Relative Immunity: COVID-19 Pandemic Effects on the Emotional State, Economy, Leisure, and Socialization of Young People in Spain

Abstract

This study aims to analyze the habits and attitudes of young people in Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically regarding leisure and free time, framed within a context of the objective structural indicators of the economy, employment, and health. To this end, we reviewed official data banks and surveys conducted in Spain on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the general population. We performed a descriptive and longitudinal analysis with the aim of amalgamating the data on the general behavior of Spanish youth in terms of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their mental health and their positioning on the issues most important to them, especially in regard to their social relationships and leisure activities. Based on the results, we found evidence that young people were negatively affected by the impact of the pandemic, and, similarly to other age groups, reported high levels of concern about the demise of many of the aspects of their prepandemic lifestyles. Although their concerns mainly focused on leisure activities and social relationships, young people are the population group that suffered the highest anxiety levels during the pandemic. In relation to this, we highlight how the emergency measures adopted by society to fight against the spread of the virus were precisely aimed at restricting social relationships and leisure activities.

1. Introduction

In Spain, a state of emergency and lockdown measures implemented to contain the spread of COVID-19 came into force on 14 March 2020 with Royal Decree 463/2020. The measures were only gradually eased months later, when the population was able to access vaccines and the spread of the virus was not continuous but, rather, manifested in waves of infection. As of June 2021, lockdown and social distancing measures were implemented independently in Spain’s seventeen autonomous regions and two autonomous cities depending on the proliferation of infection. Some of the measures primarily consisted of nighttime curfews, social distancing, mask wearing, and travel restrictions. During that period, parties, social events, and most leisure activities were limited [1].

In line with the rest of the world, Spanish society adapted to the measures with great difficulty. Nevertheless, there was a high level of compliance and responsibility on the part of society at large. However, under such circumstances, the consequences for the general population were very serious not only in terms of the economy and employment [2] but also regarding interpersonal relationships and mental health. Out of the general population, two groups in particular had the greatest difficulty in adapting to the measures [3]: the elderly, due to the serious consequences of immobility and the need for social support, and young people, who, despite being a group with low relative mortality compared to older generations, had to adapt to a lifestyle in total contrast to their intrinsic habits. They were obliged to distance themselves from their peer groups; however, this separation was tempered to a large extent by information and communication technologies.

In this study, we aimed to determine the attitudes and opinions of young people during the pandemic by reviewing previous research focusing on the general population. This enabled us to select the age groups that interest us to determine what they thought and how they conducted themselves during the pandemic. Although the segmentation of the sample did not allow us to perform an inferential analysis, we were able to cautiously perform a descriptive analysis on the positioning and opinions of young people. We were also able to interpret some of the feelings expressed and relate them with certain types of emotions.

Before discussing the attitudes, emotions, and opinions of young people, it is worth noting what Spanish society thinks about its youth. According to the Center for Sociological Research (CIS) Survey (2021) “Childhood and youth in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic”, the general opinion is that young people did not easily adapt to anti-COVID measures (lockdown, curfew, social distancing, etc.). A total of 62.5% disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement that “young people have adapted more to the anti-COVID measures”. However, 66% of those surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that young people played an important role in society by providing help to others and volunteering. In general, Spanish society did not attribute a hedonistic attitude to youth, in view of the 67% of respondents who did not agree with the statement that they were “only interested in drinking alcohol and socializing outdoors with friends”. In contrast, 73.4% thought that young people had had to give up their leisure activities to safeguard their relatives’ health.

Given the above, we reject the notion that hedonistic and irresponsible behaviors are a trend in youth in Spain. However, it is a fact that once the elderly and adult population began to be vaccinated and emergency measures were relaxed, the infection rate in young people increased drastically and they began to put the rest of the population at a higher risk due to their social habits with their peer groups. It was also reported at the time that, in many cases, young people were asymptomatic or suffered from a milder form of the virus [4]. Therefore, in this study, we endeavor to determine the impact and evolution of leisure activities among young people during the pandemic and propose a series of potential explanations that will need to be developed in the future with a greater number of studies on the subject.

2. Young People and Risk

Youth is a concept that encompasses different stages in life. The term “youth” covers a period that varies according to the criteria adopted by different cultures. Although, today, the start of adolescence is usually considered as the lower limit of youth—puberty or the physiological end of childhood—the upper limit varies from 19 to 25 or even 30 years or older [5]. As different definitions provide a fairly broad framework, in this study we use the age range of 18–34, which is the age range adopted by the study samples we analyzed.

The interest in youth as an object of study is varied. Young people represent a very important group of the population, despite the fact that their relative importance has been declining over the decades. Youth is a period in life that arouses great interest given that this stage encompasses socialization processes, changes in habits, and the development of customs, which condition both the life of the adult and the entire population in general.

Youth is not only linked to the age variable but also represents a cultural and social construct in industrial societies which, depending on where it is being considered and the perspective of valuing factors such as culture, the economy, education, politics, and the social context, reflects different stage classifications [6]. When analyzing “youth” as a social construct, it is important to consider the changing nature of the concept and the experiences of young people over time [7]. In addition, it is also important to consider the expectation of integration aimed adolescents’ process of emancipation, which is deeply marked by the structural conditions of the labor market. Youth is a stage in which the future adult person and their life trajectory is outlined. This happens via cultural and educational instruction, leisure practices, training and employment mobility, and self-realization [8].

