Students Digital Maturity and Its Implications for Sustainable Behavior

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the transition to remote and hybrid teaching and learning, highlighting the importance of digital maturity among university staff and students. Digital maturity includes technological proficiency and skills necessary to navigate and use digital tools for personal learning and development, as well as responsible and ethical use of technology, digital citizenship, and critical thinking. Developing digital maturity among students is critical to promoting sustainable practices and success in a digitally connected world. This article examines the impact of students’ digital maturity on online learning engagement and explores the relationship between digital maturity, acceptance of universities’ digital transformation, online education satisfaction, student engagement, and sustainable behavior. The study randomly selected 358 students from three Polish universities who completed an online survey (CAWI). The results indicate that digital competences positively affect the students’ acceptance of the digital transformation of the university. Personal innovation and motivation for formal digital learning also influence acceptance. Accepting the digital transformation has a positive impact on online learning satisfaction. Engagement in online learning has minimal impact on informal digital learning. The positive moderating effects of commitment to sustainable development on satisfaction and commitment to distance learning and informal digital learning were insignificant. The study suggests that universities need to promote digital maturity among all stakeholders, and students need to improve their digital competences to take full advantage of the educational offer of universities.

1. Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced higher education institutions around the world to rapidly transform their teaching and learning practices to adapt to remote and hybrid models [1]. This sudden shift to digital learning has highlighted the importance of digital maturity among both university staff and students [2]. Digital maturity can be understood in terms of digital competencies—the level of technological proficiency and skills required to effectively navigate and utilize digital tools, platforms, and resources for learning and personal growth. However, digital maturity goes beyond just technical skills; it also encompasses responsible and ethical use of technology, digital citizenship, and critical thinking. In the context of sustainability, digital maturity can enable students to engage in sustainable practices such as reducing their carbon footprint by utilizing digital resources and minimizing physical travel.

The successful digital transformation of universities requires not only technical infrastructure and support, but also a culture of digital maturity among all stakeholders. This includes university staff, who need to be equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to design and deliver high-quality digital learning experiences, as well as students, who must be able to effectively navigate and utilize digital tools for their learning and personal development.

This article explores the relationship between student digital maturity and their acceptance of digital transformation of the university in the context of commitment to sustainability and satisfaction with online education. The article argues that developing digital maturity among students is essential for acceptance of digital transformation, promoting sustainable practices and enhancing their ability to succeed in a digitally connected world. Moreover, it emphasizes the need for universities to adapt to changing learning and teaching conditions in order to ensure that students are prepared for the demands of a rapidly changing digital landscape.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. The Concept of Consumer Maturity

The extent of consumer maturity is influenced by both the personal traits of an individual and the consumption environment to which they are exposed. It pertains to the knowledge and expertise a consumer holds regarding a particular product or service. A consumer who exhibits more advanced maturity is deemed to be better equipped to navigate the complexities of the contemporary market, both economically and educationally [3]. The level of consumer maturity or sophistication is usually depicted on a continuum, which closely resembles Hirschman’s concept of consumer creativity [4]. According to Hirschman [4], consumer creativity refers to the problem-solving ability possessed by an individual, which can be applied to tackle consumption-related problems.

2.2. The Concept of Digital Maturity and Student Digital Maturity (SDM)

Digital maturity, on the other hand, refers to the level of technological proficiency and skills an organization possesses by which to effectively navigate and utilize digital tools, platforms, and resources [5]. The term “digital maturity” receives particular attention in the work of Westerman et al. [6]. Westerman et al. provide evidence that firms with higher digital maturity earn superior corporate performance. This research stream separates the concept of digital maturity into digital capabilities (e.g., strategy, technological expertise, business models, and customer experience) and leadership capabilities (e.g., governance, change management, and culture).

The concept of student digital maturity can be derived from these definitions by considering the level of technological proficiency and skills a student possesses by which to effectively navigate and utilize digital tools, platforms, and resources for learning and personal growth. Student digital maturity encompasses not only technical skills, but also responsible and ethical use of technology, digital citizenship, and critical thinking.

Overall, the concept of student digital maturity is essential in the digital age, as it enables students to effectively navigate and utilize digital tools for learning and personal development and promotes responsible and ethical use of technology.

In the context of the digital transformation of HEI’s, the importance of students’ digital competence is pointed out. Digital competencies, also known as digital literacy, refer to the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to utilize digital tools effectively and efficiently [7,8]. The term encompasses a wide range of abilities, including the ability to find and evaluate digital information, create digital content, communicate online, and collaborate with others using digital platforms. As per Johnson et al. [9] and Schroeter and Higgins [10], digital literacy encompasses skills such as finding, analyzing, evaluating, and presenting digital information. In the literature, there is no consensus of what digital competencies are, and one finds not only various perspectives on them but also various overlapping terminology, often used interchangeably. A clear and commonly accepted definition of digital competence does not exist [11]. In general, digital competence is defined as a set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary when using digital technologies to effectively optimize everyday life [12]. Ilomaki et al. [13] define it as a composition of technical competence; the ability to use digital technologies in the meaningful way in work, education, and everyday life; the ability to evaluate digital technologies critically; and motivation to participate and to commit in the digital culture. The European Commission’s definition stipulates that digital competence is “the confident, critical, and responsible use of, and engagement with, digital technologies for learning, at work, and for participation in the society” [14]. The analysis of existing definitions suggests that digital competence consists of cognitive, attitudinal, and technological skills, and involves also the social and emotional aspects of using various digital technologies. Calvani et al. [15] argue that digital competence consists of both specific and non-quantifiable skills, including technical, cognitive, and ethical reasoning. Jessen et al. [16] stress that digital competence helps to alleviate contemporary society’s problems and has dynamic and transversal nature. Zhao et al. [17] note that digital competence encompasses not only a set of skills related to the utilization of digital technologies but also the social and emotional aspects of using these technologies.

