ± 3.20) − (9.00 ± 1.30) · a* (p < 0.001)
It is interesting to emphasize the correlations (0.685 < r < 0.905) between many minerals, such as P, Ca, Cu, and Zn, and L* and, inversely, with a*, which suggests that the mineral content may play a role in the color of the flour. The antioxidant capacity parameters (DPPH and ABTS) were correlated, but they were not correlated with TP, as indicated by Fatemeh et al. [35]. This implies that other nonphenolic compounds were probably responsible for the antioxidant capacity of the GBF. Moreover, the antioxidant capacity (DPPH) was correlated with moisture (r = 0.707), fiber (r = 0.624), and pH (r = 0.843) and inversely correlated with acidity (r = −0.878). Therefore, the antioxidant activity of the GBF samples decreases when the acidity increases, and the moisture and fiber contents decrease.
After the application of stepwise linear discriminant analysis (LDA) to differentiate GBF samples according to the cooperative of origin, all GBF samples were well classified (100.0%, and 100.0% after cross-validation) by selecting moisture, TP, pH, Fe, Cu, and Mn. A subsequent LDA using the variables moisture, starch, acidity, pH, and total phenolics was performed to classify the GBF samples according to the storage time at room temperature. A complete (100.0%, and 100.0% after cross-validation) correct classification of all the samples was obtained by selecting three variables: moisture, acidity, and total phenolics. After stepwise LDA was applied to the determined variables (moisture, starch content, and DPPH and ABTS antioxidant capacities) to differentiate the GBF according to the GBF storage time, all the samples (100.0%, and 100.0% after cross-validation) were correctly classified, and starch and DPPH were selected. Similarly, a complete classification of the GBF was found according to the conservation time of the green bananas used in their preparation, differentiating both storage temperatures (6 °C or 12 °C). Moisture, starch, and DPPH were the selected variables in the classification of GBF produced from green bananas stored at 6 °C, while only moisture and starch were selected in the classification of GBF samples stored at 12 °C.