At the same time, it is also important to think about the relationship between youth and risk. We observed that young people are currently immersed in a culture of risky consumption [6]. Therefore, social policies are needed that develop specific plans and programs, nourished by specialized attention, that respond to the numerous needs that target the risks that affect the normalized development of youth in civil society. If a specific group of individuals, such as young people, ignores a series of manifest risks, it could be because their social environment encourages them to do so [9]. Their social interaction encodes much of the risk. Expert risk analysis highlights that the subject of decision-making is the individual agent, which excludes any moral or political item that they may receive from the society that surrounds them [10].

Exposure to risks has a different impact on youth depending on the preventative and educational capacity exercised by families, schools, and institutions to reinforce a certain level of coping and respect for social norms in balance with each of their goals. Young people’s activities should be helped by an evaluation process that identifies and encourages correct actions for decisions that may produce risks [3].

3. The Dilemma of Young People and Social Distancing Measures

This dilemma can be explained with the hypothetical case of the young person who wants to go out and see their friends. It is important to bear in mind their need to socialize and the place of the peer group in their scale of values. Their need to socialize likely means that it is not difficult for young people to decide to go to a party, take off their mask, and have a good time, even knowing that they are at risk of being infected. The idea that young people are less likely to become seriously ill may push them to think that, even if they become sick, they have a good chance of not dying or suffering serious consequences. However, their decision also entails the possibility that their parents or, more importantly, their grandparents who live with them, or whom they often see, might be infected and could die [11].

However, as can be seen in the responses to the surveys performed by the CIS, which are shown below, it seems that the responsible attitude assumed by young people is motivated by the need to protect people at risk who are near to them. This highlights the fact that young people do have responsible habits. Notwithstanding, they also share a series of common characteristics to their age group that come into play during decision making, especially decisions that are related to leisure.

In the first place, young people have a higher level of optimism. Young people are 50% more likely than older generations to believe the world is becoming a better place and are more likely to trust scientists and embrace international cooperation [12] (according to 21,000 adults and children surveyed). Along with general optimism, a distinctive feature of their age group, young people also show a certain bias towards individual optimism, which they also share with the rest of the population but to a greater extent and prevalence. This is referred to as illusory optimism or illusion of invulnerability [13,14]. It is defined as people’s tendency to believe that they are less likely than the average person to experience negative events in their lives. This variable has been extensively studied as it is a predominant mechanism in human thought and is conditioned by the need to reduce feelings of fear and anxiety. The bias in comparative risk judgments is robust and widespread. It appears with diverse hazards and with different questions used to elicit the personal risk ratings [15]. However, if illusory optimism and the illusion of invulnerability are found at an individual level, they are also found at a group level. When a group of people collectively see the relative risk of experiencing an event as more favorable compared to another group in similar conditions, the phenomenon is described as “wishful optimism” [15] or “optimistic bias”, given that, logically, not all members of a group will have a below-average risk of suffering a given event. Weinstein’s studies primarily provide two important contributions about the human capacity to make judgments [16,17]. The first is that people seem to be unrealistically optimistic about the future. The second is that people seem to have a remarkable ability to believe what they want to believe. This contribution is in line with the original way in which Weinstein [15] describes delusional optimism. He emphasizes the egocentric tendency of individuals, which leads them to consider risks inadequately compared to others.

This leads us to reflect on the difficulty of establishing young people’s motivation when it comes to enjoying their leisure time. The combination of positive emotions, responsibility, the desire to have fun, optimism, and the illusion of invulnerability are all aspects that weigh heavily on young people when planning and enjoying their leisure time.

4. Methodology

The main objective of this study was to collect the data generated by surveys conducted during and after the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially during the lockdown and social distancing measures. To this end, first, we collected data on the impact of the pandemic on young people’s health, finances, and mental health. Subsequently, various studies were reviewed in which data was provided on the reversibility of the social situation created by the pandemic, the situation of young people’s relationships with their peers, and the evolution of their leisure time schedule. Similarly, in those questions for which data was available, we performed a longitudinal analysis to assess the evolution of their social and cultural habits, with the aim of exploring the changes to their habits and lifestyles that young people suffered from the last quarter of 2020 to the end of the third quarter of 2022 due to the pandemic. Specifically, we explored the value given to health and the economy on their social positioning scale. We studied whether they maintained their cultural, sports, and leisure activities, and whether their habits changed and, if they did, to what extent. We also explored in what specific aspects they have changed, and finally, we determined whether relationships with friends and/or peer groups improved or deteriorated.

This study is based on secondary sources to answer the questions raised based on the specificity of the age group. The principal research question asks how young people have dealt with the pandemic. Our aim, therefore, was to determine their emotions, positioning, opinions, and evaluations via the answers to the questions asked in various key institutional studies conducted in Spain.

The secondary objectives were as follows:

-

Determine how the pandemic has affected young people in terms of the economy and mental health.

-

Determine the position of certain variables on their scale of values, given that the pandemic has offered us opportunities to ponder certain areas of our lives.

-

Determine the opinions and evaluations of young people about the health crisis and the way in which it has affected their lives.

-

Determine their behaviors, how they have accepted the imposed norms, and how these have affected their habits and leisure time.

-

Determine the way in which the situation has affected their social relationships.

-

Identify the emotions that young people have experienced during the pandemic via their responses to the questions raised in different studies.

Given that this is not a descriptive, causal, or probabilistic study, we have not contrasted research hypotheses. However, we should emphasize that the suspicion (or soft hypothesis) that motivated the search for data was to highlight that young people act, think, and value in a specific way due to the universe of needs and emotions that characterize youth itself, despite the importance of individual behaviors and responses.