Current generations of students, exposed to digital technologies from an early age, are often assumed to be digitally competent “digital natives” [18]. However, numerous studies indicate that students worldwide are not so digitally competent. The necessity to master digital competences became obvious during the COVID-19 pandemic, during which digital competences were instrumental to advance in education [19]. The pandemic accelerated the digital transformation of higher education institutions, moving their curricula to virtual environments—a shift that many of them experienced before 2019. Although intensively debated for more than a decade, digital competences became a major topic in higher education during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic [17]. With the rapid and disruptive transition from traditional education to an online model, the importance of digital competences has become clearly apparent at all levels of education [20]. Successful digitalization of learning models in higher education institutions requires an adequate level of digital competences of their students, who should be prepared to use their digital competences in academia and further professional life [21]. Numerous recent studies indicated that during the pandemic both students and faculty have developed digital competence [22]. However, these studies do not confirm the common assumption regarding the high level of digital competence of “digital natives” students. Although students seem to exhibit good levels of digital creativity, their skills of information search, organization, and critical evaluation are rather basic, and there is limited confidence in their abilities to solve problems using technology [19].

A study conducted by Munoz and Wood [23] reveals doubts about students’ level of technological proficiency. Similarly, Redecker et al. [24] conclude that the younger generation tends to underestimate the skills they require while overestimating their technical abilities. Not surprisingly, students prefer using and focusing on technology that they are already comfortable with in their personal lives, as highlighted by Duffy and Ney [25]. Moreover, although students enjoy the interactive features of digital tools, they are not entirely sure about their contribution to their learning, as pointed out by Neier and Zayer [26]. A study by Maria and Avan [27] indicates that students utilizing social networks to obtain scientific knowledge performed better than those who used them solely for entertainment purposes. Hernández-Martín et al. [28] found that pre-adolescent students who use social media moderately or did not use it at all displayed better digital competences in the area of safety in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Cabero-Almenara et al. [19] found that the level of digital competence depended on the number of digital resources used during learning, social background, and overall academic performance. Kim et al. [18] observed that college students who are “digital natives” do not effectively use digital technologies during their education, or do not use them at all, and that their ability to learn continuously and the willingness to apply knowledge mediate their perceived digital competence and attitudes. Consequently, students may have a skewed understanding of which tools are primarily used for marketing communication or how to use them effectively. Studies from all over the world paint a rather pessimistic picture: there seems to be a wide gap between digital competence in informal contexts and formal learning [29]. Such findings suggest that “digital natives” are digitally incompetent; merely equating time spent with various digital technologies, such as social media, does not imply high level of digital competence. Students use a variety of technological resources, but they either do not use them effectively during their education or do not use them at all. An insufficient level of digital competence may affect students’ engagement, motivation, and confidence about using digital technologies for academic purposes, as well as their overall satisfaction with studying, undermining educational institutions’ efforts towards digital transformation.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about a significant shift in the way students learn and access educational resources, with digital technologies playing a more critical role than ever before. As a result, students have had to adapt to these changes, with many of them experiencing an acceleration in their digital literacy skills [8]. The pandemic has also led to a change in the expectations placed on students, with digital competencies becoming increasingly essential for success in higher education [30]. Effective use and adoption of digital technologies may positively influence students’ engagement and is considered a good predictor of their learning, academic success, and personal development, as well as encouraging a positive attitude towards educational institutions [18]. Scheel, Vladova and Ullrich [31] found that students with higher overall level of digital competences have a greater acceptance of digital learning. Digital competences have a positive impact on the perceived ease of use of digital technologies, which results in a more positive attitude toward digital learning.

Despite the growing interest in digital transformation in higher education institutions, there is still a research gap in understanding the concept of digital maturity, particularly in relation to consumer digital maturity and student digital maturity. Several studies have examined digital maturity in higher education institutions, highlighting the importance of developing a culture of digital maturity among university staff [32] and promoting digital literacy among students [33]. However, there is a lack of research on the concept of consumer digital maturity and student digital maturity. While some studies have explored the relationship between digital maturity and academic performance, there is still much to be conducted in terms of understanding the factors that influence digital maturity among students.

Given the defined research gap, we formulate two main objectives for this article:

• To define the concept of students’ digital maturity and explore its various dimensions;
• To explore the relationship between students’ digital maturity, acceptance of digital transformation of HEI, satisfaction with online education, student engagement, and sustainable behavior, considering the ways in which digital technologies can be used to support sustainable practices.

2.3. Theoretical Framework of SDM

In order to develop a theoretical framework for the various dimensions of students’ digital maturity, we used the Jisc Digital Capability Framework proposal as a starting point (Figure 1). The Jisc Digital Capability Framework is a framework developed by Jisc, a UK organization that supports the use of digital technologies in higher education [34]. The framework outlines a set of digital capabilities that are essential for students and staff in higher education to thrive in a digital environment. These capabilities include not only technical skills but also critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and digital well-being.

