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Article

Analysis of Human Disturbance Features in Natural Reserves and Empirical Research on Their Restoration: A Case Study of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve in Fujian Province

by
Xiaopei Wu
1,
Can Yi
2,
Wenwen Cui
1,
Zhi Zhang
3,
Chen Yan
1 and
Xiangcai Xie
1,*
1
College of Landscape Architecture and Art, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
2
School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
3
Institutes of Science and Development, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(3), 2017; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032017
Submission received: 21 November 2022 / Revised: 13 January 2023 / Accepted: 17 January 2023 / Published: 20 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Restoration of Polluted Environment)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Nature reserves are important areas delineated to protect natural resources and the ecological environment. They have various ecological functions, such as protecting biodiversity, conserving water sources, and purifying the atmosphere. However, with the rapid development of the social economy, human disturbance in natural reserves is becoming increasingly pronounced, which has seriously damaged the initial balance of the ecosystem in the reserves. Based on the specific local conditions of the reserve, this study selects four influencing factors that are closely related to human activities, namely, land use, vegetation cover, slope and elevation as the primary evaluation indicators of human disturbance. With the support of an analytic hierarchy process and GIS technology, this study conducts a comprehensive analysis of human disturbance in the Fujian Huangchulin Nature Reserve and proposes corresponding ecological restoration measures for different disturbed areas. The results indicate that the area that is seriously and completely disturbed by human activities is primarily that around the river basin, which accounts for 25.30% of the total area. The lightly disturbed area covers the largest area, followed by the intermediately disturbed area, which accounts for 37.91% and 32.96% of the total area, respectively. The smallest area is slightly disturbed and accounts for only 3.83% of the total area. Based on the comprehensive analytical results of human disturbance and the functional zoning of the natural reserves in China, the Shitan Stream area in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve is selected as the experimental site for ecological restoration. According to the human disturbance in different sectors of the Shitan Stream area and the concept of “Mountain, Water, Forest, Field, Lake and Grass,” the ecological restoration measures of the “Four-tiered Protection System” are proposed in the experiment, which are the river system restoration, brownfield restoration, soil and water conservation, and original ecological protection areas. Natural regeneration and active restoration are then combined to be implemented in different areas, and the ecological problems of brown land pollution, water system cutoff, and soil erosion have been effectively solved, and the plant coverage increased substantially. In summary, this study shows that only by taking social, economic and ecological factors into account and establishing a sound management system can restoration work proceed smoothly and achieve more environmental benefits.