4.1. Research Design

A quantitative design was used to perform the study via an analysis of secondary data sources. The approach is descriptive and comparative and combines longitudinal and statistical analyses depending on the composition of the data selected. For each of the data units selected, we provide information on the sample, which in all cases meets the sufficient criteria of representativeness and rigor.

It should be noted that the objectives of the study are targeted at the young population. Consequently, the selected studies include young people aged 18–34 in their sample. However, considering the differences in developmental, employment, and other characteristic dimensions of this age group, most of the studies consulted included two subgroups that divided the sample into young people aged 18–24 and aged 25–34.

By focusing on young people, and only using part of the sample, we aimed to highlight the characteristics of the subsamples, which always provided the threshold criteria of representativeness, as well as different level criteria of representativeness. In the cases mentioned, we only aimed to make a partial observation, which limits generalization. However, in every single case, the data provided us with interesting information regarding the emotional state, the economy, the leisure time, and the socialization of young people in Spain.

4.2. Reports and Data Banks

The data used in the study of young people’s leisure patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic were taken from various studies retrieved from the CIS and the National Statistics Institute (INE). The studies from the INE were:

• Fusión de barómetros realizados por el CIS/Opinion polls conducted by CIS in 2020, 2021 and 2022.
• Estudio sobre bienestar emocional/Study on emotional wellbeing (E 3285)
• Efectos y consecuencias del Coronavirus/Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (I) (E 3298)
• Efectos y consecuencias del Coronavirus/Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (II) 3302
• Efectos y consecuencias del Coronavirus/Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (III) 3305
• Efectos y consecuencias del Coronavirus/Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (IV) 3324
• Efectos y consecuencias del Coronavirus/Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (V) 3336
• Efectos y consecuencias del Coronavirus/Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (VI) 3346
• Encuesta sobre relaciones sociales y afectivas en tiempos de pandemia de la COVID-19(I)/Survey on social and affective relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic (I) 3325
• Informe Juventud en España/Youth in Spain Report 2020. INJUVE.
• Juventud en riesgo: análisis de las consecuencias socioeconómicas de la COVID-19 sobre la población joven en España. Informe 1 y 2/Youth at risk: analysis of the socioeconomic consequences of COVID-19 on the young population in Spain. Report 1 and 2. Youth Institute.
• Jóvenes españoles 2021. Ser joven en tiempos de pandemia/Young Spanish 2021. Being young in times of pandemic. SM Foundation.
• VIDA-COVID-19. Estudio nacional representativo de las respuestas de los ciudadanos de España ante la crisis de COVID-19: respuestas psicológicas. 2020/LIFE-COVID-19. National representative study of the responses of Spanish citizens to the COVID-19 crisis: psychological responses. 2020 Complutense University of Madrid.
• VIDA-COVID-19 Estudio nacional representativo de las respuestas de los ciudadanos de España ante la crisis de COVID-19: aspectos positivos de salud mental/VIDA-COVID-19 National representative study of the responses of Spanish citizens to the COVID-19 crisis: positive aspects of mental health. Complutense University of Madrid.
• Estadística de defunciones según la causa de muerte. Defunciones por COVID-19 virus identificado y virus no identificado (sospechoso). Año 2020/Statistics of deaths according to cause of death. Deaths from COVID-19 identified virus and unidentified (suspected) virus. INE, 2000.
• Análisis de la movilidad de la población durante el estado de alarma por COVID-19 a partir de la posición de los teléfonos móviles/Analysis of the population mobility during the COVID-19 state of emergency based on the location of mobile phones. INE, 2020.
• Encuesta de Condiciones de Vida. Datos 2021/Living Conditions Survey. Data 2021. COVID-19 module. INE, 2021

5. Results

The data highlight the attitude of young people towards various aspects relating to COVID-19 and the impact on their leisure habits and social relationships. These data are arranged in two different parts. First, there are the data relating to the positioning on the consequences of COVID-19 and the changes in leisure and friendship patterns. Second, there are the data on the evolution of the guidelines and the organization of leisure time from the beginning of the pandemic to the present.

5.1. Emotional State and the Economy: How the Pandemic Affected Young People—“Relative Immunity”

This section analyzes the basic data on young people regarding their health and finances during COVID-19, as well as their opinions regarding the socioeconomic effects associated with COVID-19 and the changes it has caused in their leisure routines.

Young people’s so-called immunity to the harsher consequences of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has been one of the aspects that has had the biggest impact on their opinions and attitudes towards the pandemic. In this study, we refer to this phenomenon as “relative immunity” given that, although they have biological and medical advantages, young people were not “immune” in other areas of life such as the economy, employment, and mental health. In contrast, they have become a more vulnerable population due to the adverse effects of COVID-19. Relative immunity is, therefore, greater immunity against contagion but greater vulnerability to the pernicious effects of the pandemic on the economy and employment.

We introduce relative immunity by starting with the data regarding the consequences of the pandemic on young people’s emotional state and their finances. The number of people who died from COVID-19 in 2020, at the height of the pandemic, came to a total of 493,776. The age group that experienced the lowest mortality rate was aged 25–29 followed by those aged 30–34 with 1224 cases, which is greater than the younger age group but well below the older age groups. The number of people who died in the 85–89 age group totaled 107,384 [18].

Although it is not our intention to analyze the COVID-19 mortality data, and we have not provided data for subsequent years, these data provide us with clear information on the role of relative immunity that young people had during the pandemic. The lockdown and social distancing measures were applicable to everyone: children, young people, and the elderly.