A new proposed framework of student digital maturity consists of three elements (Figure 2). The first element is digital competencies in three dimensions: technological, cognitive, and ethical knowledge. Technological knowledge refers to the practical skills required to use digital tools and technologies effectively. Cognitive knowledge refers to the ability to think critically and creatively about digital information and use it to solve problems, make decisions, and generate new knowledge. Ethical knowledge emphasizes the importance of understanding the ethical implications of digital technologies and using them in responsible, sustainable, and equitable ways.

The second element is motivation for digital formal learning, which refers to students’ desire and willingness to engage in formal learning activities that are designed to develop their digital competencies. This includes their attitudes towards active participation in online classes.

The third and final element is personal innovativeness, which refers to students’ willingness and ability to experiment with new digital technologies and approaches to learning. This includes their openness to change and their ability to adapt to new and unfamiliar digital environments.

Taken together, these three elements provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and promoting student digital maturity in a rapidly changing digital landscape. By addressing these elements, educational institutions and policymakers can help students to develop the digital competencies, motivation, and readiness necessary to succeed in the digital age.

2.3.1. Student Personal Innovativeness

Personal innovativeness is a personality trait related to an individual’s openness to take chances [35] and can be defined as the level of willingness to accept or to reject any new technology [12]. Agrawal and Prasad [36] conceptualized personal innovativeness as the degree to which an individual is responsive to new ideas and adopts innovative technologies earlier than others. It is suggested that personal innovativeness is a relatively stable predictor of an individual’s behavioral intentions across various contexts and situations. Personal innovativeness is a key determinant in the process of new adopting new technologies, as innovative individuals exhibit higher willingness to risk adopting innovations and higher levels of self-efficacy and self-confidence in performing new tasks [35]. Previous studies indicated that it is an important predictor of both satisfaction and intention to use mobile learning [37]. Innovative students tend to have a more positive attitude towards accepting new technologies and are more open to change in their educational environment; they are less anxious to use them, and they seek new solutions and ideas more proactively [38]. A study by Cao et al. [39] found that personal innovativeness in information technology positively affected students’ behavioral intentions toward using Cloud Classroom Application. He and Zhu [12] found that students’ personal innovativeness and digital competence impact their digital informal learning. Recently, Goli et al. [40] found that personal innovativeness has a positive effect on intention to use artificial intelligence-based chatbots. The relationship between personal innovativeness and sustainable behaviors remains largely unexplored, with the majority of studies narrowly focusing on the impact of personal innovativeness and intentions to purchase sustainable products. The results of these studies suggest that there is a positive relationship between these two variables. For example, He, Zhan, and Hu [41] found that personal innovativeness directly impacts intention to purchase electric cars. This is in line with psychological research, which suggests that there is a connection between an individual’s cognitive style and attitude to nature: innovative individuals, by being more open to new experiences, tend to be more connected to nature [42].

2.3.2. Motivation for Digital Formal Learning

Motivation for digital formal learning refers to students’ desire and willingness to engage in digital formal learning, which includes attitudes towards active participation in online classes. The two year period of pandemic-enforced online learning, which provided a unique opportunity to study the challenges of digitized education, may have changed students’ perceptions of online education and increased their motivation and engagement [43]. Studies conducted before 2019, for example by Handelsman, Briggs, Sullivan, and Towler’s [44] found that participation/interaction engagement (having fun, participating actively in activities) was an important behavioral dimension of student course engagement. A study by Dixson [45] indicated that students’ online engagement was correlated with their application learning behaviors (such as active communication using digital tools during courses). More recently, research conducted by Santi, Gorghiu, and Pribeanu [46] suggests that students’ engagement and active participation in online learning was influenced by effective communication with instructors and peers. Muzammil, Sutawijaya, and Harsasi [47] found that interaction between students and instructor, among other students, and between students and the course’s content had a positive impact of their engagement, which, in turn, positively impacted their satisfaction. These findings suggest that students’ active participation in online courses may predict their engagement and motivation. The analysis of existing literature suggests that students’ attitudes towards online classes and their engagement depends on personal and institutional factors. Students’ learning engagement behavior in online education is influenced by such psychosocial factors as involvement of instructors, community of peers, self-confidence, self-efficacy, course design, availability of multiple means of interaction, time management, and organizational skills [48]. Numerous studies point at the impact of anxiety toward online learning on students’ engagement and satisfaction [49]. Factors such as perception of preparedness to study online, psychological distress, and inexperience may limit acceptance of online learning [50]. Moreover, students’ learning styles may impact their attitudes towards online education [51]. Perceived usefulness of online learning may impact online learning intention [52]. Students’ socioeconomic background, availability of technological resources, and technical problem-solving skills may impact the effects of online learning and, as a result, students’ engagement and attitudes [50].

2.4. Digital Informal Learning

Digital informal learning can be defined as an unstructured, self-controlled, self-directed, and flexible learning process, which is not typically classroom-based, utilizing digital technology to enhance knowledge and understanding of course material in an informal learning context [53]. Digital informal learning occurs without specific time and place, often without specified subject, materials, and assessment, which is typical of formalized, effective study [12]. Its distinguishing feature is learner control over the process and goal setting [12]. Students can also engage in this process without predetermined learning goals, taking advantage of easy access to educational content offered in a digital environment. Some studies indicate that digital informal learning can impact students’ motivation, performance, and knowledge [54] and increase student’s academic engagement [55]. He and Li [56] argue that digital competence improves the quality and creation of digital informal learning. Heidari, Mehrvarz, and Marzooghi [57] found that digital competence was positively correlated with students’ digital informal learning and their academic engagement and mediated the relationship between these variables. The impact of digital competence on students’ digital informal learning was also demonstrated by He et al. [58].