1. Introduction

Disturbance is defined as changes in the biotic or abiotic environment that alter the structure and dynamics of ecosystems [1], which is a common phenomenon in nature [2]. Various impacts on the natural environment and ecosystem caused by human production, life, and other social activities are called human disturbance, which is one of the primary sources of disturbance in nature [3]. Hemeroby was first proposed by Jalas [4], a Finnish botanist, to evaluate the impact of human activities on plants. After the 1970s, this concept has been applied to the evaluation of human impact on the entire ecosystem and has been widely used in ecological evaluation research in many fields, such as agriculture, forestry, landscapes, and urban planning [5,6,7,8]. In recent years, with the increasing population and the rapid development of society, the scope of human transformation of the natural environment has been continuing to expand, and the transformation capacity has been continuing to strengthen, resulting in severe damage to the global ecosystem [9]. In particular, vegetation degradation caused by deforestation [10] and grazing [11], animal community degradation caused by invasion of alien species, change of land use type, and habitat loss have become major research points of global concern [12,13]. Compared with natural disturbance, human disturbance is more complex and has more far-reaching impact [14]. The impact of past human disturbance on the forestry ecosystem is still found to exist even after a long period of natural regeneration [15]. Land use and vegetation coverage are the most direct manifestations of human disturbance on the land surface [16]. It is estimated that eight million ha of forests are cut down each year in the world, and most of the deforested areas have been converted into agricultural land [17]. This change has introduced countless impacts on the local, regional, and even global areas, including biodiversity loss [18,19], severe water and soil erosion [20,21], changes in weather patterns [22,23], an increase in fire frequency and intensity [24], and a loss of ecosystem service function [7] among others. As an important component of the natural geographical environment, terrain determines the direction, intensity, and means of human activities [25]. This is particularly true for slope and elevation, which have a direct influence on land use and the land bearing capacity. With the increase in population pressure, the scope of cultivated land has gradually spread to the slopes. It has been found that from 1995 to 2005, the slope plantations in hilly areas in southern China increased, which led to significant increases in soil erosion [26]. Moreover, 65% of the annual loss of water and soil in China originates from the slope of farmland [27].
There are natural resource management and protection areas designated by law to protect special ecosystems, resources of rare animals and plants, and natural ecological and cultural heritage. These natural reserves have good ecological backgrounds and relatively stable soil structures. The number and area of natural reserves and national parks have increased globally over the past 40 years, and by the end of 2016, approximately 14.7% of the Earth’s land area had been protected [28]. However, the global biodiversity shows a downward trend [29]. Habitat fragmentation caused by the establishment of roads and railways is an important reason for the extinction of gray wolves in Banff National Park [30]. In Nech Sar National Park, human deforestation has led to the degradation of its vegetation community [10]. Human disturbance of wildlife habitat in Chitwan National Park may lead to the extinction of tigers due to a lack of prey [31]. Due to the changes of park landscape and land use caused by human beings, the species of carnivores in Arrabida Natural Park are drying up [32]. China is one of the countries with the most vulnerable ecosystems and the most seriously disturbed by human beings in the world [33]. The establishment of natural reserves is considered to be the most important and effective way to protect biodiversity, provide high-quality ecological products and services, and maintain ecosystem health [34]. By the end of 2019, China had designated and established 2750 protected areas of different types and levels that cover an area of 1.47 million square kilometers. However, a survey of 446 natural reserves in China shows that nearly all of them display human disturbance in which farming and housing are the primary forms, occupying 88.94% of the disturbed area, and a large number are distributed in the experimental areas [35]. In addition, the ambiguous land ownership in the reserve leads to various environmental problems, such as large-scale infrastructure construction, mining and sand excavation, and pollution by garbage [36,37]. However, not all human disturbance has caused damage to the ecosystem. The study has found that during the COVID-19 pandemic blockade, the control of alien invasive species has also been interrupted, which hinders the protection of endangered species, threatens the survival of native species and leads to a surge in illegal hunting of wild animals although the reduction in human disturbance has increased the richness of species in animal habitats, improved the reproductive success rate of birds in the air, and reduced road killing of amphibians and reptiles [38,39]. Therefore, it is very important to analyze the degree of human disturbance of the natural reserve and determine effective ecological restoration measures for its restoration and sustainable development.
Ecological restoration aims to improve or restore damaged and degraded ecosystems in specific areas by reducing the impact of human disturbance and adopting various technical methods [40]. Research indicates that in the new era of construction of ecological civilization, ecological restoration should fully consider the systematicness of national land space and the correlation between different components of ecological systems to promote the coordination of economy, society, ecology and sustainable development [41]. After the concept of “mountain, water, forest, field, lake and grass are a community of life” was advanced by Xi Jinping in 2013, the ecological restoration project of “mountain, water, forest, field, lake and grass” has been conducted on a large scale nationwide. This ecological restoration concept adheres to the principle of prioritizing conservation, protection, and natural recovery, and takes into account the factors in all the ecological elements as a whole for the overall protection, systematic restoration, and comprehensive harness, including the top to foot of mountains and hills, ground to underground of the earth, beds to shores and banks of rivers and lakes, as well as upstream to downstream of basins [42]. A total of eleven national parks have been established as experimental sites in response to the ecological restoration project of “mountain, water, forest, field, lake and grass” [43]. Moreover, other “monomial-typed” national parks have also implemented ecological restoration projects [44]. Good results have been achieved in all the projects implemented. However, this concept has rarely been applied in the natural reserves which are more sensitive and restricted to access than national parks, particularly in those that are suffering from serious human disturbance. Therefore, it is highly significant for the sustainable development of the natural reserves to integrate the concept of “mountain, water, forest, field, lake and grass” into the ecological restoration of the natural reserves and propose a complete and systematic ecological restoration framework.
With the open use of satellite image datasets and the improvement of various computing methods, the scope and extent of human disturbance can be quantified and illustrated by geospatial technology. The research on human disturbance from the perspective of landscape ecology has been widely conducted, but currently, it primarily focuses on single factor research in the coasts, tidal flats, and other areas with flat altitudes [45]. In contrast, terrain factors are often ignored. For low mountainous and hilly areas, the influence of terrain factors on human disturbance cannot be ignored, particularly the slope and elevation, which often determine the manner in which people use and develop land. This study utilizes the Minqing Huangchulin Nature Reserve in Fujian Province, China, as the research object. Based on the characteristics of the research area and from the perspective of human disturbance evaluation, the study selects four influential factors that are closely related to human activities, namely, land use, vegetation coverage, slope and elevation, and then evaluates and analyzes the degree of human disturbance and spatial distribution of the research area through the combination of analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and geographic information system (GIS) technology. The restoration framework of “Four-tiered Protection System” has been advanced under the concept of “mountain, water, forest, field, lake and grass”. The Shitan Stream area, the most representative area in the reserve, is provided with corresponding ecological restoration measures based on the research results, which will provide a theoretical basis and practical reference for the ecological restoration of natural reserves with ecological problems caused by human activities in the future.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Area