Considering these data, it is worth asking whether young people actually felt immune and whether this relative immunity in relation to other age groups affected their opinions, decisions, and emotions during the pandemic, in addition to whether it influenced their acceptance of and compliance with the lockdown rules.

A study by the Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), “Positive mental health: symptoms of wellbeing and post-traumatic growth in the face of COVID-19” performed in May 2020, conducted a panel survey of 2070 people, of whom 22% were aged 18–35. The study focused on people’s perception of their current wellbeing and the positive and negative emotions they had experienced the day before the survey. It used the methodology presented in [19] to study people’s psychological state focusing on their emotions over the past 24 h. The study concluded that 41% of people aged 25–34 reported high levels of wellbeing, compared to the total average of 49.9% for all ages. This percentage fell in the case of young people aged 18–24 to 39.7%. An interesting perspective provided by the study is “post-traumatic growth” or the positive psychological change that the person experiences after facing trauma or adversity in their life (natural catastrophes, traumatic losses, terrorist attacks, suffering serious illnesses, etc.) [14]. This indicator provides us with data on how many people experienced positive changes in the face of traumatic situations caused by the pandemic. A total of 46.8% of the respondents experienced factors associated with post-traumatic growth. Young people gave various scores according to age. Those aged 18–24 scored 50.6%, which was the highest percentage in terms of post-traumatic growth factors and four points above the average. However, young people aged 25–34 gave the lowest score with 39.9%.

Therefore, 5 out of 10 young people between the ages of 18–24 experienced post-traumatic growth, despite having lower levels of wellbeing and presenting higher levels of discomfort [14]. If we consult the data on young people who experienced elevated symptoms of anxiety during the pandemic, gender (females were affected more than males) and age are the variables with the highest incidence.

The UCM study highlights a piece of information of particular interest to our study: the fact that anxiety increases along with the respondents’ increased fear of contagion and the economic consequences of COVID-19.

Lastly, general wellbeing, or a significant level of wellbeing, and positive emotions were lower among young people, given that only 4 out of 10 young people aged 18–24 reported high levels of wellbeing. According to the authors of the study, this can be attributed to the pause in young people’s life objectives during the pandemic, a fact highlighted below using other data.

The younger the age group, the higher the percentage of young people who reported symptoms related to depression. As a result, 34.6% of young people aged 18–24 presented symptoms of high anxiety and 27.1% in the case of those aged 25–34. As can be seen, the figures are double those of people aged over 45 and 65.

In regards to the economy, we consulted the Spanish Living Conditions Survey (ECV) on the impact of COVID-19 [18] to determine how it has affected young people. The survey shows that income in 9.6% of Spanish households fell due to COVID-19. In the case of young people aged 16–29 the percentage was 12.20%

Of the 18,825.5 households interviewed in the survey, 505 were households headed by people aged 16–29. Among these respondents, 12.9% reported that their income fell because of COVID-19. The figure is similar to that of households headed by people in other age groups, except in elderly households, which, due to the age group itself, maintained their levels.

These data reflect that young people have seen their income fall because of the COVID-19 pandemic; however, the field of work, unemployment, and job insecurity have affected them more seriously. This is highlighted in the Emergency Report performed at the beginning of the pandemic, “YOUTH AT RISK: analysis of the socioeconomic consequences of COVID-19 on the young population in Spain”, published by the Andalusian Youth Institute. The report analyzes the forecasts at the beginning of the pandemic in economic terms for young people and states that 72% of the young population was employed in precarious jobs before the pandemic, and that, therefore, layoffs were expected at the time via the ERTE scheme (A furlough scheme that regulates employment on a temporary basis. In other words, although an employee technically still belongs to a company, their contract can be temporarily suspended due to situations that force the company to reduce or paralyze their activity on a temporary basis.) or at least expected later in time if companies did not overcome the economic consequences of the pandemic. The number of young people at risk was 41%.

At the beginning of the state of emergency (A situation which calls for extraordinary measures declared by governments when there is a serious alteration of normality due to catastrophes, calamities, public misfortunes, health crises, the stoppage of essential public services, or shortages of essential products.), the unemployment data showed that young people suffered a significant increase compared to other groups of working age. In April 2020, there were 33% more young people unemployed and 82.4% more job seekers compared to in March 2020.

The report, Analysis of the socioeconomic consequences of COVID-19 on the young population in Spain [20], highlighted that after the first three months of the pandemic only 33.5% of young people aged 16–29 were employed, while most of those out of work had abandoned the active search for employment. Youth employment in seasonal summer jobs also fell by 14.1% annually. Lastly, the report stated that approximately 29.6% of the young employed population, who were still subject to the ERTE scheme or in a similar situation, faced a significant risk of losing their jobs due to working in vulnerable sectors [21].

5.2. Priorities of Young People in the Face of the COVID-19 Pandemic

Effects of the COVID-19 Crisis That Are of Most Personal Concern to Young People (2021)

In the monthly opinion polls conducted by the CIS using a sample of more than 3000 interviews, a question was asked about the COVID-19 health crisis: “what worries you the most, the effects of the crisis on health, or the effects of the crisis on the economy and employment?” The question presented the interviewees with a difficult choice and their answers revealed a particular way of interpreting the COVID-19 crisis and an underlying value system. The answers highlighted the priorities of the Spanish population. To understand the attitude of young people in more depth, and in order to have a representative sample, we used the CIS opinion polls. By grouping the polls into periods of 4 months, they provided us with a broad sample.