2.5. Digital Competences and Sustainability

It is stressed in the literature that digital technologies are important tools not only for socioeconomic progress, but also for educating students about sustainability, and several research studies show their potential in this field [59]. However, the postulated positive impact is limited by the digital divide, unequal access to technological resources, and varying digital competence, the latter being crucial for achieving sustainability goals [59]. According to Sanchez et al. [60], digital competences are related to four domains: (1) critical contextualization of knowledge by establishing links with environmental, economic, and social problems; (2) the sustainable use of resources and prevention of negative impacts on natural and social environment; (3) participation in community processes promoting sustainability; (4) application of ethical principles related to sustainability values in various contexts of one’s behavior. The role of higher education institutions is perceived as crucial in developing appropriate attitudes and behaviors; however, sustainability is not yet adequately integrated into academic programs. The relationship between sustainability and digital competence is not clear; empirical evidence is limited, especially in the context of students and their digital maturity. So far, this relationship has been more often explored from the perspective of higher education institutions and digital competences of instructors [61].

2.6. Theoretical Framework of Student Commitment to Sustainable Development

According to the Brundtland Report, sustainable development refers to the type of development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [62]. This concept is integrated into three pillars—economic, social, and environmental—but it has now broadened to include socio-cultural aspects [63,64,65,66,67]. In this context, higher education programs for sustainable development should reflect the need for sustainable solutions in nature and human life [68]. Universities play a crucial role in educating future leaders and citizens for social change. Rieckmann [69] suggests that universities should include education for sustainable development in their curricula to equip students with the necessary knowledge and skills to address sustainability issues in their professional work.

To diagnose students’ involvement in sustainable development, the present study adapted the questions from Faham et al. [68], who used strategic thinking competence to construct action plans for sustainable changes. Several studies have attempted to assess students’ strategic competencies in sustainability, including Molderez and Fonseca [70], Lans et al. [71], Savage et al. [72], Ploum et al. [73], and Annelin and Boström [74]. A review by Redman, Wiek, and Barth [75] found that eight different types of tools are currently used to assess students’ sustainability competencies, with scaled self-assessment being the most common. The scale items used in Faham et al. [68] are summarized in

Table 1. Measuring scale items.

Measuring Scale Items
Digital Maturity
Digital Competence
Technological dimension Visual literacy (VL): I can use various applications for data visualization; I can use at least one photo editing program; I can use at least one video creation program. Troubleshooting (TS): I can use various antivirus programs to deal with a virus-ridden computer; I can deal with problems with the computer’s operating system; I can solve a software problem on my own by searching for information about the correct solution online. Understanding of technical concepts (UTC): I am proficient in at least one operating system (e.g., Windows, OSX, Android, IOS, etc.); I am able to use social media well; I am proficient in using photo and video sharing tools. Cognitive skills dimension Organizing and combining textual and visual data: I can use digital tools to represent textual data in graphic form; I can represent relationships between data using digital tools (e.g., mind mapping, diagrams, decision trees); I can identify key words in text read on a computer or smartphone. Organizing structured data: I can organize data in a table using various digital tools; I can find missing values in a table, e.g., in excel; I use various apps to create my calendar or to-do list. Searching for information: I have no problem searching the web for the information I need; I have no problem searching for information in at least one database; I am able to assess the credibility of the information I find on the Internet. Ethical knowledge dimension Online privacy and safety: When I surf the web, I am aware of privacy risks; When I deal with online payments, I am always aware of security issues. Respect for others: I am aware of the phenomenon of online hate speech and behave decently online; I am aware of the need to comment culturally and rationally online.
Personal Innovativeness
I enjoy experimenting with new digital technologies; When I learn about a new digital technology I try to use it as soon as possible; Among my peers, I am usually the first to try out new digital technologies.
Motivation for Digital Formal Learning
I try to always be active during online classes and interact with the instructor (I ask questions of the lecturer and participate in discussions); I try to always actively participate in online group work, e.g., doing exercises and solving assignments with classmates/colleagues; I am in control of my online and offline schedule/ I have no problems in completing online classes (I don’t forget classes, I am not late).
Level of Commitment to the Sustainability Undertaken during the University Education
To build the democratic society that is participatory, sustainable, and peaceful; To secure the bounty and beauty of Earth for the present and future generations; To protect and restore the integrity of ecological systems of Earth, with special Attention to the biological diversity and the natural processes that sustain life; To prevent the harm as the best method of the environmental protection; To adopt the patterns of consumption, production, and reproduction that safeguard Earth’s regenerative capacities, human rights, and societal well-being; To try to study ecological sustainability; To eradicate poverty as a social, ethical, and environmental issue; To consider the gender equality as prerequisites for the sustainable development and promote women’s participation in professional life; To uphold the right of all people without the discrimination; To pay attention to the rights of the indigenous peoples; To apply participatory problem solving to environmental management; To encourage and support the mutual solidarity, understanding, and cooperation among all peoples.
Satisfaction with Online Education
I am satisfied with the digital transformation of my university; The digital transformation of my university makes learning easier; Digital transformation improves the quality of my learning compared to purely classroom learning.
Acceptance of Digital Transformation of the University
I believe that the digital transformation of my university is necessary; The implementation of digital transformation at my university is bringing positive results; Without the implementation of digital transformation, further development of my university is not possible; Education at my university requires the implementation of digital transformation solutions.
Student Engagement with Online Learning
I am more energetic when attending classes online than offline; When I get up in the morning, I feel more like participating in online activities than offline ones; I am proud of studying online.
Digital Informal Learning
Metacognitive: I often use digital technologies to help myself monitor my learning progress; I often use digital technologies to enhance learning opportunities; I often use digital technologies to seek interesting learning experiences. Social and motivational: I often use digital technologies to sustain my motivation to learn; I often use digital technologies to get support and help with learning; I often use digital technologies to learn together with colleagues.

and cover the widest range of items that make up the construct of commitment to sustainable development.