Fujian Xiongjiang Huangchulin National Nature Reserve (118°39′38″-118°51′19″ E, 26°15′29″-26°22′41″ N) is located in the west of Minqing County, Fujian Province, China. It is located at the intersection of the Daiyun and Lufeng Mountains, and the research area is crossed by the Minjiang River from west to east (Figure 1). In addition, it is one of the major habitat nodes in the “three vertical and four horizontal” ecological corridor system in Fujian Province, and its ecological condition is crucial to the integrity of the biological habitat in the Minjiang River basin and the maintenance of the water quality in the lower reaches of the Minjiang River. The Huangchulin Nature Reserve is a typical low hilly area, and it is characterized by a mid-subtropical maritime monsoon climate with an average annual temperature of 19.7 °C, average annual precipitation of 1400–1900 mm, and average annual relative humidity of 83%. The majority of the reserve is elevated below 550 m (approximately 71.47%), and the rest is between 550 and 1200 m (approximately 28.53%), with the lowest elevation of 10m and the highest reaching 1136 m. Moreover, the terrain gradually falls from the north and south ends of the reserve toward Minjiang River, which is a typical low hilly region with red soil. The land use types in the reserve are diverse and primarily include native shrubs, tree woodlands, grasslands, and river systems. There are also tea gardens, orchards, and other types of gardens that have mostly been planted artificially. In addition, owing to its historical legacy, the experimental area of the reserve retains some land that is used for industrial and agricultural production, arable land, and urban infrastructure construction land, such as roads, wharves, and water conservancy facilities, which are the primary factors that affect the ecological environment in the reserve.

2.2. Data Sources

The NDVI data has been obtained from the MOD13Q1 product with spatial resolution of 250 m and temporal resolution of 16 days (https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov, accessed on 1 June 2019). The selection of the data time period is given full consideration of the impact of climate on plant growth, and the specific time range was selected from March–September in 2018. After format and projection conversion of NDVI data, the maximum value composites method (MVC) [46] was used to obtain annual NDVI data.
Landsat TM8 remote sensing images with 30 m spatial resolution were obtained from the geospatial data cloud (http://www.gscloud.cn, accessed on 1 June 2019) with low cloud cover during the vegetation growing season in 2018. In order to reduce the registration error, atmospheric and radiometric corrections were conducted before analysis and then using supervision classification with a combination of visual correction methods, land was totally classified into 31 different types which are shrublands, tree woodlands, bamboo woodlands, other grasslands, etc. The digital elevation model (DEM) data was also derived from the geospatial data cloud (http://www.gscloud.cn, accessed on 1 June 2019) with 30 m resolution and the slope was calculated according to the DEM data.
All datasets for the study area were clipped and re-projected to the same projection coordinates in ArcGIS 10.6 (ESRI, Redlands, CA, USA). After that, we assigned the single factor to grading by the spatial analysis module function of GIS and then completed the single factor anthropogenic disturbance grading map. Finally, based on the expert scoring results, we calculated the weight value of each factor and overlaid the weight of each factor to generate the total map of anthropogenic disturbance analysis of this protected area.

2.3. Selection and Ranking of Human Disturbance Factors

In this study, based on the field survey of Huangchulin Nature Reserve and as previously described [17,47], we selected the four factors of land use, vegetation coverage, slope, and elevation as the primary indicators to evaluate the degree of anthropogenic disturbance, and we then graded the land use [48], vegetation coverage [49], and elevation [50]. In addition, since the research area is hilly land, the grades of slope factors were classified as described by the following two regulations: The Technical Provisions for Land Use Update Survey and The General Rules for Integrated Soil and Water Conservation Planning GB_T15772-1995. Furthermore, we assigned the values of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 to slight disturbance, light disturbance, intermediate disturbance, severe disturbance, and complete disturbance, respectively. The specific grading criteria are shown in Table 1.