Table 1. Differences between the general population’s opinions and young people’s opinions.

COVID-19 Concerns	September–December 2020			January–March 2021			April–July 2021			September–December 2021			January–March 2022			April–July 2022
Age	Total	18–24	25–34	Total	18–24	25–34	Total	18–24	25–34	Total	18–24	25–34	Total	18–24	25–34	Total	18–24	25–34
Effects on employment	39.9	39.7	33.2	43.6	40.7	39.5	37.7	36	34	36.6	31.1	30.1	34.1	31.2	28.2	24	19.2	19.4
Effects on health	22.2	36.2	36.3	19.9	37.7	31.8	28.5	46.2	42	37.7	51.6	51.9	39.9	55	55.6	54.8	73.4	69.1
Effects on employment and health	37.2	23.3	29.7	36.6	20.9	28.3	32.8	17.3	23.2	27.8	12.2	17.5	24.8	13.2	15.5	20.1	7.1	10.4
Sample Size	13,498	906	1680	11,551	764	1352	15,249	1081	1865	14,951	1000	1729	11,559	803	1390	15,126	1239	1844

Source: The authors from Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (I), (II), (III), (IV), (V), and (VI).

shows groups of answers expressed in percentages in six four-month periods of polls.

We selected the total percentage (the responses from the general population) and the two youngest age groups. The aim was to compare the difference between the general population’s opinion and young people’s opinion and observe the evolution of anxiety levels in regard to the economy, employment, and health.

Choosing between “your money or your life” is never easy, especially when money is scarce, but in general, people tend to choose life as it is the most important aspect for almost the entire population. However, at the beginning of the pandemic, the Spanish population seemed more concerned about the stock market than about life. Although many people were dying, the downturn in the economy produced even greater fear. Spain was still suffering from the effects of the Great Recession of 2007 and there were fears in relation to employment and the fall of some economic sectors, such as construction or tourism, that supported many Spanish households. Then, at the height of the pandemic, the Spanish population’s concern turned towards health. At the beginning of the pandemic, 39.9% of the population was more concerned about employment, but in the second quarter of 2022, this percentage decreased to 24%. Young people reported the same opinion as the rest of the population. In the case of health, concern was increasing at the beginning, with 22% of the Spanish population more worried about health than about employment; however, in 2022, this percentage increased to 54.8%. If, at the beginning, the population focused on employment rates, they now believed that the most important aspect was health. At the same time, emotional stability decreased.

Although young people also followed this general trend, there were some differences. At the beginning of the pandemic, young people were more concerned about health (36.6%) than the rest of the population, especially those aged 25–34. A lower percentage was concerned about the effects on employment (33.2%); however, young people aged 18–24 were more concerned about employment than health. By 2021, having endured 10 months of the pandemic, both young age groups were more concerned about employment, and the 35–34 age group lowered their concern for health.

As of April 2021, the percentages were inverted and while fewer people were concerned about employment, with 31.1% in the 18–24 age group and 30% in the 25–34 age group, concern for health increased to 51.6% and 51.9% in each group, respectively. This was to be expected given the trajectory of the spread of COVID-19. More young people were becoming infected, reaching 43 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in 14 days, which doubled the average for the Spanish population for young people under 30.

In summary, in 2020, young Spanish people went from worrying more about employment to worrying much more about health. Specifically, 73.4% of young people aged 18–24 stated that they were more concerned about health compared to 19.2% who were concerned about employment. In 2020, 17.3% gave the same value to both categories; however, in 2022, the figure dropped to 7.1%. Perhaps young people began to realize that their health could be under threat and, therefore, their concern increased. This probably influenced their answers, but it was also a general trend in the entire population. As the pandemic began to unfold, the seriousness of the matter began to become clearer: the death toll was high and they began to see their lives at risk. This does not obscure the fact that young people were concerned about the economy during the pandemic given that they suffered from the pandemic’s direct impact.

5.3. Reversibility of the Social Situation

Under the assumption that the lockdown and the social distancing measures had a huge impact on social relationships, there was concern about whether the damage to community life could ever be repaired. Many voices wrote or stated that “life would never be the same”. In relation to this, the CIS conducted opinion polls in 2020, 2021, and 2022 in which Spanish citizens were asked if they thought they could go back to their prepandemic life and their leisure and relationship patterns. The participants were skeptical that circumstances could return to something similar to what they had before the pandemic. The vast majority in the two age groups (64.6% and 60.7%) disagreed with the survey statement (

Table 2. Level of agreement with the statement, “When the pandemic is over, things will go back to being more or less as before” (2021).

Age	18–24	25–34
Strongly agree	31.9	38.3
Strongly disagree	64.6	60.7
Neither agree nor disagree	1.9	1
Did not know	1.5	0
Did not answer	0	0
(N)	77	117

Source: The authors from the Fusión of barometers (2022).

). The responses highlight the concern of the young participants about not being able to recover their relational and leisure patterns.

a. Relationship status with peers

After analyzing the impact of the health crisis on young people’s relationships with their peers after the lockdown and in the first few months of the pandemic, it can be observed that the respondents believed the situation had not changed. A total of 57.8% of the participants from the younger age group and 66.8% from the older age group believed that the state of their relationships with their friends had not changed. Furthermore, 38.5% and 27.1%, respectively, believed that their relationships had improved (

Table 3. Improvement or deterioration of relationships with peers since lockdown.