2.7. Theoretical Framework of Students’ Acceptance of Digital Transformation of the University and Satisfaction with Online Education

Students’ acceptance of the digital transformation of higher education is linked to their attitudes toward it. The digital transformation of the university was directly experienced by most students during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Students’ attitudes towards technology directly affect learning processes; their impact can be negative or positive [76]. Students often perceived that their remote learning negatively affected their academic performance, caused them to miss out on learning, or reduced their effectiveness and motivation to learn [77]. However, the digital transformation of universities cannot be limited to online learning solely. It is a much broader issue. It manifests itself in the various applications and technologies used in the learning process, the use of ICT in remote learning but also the appropriate preparation of teachers to teach using various technologies [77,78]. Perception of the quality of online support services was a significant predictor of students’ acceptance and satisfaction with online education [79]. Students expect both individual and institutional support. Acceptance of the digital transformation of higher education in our opinion affects satisfaction with online classes. Studies conducted in various countries confirm higher student satisfaction with offline classes than online [80]. It should be remembered that during the pandemic, online classes were the only available teaching solution for all universities. Satisfaction is defined as an affective emotional reaction to an experience with a certain technology [81]. The primary effect of satisfaction with the technology used is the decision to continue using it [82]. Individual consumer satisfaction reflects the success of the digital transformation [83]. People adopting it often change the way they work and learn. They require changes in behaviors and roles, which entail certain costs.

2.8. Theoretical Framework of Student Engagement with Online Learning

The process of studying requires maturity and self-discipline, as well as a willingness to explore knowledge, question and seek answers, and consider various perspectives [84]. Online education without direct contact with the teacher is difficult. It requires a very high degree of regularity and consistency, a greater investment of time than education delivered on a stationary basis, i.e., a greater commitment.

Student engagement can be defined as “the time and energy students devote to educationally sound activities inside and outside of the classroom, and the policies and practices that institutions use to induce students to take part in these activities” [85]. An interesting definition was also presented by Kahu et al., who defined student engagement as “a student’s emotional, behavioral and cognitive connection to their study” which has a direct impact on student success and achievement [86]. The literature also defines the concept of students’ online learning engagement as “a students’ devotion of time, energy, value/interest, attitude, learning strategy or even creative thinking in e-learning environments and the motivational and action processes elicited” [87].

Student engagement is generally considered to have three dimensions: behavioral, cognitive, and affective [88,89]. Behavioral engagement refers to students’ active participation in learning activities, such as attendance, persistence, and positive behavior. Cognitive engagement refers to the mental effort that students put into learning and is characterized by deep learning, self-regulation, and understanding. Affective engagement refers to students’ emotional investment in learning activities and encompasses their reactions to the learning environment, as well as their sense of belonging [90,91].

The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for students (UWES-S) is a commonly used survey instrument for measuring student engagement [92]. The UWES-S is a student-specific version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, which originally consisted of 17 items across three dimensions: vigor, dedication, and absorption. However, a shorter 9-item version was subsequently developed [93].

The literature reveals that the UWES-S has been adapted by numerous researchers who have conducted studies on diverse student populations. These include studies by Çapri, Gündüz, and Akbay [94], Kutsal [95], Chi et al. [96], Jang and An [97], Carmona-Halty et al. [98], and Seiler et al. [99].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Methodological Approach

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of students’ digital maturity on their engagement in online learning, with the goal of promoting sustainability. Through a comprehensive literature review, the following research inquiries were established:

• What is the level of digital maturity among students?
• What is the relationship between students’ commitment to sustainability and their involvement in online learning?
• Are students actively involved in online learning?
• Are students satisfied with their online learning experiences?

Based on the outcomes of the literature review, a research model illustrated in Figure 3 was suggested.

The following research hypotheses were formulated:

H1. 

Students’ digital competence positively influences acceptance of university’s digital transformation.

H2. 

Students’ personal innovativeness positively influences acceptance of the digital transformation of the university.

H3. 

Motivation for digital formal learning positively influences acceptance of digital transformation of universities.

H4. 

Acceptance of university’s digital transformation positively influences student satisfaction with university’s digital transformation.

H5. 

Acceptance of digital transformation of universities positively influenced by digital informal learning.

H6. 

Acceptance of university’s digital transformation is positively influenced by student engagement in online learning.

H7. 

Student engagement in online learning positively impacts digital informal learning.

We also tried to verify the moderating effect of the level of commitment to sustainability on satisfaction with the university’s digital transformation, digital informal learning, and engagement in online learning. We believe that the effect of the university’s digital transformation will have a stronger effect on satisfaction, digital distance learning, and engagement for those with higher levels of awareness of the need for sustainability.