2.4. Determination of the Weights of Evaluation Factors

AHP was used to determine the weights of variables [51]. Based on the judgment values provided by the experts, a comparison matrix was created to compare the variables in the matrix and assign weights to the variables (Table 2). There are many orchards and tea gardens in the reserve, which have an impact on the ecological environment, but not on the rate of vegetation coverage of the area. The vegetation coverage has the lowest weight value in this study. In addition, land use is the most direct manifestation of human disturbances on land. Therefore, it was assigned the highest weight value in this study. Finally, to reduce bias in the decision-making process, it was necessary to conduct consistency tests on the study results and calculate the consistency index (CI). When the CI < 0.1, the consistency of the two comparison matrices was considered to be within the acceptable range, and the comparison matrices have satisfactory consistency [52]. The formulae are expressed as follows:
CI = (λmax − n)/(n − 1)
CR = CI/RI
where CI denotes the consistency index; λmax indicates the maximum characteristic root of the matrix; n represents the number of items; CR is the consistency ratio; RI is the average random consistency index.

2.5. Spatial Overlay Analysis

The total anthropogenic disturbance analysis map of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve was obtained when the corresponding weight value was assigned to the degree grading map of the anthropogenic disturbance with the previously generated single-factor, and the weight values were overlaid using the spatial analysis module tool of ArcGIS 10.6. The mathematical model of anthropogenic disturbance degree was calculated with the following equation:
HD = ∑ i n A i · W i
where HD is the human disturbance index, n is the total number of evaluation indicators, i is the evaluation indicator number, Ai is the interference assignment value of each evaluation indicator (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and Wi is the weight value of each indicator.

3. Results

3.1. Analysis of Human Disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve

3.1.1. Single-Factor Analysis of Human Disturbance

From the perspective of the situation of vegetation coverage, the areas of severe and complete human disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve are primarily located around the watershed and at the foot of the mountains in the south, accounting for 17.14% of the total area of the reserve. The slight disturbance area comprises the largest proportion, accounting for 42.19% of the whole protected area, and the vegetation coverage in this part has been exceeded by 85% with a strong ecological stability of the forest community (Figure 2A, Table 3). The main land use types in the reserve are forest land, water body, agricultural land for facilities, orchard, and construction land. Among them, the severely and completely disturbed by human beings are chiefly such land use types as construction land, orchards, bare land, and mining land within the reserve, which are primarily distributed around the watershed, covering 5.18% of the gross area. In addition, the slight disturbance areas account for 93.54% of the whole proportion, in which tree and bamboo woodlands are primarily involved (Figure 2B, Table 3).
The Huangchulin Nature Reserve is situated in a mountainous area where natural succession has formed complex and varied topographic features, such as river valleys, cliffs, and hilly slopes. The largest area is comprised of the intermediate disturbance area, which accounts for 43.56% of the total area, and the slope of this area is between 15° and 25°. In contrast, the complete disturbance area (0°–6°) accounts for the smallest proportion of only 0.19%, which has a gentle topography and frequent human activities (Figure 2C, Table 3). As shown in the elevation analysis map, the terrain of the reserve rises gradually from the Minjiang River basin to the northern and southern ends, and the areas of complete disturbance (10 m–150 m) and severe disturbance (150 m–300 m) are primarily distributed on both sides of the river basin, covering 15.02% and 20.28% of the overall area, respectively. It is also apparent that the intermediate disturbance area (300 m–500 m) covers the largest amount of land, accounting for 31.17% of the whole proportion (Figure 2D, Table 3).

3.1.2. Comprehensive Evaluation of the Degree of Human Disturbance

The four single factors are overlaid by GIS technology to obtain the spatial distribution map of the comprehensive evaluation of human disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve (Figure 3A), and the attribute data were statistically analyzed. The results indicate that the total area of complete and severe disturbance areas in the reserve is 31.66 km2, which accounts for 25.30% of the total area (Figure 3B, Table 4). These areas are mostly distributed around the watershed and in the mountainous area in the northeast. The area has a relatively low elevation, low vegetation coverage, and the land use types are mostly mining land, industrial construction land, orchard, and arbor woodland. In addition, the intermediate disturbance area is spread throughout the reserve and comprises the largest part of the reserve accounting for 32.96%. The elevation of this area is in the range of 300 m to 500 m, and there is relatively high vegetation coverage. The land use types are mostly arbor woodland, shrub woodlands, and bamboo forest among others. Furthermore, the light disturbance and slight disturbance areas cover a total area of 52.23 km2, which account for 41.74% of the reserve and are primarily distributed in the woodlands with higher elevations at the north and south ends. In summary, human disturbance to the Huangchulin Nature Reserve is primarily distributed around the watershed, which has a low elevation and a gentle slope, and most of it is located in the experimental area of the reserve (Figure 3C).