4. Conclusions

Please remember the following text:
An artisanal, simple, and inexpensive technological process has been optimized for producing GBF, a fruit waste management option that could contribute to reducing environmental impact. This could also be a useful source of additional income for many low-income populations. The proposed artisanal process can be adapted for use in other banana-producing regions, with adjustments made to account for local cultivars, available technology, and the socio-economic context.
The critical step of the process is peeling the bananas, as it is challenging to peel green dessert bananas without a knife, and there are currently no mechanical or physical methods available. This process is time-consuming and labor-intensive, which leads to increased production costs. Currently, only fruit from pesticide-free crops can be used without peeling to ensure that the banana flour is free from pesticides, but this accounts for a very small amount of total fruit waste. Further research on peeling methods or devices, as well as on procedures to eliminate pesticide residues from the outer part of the banana, along with the development of plant protection methods based on non-chemical alternatives, would help to address this critical step in the process.
One of the advantages of GBF is that it is a stable product over time, and the use of organic acids as antioxidants is not necessary. Storage of GBF at room temperature without light was adequate for at least 10 months, although light changes were observed.
The physicochemical parameters of green banana flour (GBF) fell within the reported values, showing high starch, fiber, and ash contents, as well as a slightly acidic and yellowish appearance. Consuming GBF contributes to the daily intake of resistant starch, fiber, phenolics, and other beneficial compounds, which play a role in preventing illnesses. Additionally, its high potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) contents can help prevent hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases. GBF is also a promising option for creating gluten-free foods that are well-received by consumers.
Maintaining an optimal refrigeration temperature for green bananas is crucial for obtaining GBF of a good quality. The recommended temperature for increasing the storage of green bananas is 6 °C, with a maximum storage time of 7 weeks.
Furthermore, discriminant analysis can be used to differentiate GBF samples based on the cooperative provenance, storage time, and storage temperature of the green banana waste used in flour preparation.
The production of green banana flour (GBF) from green banana pulp is an interesting option for utilizing waste generated in banana agricultural production. This can contribute to improving the sustainability of banana-producing countries and communities. Additionally, banana flour has a longer commercial life than fresh bananas and can be used in the food industry to make various products such as muffins, biscuits, and bread, adding further value to this fruit.
Additionally, the use of banana peels for antioxidant extraction, intended for use in the food and/or cosmetic industries, would contribute to enhancing the environmental and economic sustainability of the process.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.P.-B.D. and M.G.L.; investigation, M.M.L., A.P.-B.D., M.G.L. and E.M.R.-R.; resources, A.P.-B.D. and M.G.L.; data curation, M.G.L. and E.M.R.-R.; project administration, A.P.-B.D., M.G.L. and E.M.R.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.P.-B.D., M.G.L. and C.D.R.; writing—review and editing, M.G.L. and E.M.R.-R.; supervision, A.P.-B.D. and M.G.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Fundación CajaCanarias (project Valorfood 2014–2015).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank José Oramas, Javier Fernández, and all the COPLACA team, as well as Ricardo Torres and the workers of S.A.T. FAST, for their technical and logistic support; Andrés Vicente, Judith Fontecova, Roberto Panada, and Antonella Maistri (La Pasta Fresca de Anto y Roby) for their collaboration in the cooking assays with GBF; and especially José Luis Iglesias (Service Desk IT Support Atos Consulting, formerly CM Webmaster at Asociación de Celíacos de Tenerife) for his enthusiastic cooperation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Optimized artisanal technological procedure for obtaining GBF.
Figure 1. Optimized artisanal technological procedure for obtaining GBF.
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Figure 2. Selecta® drying stove used for banana slices dehydration.
Figure 2. Selecta® drying stove used for banana slices dehydration.
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Figure 3. Mills used to grind dehydrated banana slices. (A) Coffee mill (Braun® model KSM 1/11); (B) manual cereal mill (Sprint model); (C) electric grain mill (Magic model).
Figure 3. Mills used to grind dehydrated banana slices. (A) Coffee mill (Braun® model KSM 1/11); (B) manual cereal mill (Sprint model); (C) electric grain mill (Magic model).