3.2. Questionnaire Development

Table 1 presents the scale items that were developed to measure the constructs under investigation. The design of the questionnaires was informed by a thorough review of the relevant literature. Specifically, the 28 items used to assess the construct of “digital maturity” were adapted from the work of He and Zhu [12], as well as partially from Pham et al. [100]. The 12 items utilized to measure the construct of “commitment to sustainability undertaken during university education” were adopted from Faham et al. [68]. Additionally, to assess satisfaction with online education, scales developed by Alami and Endursi [82] were utilized, while the scales used to measure acceptance of digital transformation of the university were adopted from Botero et al. [101]. Finally, selected items from a modified version of the UWES-S scale developed by Schaufeli et al. [93] were used to assess students’ engagement with online learning. The decision to select only some items was due to the specificity of the present study. Student engagement in online learning was not the main focus of the study. After the pilot research, we decided to select items related to vigor and dedication.

In the study, structured questionnaires were used. A standardized Likert-type scale (a five-point scale, ranging from “Strongly disagree” (1) to “Strongly agree” (5)) was used to evaluate digital maturity, level of commitment to the sustainability, satisfaction with online education, and acceptance of digital transformation of the university. In the case of student engagement with online learning, a subjective scale of frequency ranging from “Never do that” (1) to “Always do that” (5) was used.

3.3. Data Collections

The non-random selection method was used for the selection of respondents for the study. The selected sample consisted of 430 students, among whom, the 358 who correctly completed questionnaires were analyzed. Students who had experience teaching online during the pandemic period were invited to participate in the study. The questionnaire was completed online using the CAWI method. Students from three Polish universities participated in the survey. The demographic characteristics of the survey participants are presented in

Table 2. Sample characteristics (%).

Characteristics	Item	%
Gender	Female	53.3
	Male	44.7
	I refuse to respond	2.0
Age	18	2.5
	19	12.6
	20	23.2
	21	22.6
	22	13.7
	23	11.2
	24 and more	14.2
Year of study	1	25.6
	2	43.8
	3	13.5
	4	8.1
	5	9.0
Course of study	Bachelor’s degree	78.0
	Master’s degree	22.0

Sources: own research.

.

This study presents the demographic characteristics of a sample of undergraduate and graduate students at universities in Poland. The sample consisted of 358 respondents, with a slight predominance of women (52%). The results indicate that a significant proportion of the sample was between the ages of 20 and 21, with almost a quarter of the respondents being 20 years old and one in five respondents being 21 years old. In terms of the level of study, over 40% of the surveyed students were in the second year of undergraduate studies.

These findings provide insight into the demographic composition of the sample and contribute to a better understanding of the study population. Further analysis of the data collected from this sample may provide important insights into the academic experience of undergraduate and graduate students in Poland.

4. Data Analyses

SmartPLS 4.0 was used to analyze the data. PLS SEM was used due to the limited sample size and large number of observable variables. The lack of normality in the data distribution is also a typical problem, which PLS SEM handles well [102]. In the first step of the analysis, we checked the reliability of the research constructs. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for one of the constructs—Motivation for digital formal learning—was below the expected value of 0.7 but close to it. The composite reliability in each case exceeds the desired value of 0.7, and the AVE coefficient for each latent variable reaches 0.5 [103]. We checked the discriminant validity using the Fornell–Lackner criterion, and none of the correlations between the constructs were more significant than the square root of the AVE (

Table 3. Evaluation of discriminant validity.

	A	DC	DIL	EOL	MDFL	PI	SAT	SUS
Acceptance of digital transformation	0.821
Digital competence	0.463	0.707
Digital informal learning	0.390	0.486	0.727
Student engagement with online learning	0.522	0.308	0.305	0.867
Motivation for digital formal learning	0.558	0.477	0.426	0.497	0.782
Personal innovativeness	0.423	0.471	0.469	0.349	0.344	0.877
Satisfaction with online education	0.540	0.361	0.391	0.400	0.460	0.308	0.810
Level of commitment to the sustainability	0.136	0.269	0.281	0.150	0.285	0.145	0.230	0.714

).

In addition, we verified discriminant validity using the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) table, where none of the values exceeded the undesirable value of 0.85 [104]. We also checked the possible collinearity of the variables, but in no case did the VIF index exceed the value of 3.

All independent variables affecting acceptance of digital transformation are statistically significant. The path model (Figure 4) shows that acceptance of the university’s digital transformation is most strongly influenced by motivation for formal digital learning β = 0.405; p = 0.000. Another factor is personal innovativeness; the greater the innovativeness, the greater the acceptance of the university’s digital transformation (β = 0.201; p = 0.000). Digital competence has the most negligible positive impact on the university’s digital transformation acceptance (β = 0.176; p = 0.002) (

Table 4. Path coefficients, mean, standard deviation, and statistical significance.

	Original Sample	Standard Deviation	Statistics t	Value of p
Acceptance -> Digital informal learning	0.301	0.059	5.125	0.000
Acceptance -> Engagement with online learning	0.509	0.044	11.592	0.000
Acceptance -> Satisfaction	0.526	0.052	10.071	0.000
Digital competence -> Acceptance	0.176	0.055	3.174	0.002
Engagement with online learning -> Digital informal learning	0.116	0.056	2.074	0.038
Motivation for digital formal learning -> Acceptance	0.405	0.065	6.206	0.000
Personal innovativeness -> Acceptance	0.201	0.047	4.265	0.000
Commitment to sustainability × Acceptance -> Digital informal learning	0.009	0.056	0.159	0.873
Commitment to sustainability × Acceptance -> Engagement with online learning	−0.009	0.033	0.260	0.795
Commitment to sustainability × Acceptance -> Satisfaction	0.039	0.052	0.751	0.453

). In terms of acceptance of digital transformation of universities, the R square was 39%, which means that the independent variables explain 39% of the total variance in acceptance of the digital change of universities.