3.2. Ecological Restoration Measures in the Area of the Shitan Stream in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve

3.2.1. Determination of Ecological Restoration Experimental Area and Its Regional Overview

China’s natural reserves adopt a three-ring model of “core area, buffer area and experimental area”. More specifically, the core area is forbidden to enter; the buffer area can only be used for scientific research and observation activities, and only the experimental area is allowed for tourism, scientific experiments, and the domestication and breeding of rare species among others. In addition, the funding of restoration is limited. Therefore, in terms of the selection of experimental sites for ecological restoration, we give priority to the watershed areas that are distributed in the experimental area and are seriously disturbed by human activities. Combined with the map of distribution for the comprehensive evaluation of human disturbance (Figure 3A) and the functional zoning map of the reserve (Figure 3C), the Shitan Stream area is found to be primarily concentrated within the experimental area, and the surrounding area of the Shitan Stream is seriously affected by human disturbance. The field survey has found that since the 1990s the area of the Shitan Stream has been used as a material base, workers’ dormitory, and production plant for construction projects, such as the construction of the Minjiang River Shuikou Power Station, national highways, and productive industries. Nowadays, these abandoned industrial sites have caused serious brownfield pollution to the Shitan Stream. In addition, human sand mining and dredging practices and a large number of fruit forest plantations have caused a series of ecological problems in the area, such as exposed mountain and soil erosion (Figure 4). In summary, the Shitan Stream area is seriously disturbed by human activities, and its ecological environment is severely damaged, which makes it an urgent and executable ecological restoration project. Therefore, the Shitan Stream area has been selected as the experimental site of ecological restoration in this study.

3.2.2. “Four-Tiered Protection System” Restoration Framework

The Shitan Stream is characterized by the typical watershed of mountain creeks. From upstream to downstream and from the mountains to the stream, such ecological elements as the hills, woods, water, and fields organically form a “life community” sequence in the watershed. Therefore, ecological restoration can be achieved by solving local problems in the context of the whole ecosystem by taking all the elements into account, which will eventually contribute to the organic combination of the control of water and mountains and the treatment of forests and fields. The ecological problems of the Shitan Stream include the following: monotonous composition of vegetation on the top of the upper slope, soil erosion on the central gentle slope, brownfield occupation at the foot of the slope, and degeneration of the water system in the valley. Among them, soil erosion, brownfield occupation, and damage to the water system are mainly distributed in the seriously disturbed and completely disturbed areas, which are also the key areas of ecological restoration. In order to achieve the best benefit with limited funds, and reduce the secondary damage to the ecology of the Shitan Stream area during the restoration process, we propose a “four-tiered protection system” restoration framework for the Shitan Stream area, including the river system restoration, brownfield restoration, soil and water conservation, and original ecological protection areas (Figure 5), and we then suggest corresponding measures for each area.