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Figure 4. Changes of several physicochemical parameters (A) and color parameters (B) in GBF after storage at room temperature. Mean values within a parameter followed by different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Figure 4. Changes of several physicochemical parameters (A) and color parameters (B) in GBF after storage at room temperature. Mean values within a parameter followed by different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
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Figure 5. Influence of banana storage at 6 °C and 12 °C on the moisture, starch, and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS) of GBF. Mean values within a parameter followed by different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
Figure 5. Influence of banana storage at 6 °C and 12 °C on the moisture, starch, and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and ABTS) of GBF. Mean values within a parameter followed by different letters differ significantly (p < 0.05).
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Figure 6. Correlations between ash–Ca (A) and Fe–Zn (B) according to cooperative provenance.
Figure 6. Correlations between ash–Ca (A) and Fe–Zn (B) according to cooperative provenance.
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Table 1. Results (mean ± standard deviation) of the physicochemical parameters for the GBF samples classified into two groups according to the addition of citric acid in GBF production (0.5%).
Table 1. Results (mean ± standard deviation) of the physicochemical parameters for the GBF samples classified into two groups according to the addition of citric acid in GBF production (0.5%).
ParameterGreen Banana Flour
With Citric AcidWithout Citric Acid
Moisture (%)7.24 ± 1.697.24 ± 1.71
Starch (%)81.87 ± 2.1182.09 ± 1.55
Protein (%)5.36 ± 0.205.48 ± 0.22
Fiber (%)7.64 ± 0.337.72 ± 0.32
Ash (%)3.68 ± 0.213.48 ± 0.23
P (g kg−1)0.91 ± 0.070.90 ± 0.06
K (g kg−1)14.30 ± 0.6814.19 ± 0.80
Ca (g kg−1)0.16 ± 0.050.16 ± 0.04
Mg (g kg−1)1.39 ± 0.081.33 ± 0.16
Fe (mg kg−1)11.14 ± 3.0111.09 ± 3.12
Cu (mg kg−1)2.54 ± 1.082.51 ± 0.98
Zn (mg kg−1)7.42 ± 1.057.39 ± 1.31
Mg (mg kg−1)2.63 ± 0.362.69 ± 0.29
pH5.72 ± 0.095.77 ± 0.30
Acidity (%)0.55 ± 0.190.34 ± 0.06
L*63.95 ± 5.5763.63 ± 5.09
a*2.84 ± 1.002.41 ± 0.53
b*20.11 ± 1.1818.11 ± 0.73
C*20.32 ± 1.2918.28 ± 0.73
H°262 ± 2.34262 ± 1.66
TP (mg GAE 100 g−1)141.8 ± 6.63145.6 ± 6.76
DPPH (mM TE 100 g)3.39 ± 0.723.33 ± 0.68
Results in bold were significantly (p < 0.05) different. Data expressed in dry weight. TP = total phenolics; GAE = gallic acid equivalent; TE = Trolox equivalent; DPPH = 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical.
Table 2. Contribution to the recommended dietary intake of several nutrients.
Table 2. Contribution to the recommended dietary intake of several nutrients.
NutrientIntake Per Serving
(mg or g per day)		Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) *% DRI **
Starch (g) 49.213037.84
Protein (g)3.2556 (46)5.81 (7.07)
Fiber (g)4.6142 (33.6)11.0 (13.7)
TP (mg GAE)86.210086.2
K (g)0.854.7 (3.5)18.2 (24.4)
Ca (mg)9.6810000.97
P (mg)54.37007.76
Mg (mg)81.7420 (320)19.5 (25.5)
Fe (mg)0.678 (18)8.33 (3.70)
Zn (mg)0.4411 (8)4.04 (5.56)
Cu (mg)0.150.916.9
Mn (mg)0.162.3 (1.8)6.94 (8.87)
TP = total phenolics; GAE = gallic acid equivalent. * Dietary reference intake. The data for women are in brackets. All the values are recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) except values in italics that are referred to adequate intakes. Adequate intake for fiber was calculated from the established value of 14 g/1000 kcal [36] considering a caloric intake of 3000 and 2400 kcal per day for men and women, respectively. The recommendation for TP is considered adequate [37] for degenerative illnesses prevention. All these recommended intakes are for adults in the age interval 20–50 years, except for Mg which refers to 30–50 years. ** % DRI were calculated comparing the contribution to nutrient intake for the consumption of a serving (60 g) of GBF and its DRI.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Martín Lorenzo, M.; Piedra-Buena Díaz, A.; Díaz Romero, C.; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, E.M.; Lobo, M.G. Physicochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Green Banana Flour from Discarded Cavendish Bananas. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6647. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156647

AMA Style

Martín Lorenzo M, Piedra-Buena Díaz A, Díaz Romero C, Rodríguez-Rodríguez EM, Lobo MG. Physicochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Green Banana Flour from Discarded Cavendish Bananas. Sustainability. 2024; 16(15):6647. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156647

Chicago/Turabian Style

Martín Lorenzo, Mercedes, Ana Piedra-Buena Díaz, Carlos Díaz Romero, Elena M. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, and M. Gloria Lobo. 2024. "Physicochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Green Banana Flour from Discarded Cavendish Bananas" Sustainability 16, no. 15: 6647. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156647

APA Style

Martín Lorenzo, M., Piedra-Buena Díaz, A., Díaz Romero, C., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, E. M., & Lobo, M. G. (2024). Physicochemical and Nutritional Characterization of Green Banana Flour from Discarded Cavendish Bananas. Sustainability, 16(15), 6647. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156647

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