Acceptance of the university’s digital transformation had the most substantial impact on satisfaction with digital learning β = 0.526; p = 0.000. It had a slightly weaker effect on engagement in online education β = 0.509; p = 0.000, at least on informal digital learning β = 0.301; p = 0.000. For the satisfaction variable, the r-square value was 0.319, and for engagement in online learning, it was 0.279. In both cases, acceptance of digital transformation explained about 30% of the variance. Student involvement in remote learning affected informal learning, which was small but significant. Finally, the R-square coefficient for digital informal learning was 0.215.

In the end, all seven hypotheses posed in the article were confirmed. In addition, we tried to verify the positive moderating effect of the level of commitment to sustainability on satisfaction, commitment to remote learning, and informal digital learning. Higher levels of engagement in sustainability would have an impact on these dependent variables. Ultimately, we found that, broadly speaking, the students needed to perceive the digital transformation of the university through the lens of sustainability. The moderating effect of engagement in sustainability was found to be insignificant.

5. Discussion

The results show that the level of digital competences positively impacts students’ acceptance of the digital transformation of the university. This is in line with propositions found in the literature that students who successfully adopt and use digital technologies demonstrate greater acceptance of their educational institution and online learning [18,31].

According to the findings, personal innovativeness exerts a positive influence on students’ acceptance of the digital transformation of the university. The results support the literature regarding the positive effect of personal innovativeness on the acceptance of new technologies [38]. The potential reason behind this relationship can be attributed to the higher acceptance of new technologies and ideas by more innovative individuals [35]. More specifically, students with higher levels of personal innovativeness would exhibit higher willingness to engage in digital learning, as their confidence could reduce anxiety and lessen the perceived risk.

The study confirms that the motivation for digital formal learning has a positive effect on students’ acceptance of the digital transformation of the university. Our findings are in line with the previous literature on the positive relationship between students’ motivation on their engagement and acceptance of online learning [77]. One can conclude that more motivated students, exhibiting higher engagement in online learning, may have higher acceptance of the digital transformation of the university. However, it must be noted that this does not necessarily imply that they should prefer digital over face-to-face learning [31].

Our research confirmed the positive impact of accepting the digital transformation of universities on satisfaction with online learning. Thus, the results indicate a mediating effect of the university’s acceptance of the digital transformation on satisfaction with online learning. Despite reported reservations about online learning [77], students are aware of its indispensability. Several tools related to digital transformation facilitate educational processes. Remote learning, enforced by the pandemic, can be considered in circumstances concerning certain occupations, specific types of studies, or people who want to acquire knowledge in this way. We agree with Alami and El Idrissi [82] that a positive digital user experience will increase satisfaction with online learning.

A positive influence of students’ digital informal learning on their acceptance of the digital transformation of the university could be demonstrated in this work. Although, to the best knowledge of the authors, such a relationship has not yet been investigated, one can argue that this is in line with the logic emerging from the literature on digital informal learning. Previous studies in this field reported that digital informal learning is influenced by digital competence [50,58], which, in turn, impacts the acceptance of online learning and educational institutions.

The study findings support the notion that students’ engagement in online learning has a positive influence on their acceptance of the digital transformation of the university. This is contrary to the literature, in which the opposite effect is evidenced; that is, the acceptance of technology can positively increase students’ engagement [105]. This can be explained by the fact that the single dimensional construct we adopted to measure students’ engagement did not capture the complexities of engagement in the online learning context precisely enough. Engagement is a dynamic, multi-faceted, and context– dependent construct, and its effects need more investigation in the future [106].

With regard to the engagement of students in online learning, assessments of the items of vigor and dedication can be indicated. As previously mentioned, the findings of the study indicate that students’ engagement in online learning has a minimal impact on digital informal learning. However, the respondents exhibit a strong commitment to online learning. The survey results reveal that almost half of the respondents often or always feel more energetic when attending classes online than offline, and nearly three-quarters of the respondents often or always feel more inclined to participate in online activities than offline ones in the morning. Moreover, more than half of the respondents express pride in studying online. These results can be compared with other studies conducted using the UWES-S scale. Seiler et al. [99] conducted a study on students’ engagement in distance learning and their satisfaction with this form of education during the Covid-19 pandemic. Despite the pandemic-related challenges, the results indicate that more than half of the surveyed students did not experience a decrease in their commitment to studying due to online learning. It is important to note, however, that while the positive impact of student engagement in online learning on digital informal learning has been confirmed, this result is at odds with the literature [55] which suggests the opposite direction. There could be two explanations for this. First, one can assume that highly engaged students should exhibit stronger willingness to engage in digital informal learning, to enhance their knowledge and skills outside the boundaries of the formal course. Second, similarly to Hypothesis 6, this result could be explained with the measure of engagements adopted for this study.

The analysis of the level of students’ involvement in sustainable development shows a definitively positive level. These results are similar to the previous research conducted by Okręglicka [107]. On a 5-point scale, students rated the level of involvement from 3 to 4, with some differences in the results compared to other surveys. The highest average of the answers indicated that higher education had a positive impact on the adoption by students of an attitude that respects the rights of all individuals, including those belonging to national minorities. Most students also indicated the pro-ecological attitude of “not harming nature” as the best method of protecting the environment. However, their involvement in building democratic societies, promoting mutual solidarity, understanding, and cooperation between all nations, was relatively small. In general, the students showed an average positive level of pro-environmental attitudes.