Age	18–24	25–34
Improved	38.5	27.1
Deteriorated	2.1	5.5
Had changed/stayed the same	57.8	66.8
(N)	187	365

Source: The authors from Survey on social and affective relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic (I) (2021).

).

5.4. Evolution of Leisure Time Patterns

Leisure time for young people and adolescents is a fundamental aspect. It represents an evolutionary milestone relating to decision-making, the search for new situations, and an increase in the importance given to their peers, which makes them value the time dedicated to leisure and their friends. This leads to situations in which they have to negotiate with their families in order to obtain a larger concession of leisure time.

In this regard, the data studied made it possible to compare adolescents’ leisure time outside the home before and after the lockdown. In the Survey on social and affective relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic (I), the following question was asked: In general, on an average day before the pandemic, not including work (if you were employed), how many hours did you usually spend outside your home for activities such as shopping, entertainment and leisure, business, family, and social relationships, etc.?

As can be seen in

Table 4. Time spent away from home on an average day before the pandemic.

	Before Lockdown		After Lockdown
Age	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34
Less than an hour	0	1.6	7.7	13.7
Around 1 h	4.7	7.5	11.2	21.5
Around 2 h	12.4	22.5	28.4	24.8
Around 3 h	13.6	19.5	13	14
Around 4 h	17.2	16.9	16.6	11.7
Around 5 h	10.7	7.8	9.5	4.2
Around 6 h	13.6	7.5	3	2.6
Around 7 h	5.3	2.6	1.8	1.3
Around 8 h	8.9	3.9	1.8	2.3
9 h or more	10.7	8.1	5.9	2.6
Do not know	3	2	1.2	1.3
(N)	164	301	167	303
Mean (hours)	4.93	3.94	3.26	2.58
Standard deviation	2.37	2.32	2.21	2.02

Source: The authors from Survey on social and affective relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic (I) (2021).

, before lockdown, most young participants aged 18–24 spend around 2–6 h per day outside the home (2 h, 12.4%; 3 h, 13.6%; 4 h, 17.2%; 5 h, 10.7%; and 6 h, 13.6%). A group even reported spending more than 9 h away from home (10.7%), with a mean of 4.93 h (M = 4.93; SD = 2.37). This distribution was more concentrated in the group of participants aged 25–34 (2 h, 22.5%; 3 h, 19.5%; 4 h, 16.9%), with a mean of 4.93 h (M = 3.94; SD = 2.37).

After lockdown, the 18–24 age group mainly responded in the options between 1 and 4 h (1 h, 11.2%; 2 h, 28.4%; 3 h, 13%; 4 h, 16.6%), with a mean of 3.26 h per day (M = 3.26; SD = 2.21). The number of daily hours spent away from home after lockdown in the 25–34 age group had a similar distribution (less than one hour, 13.7%; 1 h, 21.5%; 2 h, 24.8%; 3 h, 14%; and 4 h, 11.7%), with a mean of 2.58 h per day (M = 2.58; SD = 2.02) (Table 4).

5.5. Attendance to Cultural, Sports, and Leisure Activities

Furthermore, health and legislative changes made since the health crisis have also caused variations in the attitudes and leisure patterns of young people and adolescents. This section analyzes the evolution of these aspects and the differences over time.

In this case, we used the data from the CIS Data Bank, specifically the Opinion Polls (2022), which collect data from the general public as well as from young people and adolescents on cultural, sports, and leisure events. In both of the age groups analyzed, the Spanish youth sample stated that they attended these types of activities in a very high percentage (88.2%); however, from the beginning of the pandemic, the percentage dropped significantly to 22.8% for the younger age group and 23.6% for the older group (

Table 5. Young people’s attendance to cultural, sports, and leisure activities.

Age	Before the Pandemic		From the Beginning of the Pandemic
	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34
Do Attend	88.2	88.2	22.8	23.6
Do not attend	11.8	11.8	77.2	76.4
(N)	136	254	136	254

Source: The authors from the CIS study Fusion of barometers (2022).

). These differences denote a notable and direct impact of the health crisis on the leisure activities of young people.

5.6. Degree of Change in Habits and Lifestyles due to the Pandemic

This section of the analysis confirms the changes in leisure patterns that were mentioned in the previous section. When adolescents were asked about the degree of change in their lifestyles as a result of the measures adopted during the pandemic, it was observed that the majority recognized that their habits and way of life changed “a lot” or “quite a lot” during the third quarter of 2020.

Table 6. Evolution of the degree of change in lifestyle habits perceived by young people.

	Third Quarter 2020		Third Quarter 2021
Age	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34
A lot	33	31.9	27.2	34.6
Quite a lot	44	45	47.1	44.9
Moderate	0.5	0	1.5	0.4
Somewhat	10.5	9.4	14.7	9.8
Slightly	8.5	7.5	6.6	8.7
Nothing or almost nothing	3	6.1	2.9	1.6
(N)	200	360	136	254

Source: The authors from Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (III) (2021).

shows that 77% of the participants in the 18–24 age group and 76.9% in the 25–34 age group had this response.

These percentages were maintained one year later (third quarter of 2021), when 74.3% of young people aged 18–24 reported that their lifestyles had changed “a lot” or “quite a lot”, which was 79.5% in the 25–34 age group (Table 6). If we analyze the evolution of the scores over a one-year period, it can be observed that there were no changes between the two periods.