3.2.3. Restoration Measures

(1)
River System Restoration Area
The hydrologic connectivity is an important condition to ensure the normal operation of the river ecosystem and is of great significance to the maintenance of the quality of biological habitats [53,54]. Disturbance of human activities on rivers, such as embankment, sewage discharge and encroachment on river beaches, will have a profound and cumulative impact on the hydrologic connectivity of rivers, thus changing the biological habitat environment and structure [53,55]. Demolition of hard dikes and reconstruction of naturalized river banks by means of terrain reconstruction and vegetation community are common, direct and effective ways to improve hydrologic connectivity in river ecological restoration, which are widely used in river ecological restoration projects [56]. However, it is worth noting that as for areas with rapid water flow such as flood discharge outlets, completely natural riverbanks may not be applicable, and should be implemented according to specific conditions. Meanwhile, the removal and dredging of pollutants can also effectively enhance the hydrologic connectivity and mitigate the impact of industrial pollutants on the ecological habitat of the river [57].
The program implemented in this area is dominated by natural restoration and supplemented by active restoration because there are both complete and slight anthropogenic disturbance zones in the area of river system restoration. To start with, the bank at the mouth of the Shitan Stream and the bank near the factory are hardened revetment, which is primarily composed of slurry stone and concrete, with a simple cross-section, a hard and smooth surface, and slopes that cannot grow vegetation, which show a “three-sided light” form in general. However, the length of hardened revetment along these areas is merely 672 m, and there are safety hazards, such as serious water scouring and a higher level of water during heavy rainfall. Thus, the hardened revetment needs to be preserved and optimized. Meanwhile, there is a large amount of quarry waste and abandoned concrete blocks mixed with gravel bed load that have accumulated in some parts of the river, and the surrounding earthen slope banks appear to be slippery during floods. Moreover, there are many abandoned buildings very close to riverbanks, which also have serious impacts on the river ecological system. These areas need to be cleaned up, to restore the natural form of the river and stabilize the revetment through the coverage of the original vegetation to create a small habitat environment suitable for biological reproduction (Figure 6).
(2)
Brownfield Restoration and Soil and Water Conservation Areas
Industrial pollution, deforestation, and soil erosion caused by industrial and agricultural land development are important causes that affect the quality of the surface ecosystem [58]. The replacement and reconstruction of the disturbed soil layer or the damaged natural terrain, combined with local plant communities, can not only avoid the expansion of ecological damage, but can quickly restore the structure of biological habitat as well [58]. TBS galvanized wire net planting methods and tape planting slope technology are effective measures to deal with exposed cliffs caused by industrial activities such as mining and excavation, which can create good vegetation coverage and relatively high species diversity conditions, forming a good landscape effect [59]. The problem of soil erosion caused by agricultural cultivation can be effectively solved by using stage platform and drainage ditch facilities [60].
In the area of brownfield restoration in the river valley and the area of soil and water conservation in the bare land with no vegetation, we adopt the scheme of primarily utilizing active restoration, which is supplemented by natural restoration, because this area is mostly concentrated in the completely disturbed and the seriously disturbed areas. The Shitan Stream valley has been affected by the construction of urban infrastructure, as well as sand mining and sand piling of water conservancy and hydro-electric power projects. As a result, it has turned out to be a centralized piling site for construction and household waste among others. Moreover, irregular dredging and quarrying and the construction of orchards have led to a large amount of soil erosion and bare massif in the reserve. The degree of ecological damage in these areas has exceeded the threshold of natural self-restoration. Thus, these areas require supplementation with active restoration measures to fundamentally improve the ecological environment.
The research group proposes a three-pronged restoration strategy for these areas. First, the overall relocation of productive enterprises should be realized by solving regional ownership conflicts from the level of policies and regulations to change the manner of land use. Secondly, during the implementation of the restoration project, the construction waste, garbage, and concrete hardened ground must be cleaned up by utilizing the foreign earth local backfill technology to increase the coverage by plants and enrich the plant community. For unattached soil areas, such as mining on steep cliffs and stony slopes, some engineering measures, including hanging nets to restore greenery, substitution of ladders for slopes, and building up intercepting drain and vegetation bags, are used to create room for vegetation growth, improve the drainage systems, and achieve erosion control through the artificial replanting of native plant species (Figure 7). Finally, in the case of woodland with good vegetation coverage, the ecological problems are partially attributed to the soil erosion caused by the slope and altitude of the natural environment and partially attributed to the habitat destruction caused by the illegal logging by the local residents. In this case, it is required to optimize the forest species based on the characteristics and proportion of the native vegetation community to strengthen the resistance to soil erosion. In addition, the area requires patrols to limit access to prevent illegal logging.
(3)
Original Source of the Ecological Protection Area
The source of the ecological reserve is concentrated in the area of light human disturbance and slight disturbance, which is mostly in the mountainous woodland with good vegetation coverage and high altitude. There is less human disturbance in this area, so the ecology of the area should be able to primarily be restored by natural self-restoration succession. In addition, it should be closely monitored and managed to prevent indiscriminate logging by humans since the area has many natural resources. Moreover, a comprehensive early warning system should be developed to manage ecological problems caused by natural disasters, such as forest fires and earthquakes, because the area is densely vegetated and inaccessible.

4. Discussion

4.1. A Sound Policy Is the Guarantee for Smooth Ecological Restoration

In recent centuries, with the rapid socioeconomic development and urbanization, human demand for natural resources has been increasing. Deforestation, wetland exploitation, the exploitation of biological resources, and changes in land use patterns have led to dramatic changes in the patterns of global ecosystems [61,62]. In particular, human-induced land degradation and deforestation are threatening global environmental security and sustainable development [63,64]. Research has proved that ecological restoration can only be successfully carried out if the underlying causes of land degradation and deforestation are recognized and understood [65], especially for those areas with unclear land tenure and lack of policy management [66]. Ecological restoration requires the support of various restoration techniques, meanwhile, tenure, policy measures and institutions also have significant influences on ecological restoration. In South Korea, many forest conservation and reforestation projects have proceeded smoothly mainly because the government has replaced forest fuels with fossil fuels and provided substitutes of wood for local housing construction, which has reduced the large amounts of illegal timber harvesting and allowed soil erosion to be controlled. In North Korea, the forest law has been amended to strengthen penalties for deforestation activities [67]. Similarly, in Ghana, successful forest landscape restoration recovery depends on participatory forest management and monitoring, and effective enforcement of forest laws related to land and tree tenure [68]. In this study, the conflict of land ownership still exists in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve, which has led to a large number of orchards and various kinds of indiscriminate logging on the slopes of the reserve, resulting in serious soil erosion in the area. In addition, the construction of urban infrastructure (roads, power stations, etc.) has resulted in massive brownfield sites in the reserve, and this improper land use management has caused serious damage to the ecological environment and biodiversity in the reserve. Therefore, in this study, the problem of conflicting ownership is in the first place of items to be resolved in the restoration process in terms of policies and regulations. Monitoring and management measures and early warning systems are proposed for the source ecological reserve at a later stage, and this systematic management of the reserve in terms of policies helps to ensure the successful implementation of ecological restoration in the reserve.