However, the low poverty engagement score raises questions about the social, ethical, and environmental concerns of the students surveyed. It is possible that Generation Z, to which students belong, is more focused on global issues than local ones. In the literature on the subject, however, an inverse relationship has been reported in the case of senior universities or third-age universities [108].

Other studies [109] have shown that Generation Z has a strong pro-ecological orientation, especially with regard to individual and private activities. However, they are less involved in pro-ecological activities at the civil level or street protests, such as the climate strikes. In addition, they often feel that they have little influence in solving ecological problems.

The study aimed to explore the moderating effect of students’ level of engagement in sustainable development on their satisfaction with digital transformation, informal digital learning, and online learning. The study hypothesizes that digital literacy and the digitization of higher education can enable students to engage in sustainable practices related to building democratic societies and promoting mutual solidarity, understanding, and cooperation among all peoples. However, the positive moderating effect of commitment to sustainable development on satisfaction and engagement in distance learning and informal digital learning was insignificant.

The obtained result is difficult to discuss. Our research is innovative. Previous studies on this subject were not noted in the literature review. While the literature diagnoses the involvement of students in sustainable development as it pertains by the higher education system, the analysis of its impact covers other areas (e.g., its impact on the intention to apply the principles of sustainable development in the future [107]), and not just student satisfaction with the digital transformation of the university, digital informal learning, and their involvement in online learning.

6. Conclusions

The results of our research indicate that it is not the students’ expectations that lead to the digital transformation of universities; the university forces a certain level of digital maturity on the students. The level of digital maturity of students is relatively low. Several students must improve their digital competence to utilize the university’s educational offer fully. The ongoing digital transformation of universities often plays an educational role with respect to how digital tools can be used in the learning process by giving interested students new development opportunities. The level of digital competence required of students will increase, forcing them to educate themselves in this area.

Digital competencies will become increasingly important in the future work life of students, who may not fully realize their significance at present. The ability to fully utilize these competencies is crucial for improving quality of life and enabling full participation in social life in the future. The role of higher education institutions should not only be limited to digitalizing the educational process, but also to fostering digital maturity by influencing the appropriate attitudes.

Based on Urrea-Solano et.al. [59], and despite some propositions in the literature suggesting relationships between digital competencies and sustainable development, our study did not indicate such a relationship. This suggests that these two processes are separate and independent from each other. Digitalization may desensitize individuals to the needs of others and the environment, and it can potentially have negative impacts or create barriers.

In today’s rapidly evolving digital landscape, students need to develop a wide range of digital competencies to navigate the challenges and opportunities of the modern workplace. These competencies include but are not limited to digital literacy, information literacy, digital communication, digital collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Higher education institutions have a crucial role to play in preparing students for the digital future by integrating digital competencies into their curricula, providing training and support for students, and fostering a digital culture on campus.

Furthermore, higher education institutions should not only focus on technical skills, but also on fostering appropriate attitudes towards digital technologies. This includes promoting the responsible and ethical use of technology, raising awareness about the potential negative impacts of technology on individuals and society, and encouraging digital citizenship and social responsibility. By fostering a holistic approach to digital competencies, higher education institutions can empower students to become responsible and competent digital citizens who can thrive in the digital era.

It is also important to recognize that digital competencies are not only relevant for students pursuing careers in technology-related fields, but are increasingly important across all disciplines and industries. In today’s global and interconnected world, digital skills are essential for success in almost every aspect of life, from personal communication to professional advancement. Therefore, it is imperative for higher education institutions to prioritize the development of digital competencies among their students, regardless of their field of study.

In conclusion, digital competencies are becoming increasingly important for students in the future workforce, and higher education institutions play a critical role in fostering these competencies. Apart from technical skills, fostering appropriate attitudes towards digital technologies is also crucial. By integrating digital competencies into curricula, providing training and support, and promoting the responsible use of technology, higher education institutions can prepare students for the digital future and enable them to thrive in the ever-evolving digital landscape.

7. Limitations and Future Research

The limitations of our study arise from a relatively homogeneous sample consisting only of students from business schools in Poland. Results may differ among students from other disciplines. Some of the scales used in the questions may have proven to be difficult for respondents, resulting in reliability scores that are only acceptable. However, the scales employed in this study are commonly used in similar research. We utilized PLS-SEM to validate our research model, and CB-SEM could be employed with a larger sample. Due to the small sample size of our study, it should primarily be considered as a starting point (pilot study) for broader research involving larger samples, including international ones. Particularly interesting is the acceptance and utilization of generative artificial intelligence to support the educational process, considered as a new digital competency. A fascinating aspect could also be the comparison of digital competencies among different age groups of students, with a special focus on the unique group of senior university students. It is worth noting that building digital competencies in the senior population, especially among students of the third-age universities, is of particular importance.

As the world becomes increasingly digitized, possessing digital skills is crucial for active participation in various aspects of modern life, including education, employment, communication, and accessing information. Senior students at the university of the third age represent a unique group with distinct characteristics and needs, and empowering them with digital competencies can enhance their overall well-being and enable them to fully participate in the digital age. Therefore, future research could delve into examining the digital competencies of senior students, identifying their specific needs and challenges, and developing tailored strategies to foster their digital literacy and engagement in the digital world.