5.7. Main Aspects in Which Young People’s Lifestyle Changed

From the CIS data previously analyzed [11], it can be observed that young people suffered from the paralysis of family life due to the pandemic to a greater extent than other age groups. They seem to be more interested in the future than they were before the pandemic and give more value to the personal relationships and recreational activities enjoyed as a family. In contrast to what might initially be thought, young people reported a significant level of concern, similar to that of older age groups. Naturally, their main area of concern focused on social relationships. The data from the Survey on social and affective relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic (2021) show that the percentage of people who were concerned about social isolation was 23%, compared to 45% in the case of young people aged 18–24. Moreover, according to the data consulted, young people voiced their opinion on this particular aspect with almost half believing that the Spanish government should have taken even stricter measures, in a very similar percentage to that of the general population.

In

Table 7. Aspects of change in young people’s lifestyles due to COVID-19.

	3rd Trim 2020		1st Trim 2021		2nd Trim 2021		3rd Trim 2021		1st Trim 2022
Age	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34
Reduction or limitation in family relationships	3.3	10.1	5.7	4.8			1.6	3.7
Reduction or limitation in social relationships, social activities or social life	39.8	43.9	44.9	47.3	56.7	63.5	30.6	33.2	47.3	49.7
Reduction or limitation in outings (activities, walks, leisure, and trips)	28.5	28.1	20.5	19	32.7	29.2	20.4	20.1	26.6	25.3
Changes at work (teleworking, more work, or less work)	7.3	19.3	5.1	16.4	--	--	11.8	15.9	--	--
Emotional aspects (loneliness, sadness, isolation, anxiety, and loss of loved ones)	5.7	5.7	11.4	12.5	9.4	6.9	5.9	9.8	5.4	7.1
Hygienic measures (mask, distancing, and cleanliness)	12.2	4.4	6,8	8.7	18.7	24.5	16.1	11.3	16.8	21.7
Customs away from home: cautions in what to do and where to go	13	7.5	8	10.3	--	--	12.4	15.2	11.4	14.3
Everyday life (activities and online shopping)	15.4	12.3	24.4	6.1	--	--	14	4.6	--	--
Restrictions in general and lack of freedom	13	7.9	12.5	10.9	--	--	7.5	10.1	--	--
Economic aspects (less income and standard of living)	--	--	2.8	2.9	--	--	1.1	2.4	--	--
Personal care and food	--	--	3.4	3.5	--	--	3.8	2.7	--	--
Other answers	6.5	6.1	3.4	5.5	5.3	3.1	3.2	2.4	2.7	3.6
Did not know	1.6	1.3	0	0.3	2.9	2.5	1.6	1.8	3.3	0.3
Did not answer	1.6	0	2.3	1.3	0.6	2.2	0	0	0.5	1.5
(N)	123	228	142	269	171	318	186	328	184	336

Source: The authors from Survey on social and affective relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic (I) (2021).

, data from both age groups show a notable increase in the changes experienced in all aspects of young people’s daily lives during the third quarter of 2020. Although there is a slight decrease in the percentage reported by young people regarding changes to their lifestyles a little later, the percentages were maintained during the rest of the quarters from 2020 to 2022.

However, it is important to note the decrease in changes reported for the reduction in family relationships. After the initial increase (3.3% and 10.1%) and a subsequent rebound during a peak in the pandemic (5.7% and 4.8%), the number of people who stated that they noted change in the patterns of family relationships decreased (1.6% and 3.7%). Another aspect in which an increase in changes is notable is in employment patterns in the younger age group (18–24); however, the older age group (25–34) shows a gradual decrease in changes in employment.

Lastly, a slight decrease in changes due to health measures can be observed, which corresponds to the easing of restrictions and greater freedom as restrictions on mobility and social distancing had been lifted, including mask wearing (Table 7).

In the categories specified in Table 7, there is a predominance of young people who were concerned about the limitations put on social relationships and restrictions on going out. The perception of change in these particular social habits was maintained throughout the pandemic until the last period considered in 2022.

No evidence was found in the opinions expressed by young people that suggests hedonistic or irresponsible attitudes. Once the elderly and adult population began to be vaccinated and emergency measures were eased, young people started to become infected to a greater extent and their social relationships and leisure habits were put in the spotlight. Consequently, emergency measures were once again tightened. The fact that young people highlighted social relationships as one of the aspects that changed the most comes as no surprise. Going out for a drink, meeting people, traveling, and chatting with their peer group, important daily activities in the lives of many young people, all became highly dangerous activities, hence the data on the serious psychosocial consequences for this population group.

5.8. Improvement or Deterioration in Relationships with Different Groups during Lockdown: Relationships with Friends

Lastly, the evolution of social relationships with friends was analyzed for two periods of the pandemic: during the lockdown period from March 2020 to June 2020 and during the months after said lockdown was lifted.

In this section, in

Table 8. Evolution of the quality of friendships during the pandemic.

	During Lockdown		After Lockdown
Age	18–24	25–34	18–24	25–34
Improved	22.5	20.8	40.2	22.7
Deteriorated	17.6	14	15.4	19
Had not changed/stayed the same	58.8	64.7	43.5	57.6
Do not know/not sure	1.1	0.3	1.9	0.7
(N)	187	365	214	384

Source: The authors from Effects and consequences of COVID-19 (I) and (II) (2020).

, young people were asked their opinion (improvement or deterioration) on the quality of their relationships with friends. Their answers show that most young participants of both age groups believed that the quality of their relationships remained the same during lockdown; however, during the following months, they stated that those same relationships maintained their level of quality or even increased.