4.2. A Combination of Natural Regeneration and Active Restoration Can Be More Effective in Restoring the Ecosystem

Ecological restoration is considered to be an expensive undertaking, thus, with limited funds, targeted restoration is more effective than random reforestation [69]. As a restoration method with less intervention to the natural ecosystem and less capital investment [63], natural regeneration has been proven to be the most effective way to restore biodiversity and ecosystem services in a favorable ecological environment [70,71]. Crouzeilles R. et al. [72] has found in 133 studies that low-cost natural regeneration systems have higher plant biodiversity and create more habitat resources than active restoration. But with reference to areas that are not suitable for natural regeneration, active restoration is the only approach. It has been discovered that it takes approximately 60 years for vegetation to develop naturally from bare ground to secondary forest under natural conditions, but the time can be reduced to 20 years through artificial afforestation [73]. Additionally, in areas with severely degraded ecosystems, there remains the possibility of continual deterioration of the ecosystem structure and function. Any neglect or delay in artificial restoration will lead to more capital investment and even failure of the overall ecological restoration [74]. Due to limited funding of this restoration and the specific condition of the research site, areas where the landscape has been severely damaged and completely disturbed are the priority for restoration in this study, and active restoration is used to accelerate habitat establishment and enhance landscape connectivity. Tambosi L.R. et al. [75] suggests that the potential benefits of biodiversity conservation can be improved by enhancing landscape connectivity to reduce costs and optimize restoration efforts. For moderately disturbed, lightly disturbed, and slightly disturbed areas, this study focuses on natural regeneration, which can save money and create a more stable ecosystem. In summary, the rational use of natural regeneration and active restoration can make the ecological restoration process more profitable with less investment.

4.3. Ecological Restoration Requires Comprehensive Consideration of Social, Economic and Ecological Factors

In the past, many restoration efforts were undertaken to achieve a single restoration goal, such as reducing erosion or restoring vegetation coverage, by simply abandoning agriculture, prohibiting disturbance, and other processes [76]. While these simple approaches have been successful [77], they may not be adaptable to today’s complex changes of climate and human society [78]. Forest and landscape restoration is an approach to forest restoration that integrates ecological, economic and social dimensions, aimed at restoring the ecological integrity of deforested or degraded forests and also at enhancing human well-being [79]. A crucial feature of forest and landscape restoration is that forest and non-forest ecosystems, land use and restoration approaches can be combined in the landscape to achieve sustainable ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation [80]. Researchers believe that forest and landscape restoration is a long-term restoration process [81] that requires the active participation of local people, government, and other stakeholders [82,83], and that the drivers of deforestation and land degradation need to be recognized and addressed. Optimal restoration solutions should be proposed for different land use systems. In the last 10 years, Brazil has carried out specific restoration actions according to the restoration potential of different areas, based on the protection of the remaining forest fragments from anthropogenic destruction, and has established a high-diversity of restored forest [84]. As a biodiversity-rich area, natural reserves are not only the cornerstone of natural resource conservation [85], but also an important ecological security for human life. Ecological restoration of nature reserves requires consideration not only for the integrity and systematicness of the ecological landscape, but also of social and economic elements. In this study, we propose a “Four-tiered Protection System” for the restoration of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve. Ecologically, we consider the systematicity and connectivity of the land space and propose corresponding restoration measures for different disturbed areas. Economically, we consider the combination of protection and restoration to achieve the highest benefit with limited funds. Socially, with the help of the government, the problem of land ownership conflict has been solved and monitoring and management measures have been combined at a later stage to realize the sustainability of restoration. The restoration effectively solves the ecological problems such as brownfield pollution, water system disconnection and soil erosion; greatly increases the plant coverage and improves the biological habitat structure. In summary, only with overall consideration of ecological, economic and social factors can ecological restoration be achieved successfully, and more environmental benefits be obtained.