6. Conclusions

The global pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus (COVID-19) in 2020 led to an abrupt interruption of social and economic activities. The health scares and states of emergency in every country around the world generated many consequences including a state of shock in a population that listened in astonishment to the daily news on the number of deaths and the rapid spread of the virus.

SARS-CoV-2 seems to behave arbitrarily. The gradual discovery of its effects led to the slow drawing of different types of profiles based on people’s vulnerability to exposure and risk of contagion and death. The elderly was most vulnerable to the virus in terms of mortality, dependency, and isolation. Young people soon demonstrated their greater immunity to the effects of the virus, with a lower mortality rate and milder symptoms. However, from the very beginning of the pandemic, they were in the spotlight. The economic and emotional effects caused by the paralysis of social life affected them in a particular way.

The data gathered from research performed in Spain during the pandemic provided us with the information we needed for our study, which we summarize below.

First, young people seemed to show greater economic and emotional vulnerability. In comparison to the general population, young people gave the worst scores for wellbeing during the pandemic. On a positive note, they suffered less post-traumatic effects. The pandemic affected them more than other age groups emotionally as they were not able to counteract the negative effects at a psychosocial level. We also found data that highlight young people as the population group that presented the greatest symptoms of emotional damage, stress, and anxiety.

Regarding the economic situation, the studies reviewed highlight greater vulnerability to layoffs, a smaller capacity to recover from ERTES, and a greater risk of unemployment. Data show how young people, throughout the first year immediately after the lockdown, communicated that their greatest concern was health; however, after the initial “shock” of the first year, in the second year they began to show greater concern for the economic and employment consequences of the pandemic than for health.

In relation to leisure and relationship patterns, in 2021, young people stated that they did not expect to recover (in the sense that things would be worse) their prepandemic lifestyles, especially their leisure and relationship patterns; however, we observed data that contradict that statement. When young people were asked how the pandemic had affected their relationships with their peers, they stated that they had not been affected. In fact, a significant percentage stated that their relationships had been strengthened. Consequently, although their interpersonal relationships benefited, in other words, “what is important” to them remained strong, what they did not expect to recover was the context of those relationships. To be more precise, the scenarios, including trips, parties, concerts, mass events, etc., and the duration of such events, such as 1–2-day parties (something not uncommon among Spanish youth), were not expected to recover.

The explanation given above about young people’s relationships with their peers was confirmed in the longitudinal analysis of their social and cultural habits. Young people highlighted a notable and direct impact on leisure activities relating to cultural, sports, and other leisure activities, and a significant decrease in their attendance to such events. Unsurprisingly, young people noticed very important changes in their lifestyles due to the pandemic, and major changes to their habits in the third quarter of 2020, which were maintained a year later in the first quarter of 2021.

Regarding the specific and more relevant changes to young people’s lifestyles, in first place were family relationships, followed by the limitation of social relationships and outdoor leisure activities such as walks, trips, etc.

However, while family relationships seem to have recovered, social relationships and social lives seem to have been permanently affected. In the first quarter of 2022, young people reported that both aspects had deteriorated, which was a direct consequence of the increasing negative effect of the pandemic from the first quarter of 2020 (excluding the figures corresponding to strict lockdowns). Similarly, although the impact on leisure outings did not deteriorate significantly from the first quarter of 2020 to 2022, the negative impact caused at the beginning of the pandemic practically remained stable.

The data on young people’s lifestyles seem especially significant and could mark a trend, which can only be confirmed by subsequent studies. In light of the critical weight that social relationships have at this stage in young people’s development, it remains to be seen whether the changes have had a permanent negative impact on them, or whether they have simply learned to socialize in a different, but equally rewarding way. The virtual world, although not mentioned in the surveys, would no doubt have acted as a mediator in the results.

Lastly, and in terms of social relationships with their peers, although young people stated that the relationships with their friends improved during lockdown, they also stated that their relationships improved even more after lockdown. Perhaps the physical distance and the fact that they were all going through the same hardships together made them more aware of the gift of friendship.

Young people seem to have suffered more from family conflicts caused by the pandemic more than people from other age groups and value things that they did not value before. They seem to be more interested in the future than they were before and have learned, even more than other age groups, to value personal relationships and recreational activities together as a family.

Young people’s performance during the COVID-19 pandemic did not seem to respond to a lack of concern and responsibility, but rather to their need to socialize, as they contemplated their decisions between what they believe and what they need. Perhaps their optimistic risk assessment, or even the illusion of invulnerability, which was backed by the data that show that they usually pass through the illness with mild symptoms, added to their social needs and led their decision-making during the pandemic. However, it was not without its consequences. Despite everything, their social relationships and leisure activities changed significantly. Friends were still friends, but the relational pattern changed. However, it remains to be seen whether this change will continue over time, leading to the creation of new relationships and leisure patterns, and whether the outcome will be positive or negative.

In conclusion, if we had to summarize in just one paragraph the effect of the pandemic on the lives of young people and their leisure time, we would say that the numerous studies consulted highlight that young people in Spain have been greatly affected by the pandemic. They have suffered more than other age groups from the consequences of COVID-19 in terms of their finances, and although they have a higher immunity to the SARS-CoV-2 virus than the rest of the population, they have suffered considerably more emotional problems. Therefore, we can confirm that young people’s immunity is relative. Although they suffer less from the virus and the mortality rate is much lower, they suffer more long-term emotional and economic damage, which could have very pernicious consequences in years to come. The real cause for this damaging effect, in view of the studies, has been the deep paralysis of young people’s socialization habits.