5. Conclusions

As an area rich in biodiversity, the natural reserve has an intact and healthy ecosystem, taking responsibility for the protection of natural resources and strongly contributing to the construction of an ecological civilization society. In this study, we have conducted a comprehensive analysis of human disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve in Fujian Province through a combination of analytic hierarchy process and GIS technology, and carried out ecological restoration measures in the Shitan River area through a “Four-tiered Protection System”. This study shows that clear ownership of land and perfect policies of management are the main guarantee for smooth ecological restoration. In the restoration process, the reasonable use of natural regeneration and active restoration methods for different areas is an effective way to control costs. Overall consideration of social, economic and ecological factors can not only promote the ecological restoration process, but also obtain more ecological benefits.
This research may provide a systematic and comprehensive restoration frame to avoid meaningless costs and promote restoration efficiency for other restoration cases. Furthermore, it is very significant to reduce secondary damages when the restoration project is conducted in ecologically sensitive areas, for example, natural reserves.
However, there are many shortcomings in this study, for example, the treatment of orchards in the reserve is not comprehensive enough, which is mainly attributed to the fact that orchards contribute partly to the vegetation coverage of the reserve, and later we will draw on the method proposed by Duan J. et al. [60] for the rational restoration of orchards. In addition, as the project is in the preliminary stage of completion, quantitative data such as habitat quality, changes in ecological corridor connectivity and species abundance are still lacking. Finally, this study also has some limitations in terms of data and methodology. For one thing, the restoration method is more suitable for ecological restoration projects with limited funds, but relatively abundant restoration time, in which both damage beyond the natural healing capacity and a good ecological environment with slight disturbance coexist. For another, there are some uncertainties in the acquisition of data. One reason is that land use information keeps changing and is time sensitive. Another reason is that the insufficient technical means and restricted access to some protected areas lead to errors in the accuracy of data, which require multi-faceted field verification and combining field sampling results with remote sensing information to increase the value and credibility of analysis [86]. Furthermore, as for forest vegetation growth, the vegetation coverage index still lacks sufficient response capability [87] in capturing vegetation growth under extreme weather conditions, which also leads to errors in the study of human disturbance effects on forest plant coverage indices.

Author Contributions

The research was launched in 2019, and then the restoration project was carried out. X.W. wrote the original draft of this paper and participated in every step of the reviewing and editing process, carried out a comprehensive field survey on the project site, proposed specific research methods, developed a research framework and undertook the task of data analysis. Z.Z. undertook the task of data acquisition and data analysis. W.C. undertook some tasks of data visualization mapping. C.Y. (Can Yi) is the main participant in the design of ecological restoration framework. He participated in every step of the reviewing and editing process of this paper and joined in the early investigation and research together with X.W., X.X. and C.Y. (Chen Yan) supervised the research and gave relevant suggestions. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Water Resources Department Project of Fujian Province (Grant No. klh20015A); Fujian Social Science Planning Project “Restorative Outcomes of Urban Waterfront Space Based on Aquaphilia Perception” (Grant No. FJ2021C038).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable. The manuscript includes no specific details, images or videos relating to an individual person.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the editors and reviewers for their insights and comments that have substantially improved this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The location of Huangchulin Natural Reserve in Fujian Province, China.
Figure 1. The location of Huangchulin Natural Reserve in Fujian Province, China.
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Figure 2. Regional analysis of the degree of anthropogenic disturbance of each factor in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve. (A). Vegetation coverage; (B). Land use; (C). Slope; (D). Altitude.
Figure 2. Regional analysis of the degree of anthropogenic disturbance of each factor in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve. (A). Vegetation coverage; (B). Land use; (C). Slope; (D). Altitude.
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Figure 3. Comprehensive information map of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve, China. (A) Areas of distribution for the comprehensive evaluation of human disturbance; (B) Percentage of each area; (C) Functional zoning of the reserve.
Figure 3. Comprehensive information map of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve, China. (A) Areas of distribution for the comprehensive evaluation of human disturbance; (B) Percentage of each area; (C) Functional zoning of the reserve.
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Figure 4. The location of the Shitan Stream area in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve. 0.99–1.38: Complete human disturbance; 1.38–1.72: Severe human disturbance; 1.72–2.07: Intermediate human disturbance; 2.07–3.28: Light human disturbance; 3.28–4.95: Slight human disturbance.
Figure 4. The location of the Shitan Stream area in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve. 0.99–1.38: Complete human disturbance; 1.38–1.72: Severe human disturbance; 1.72–2.07: Intermediate human disturbance; 2.07–3.28: Light human disturbance; 3.28–4.95: Slight human disturbance.
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Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the “Four-tiered Protection System” concept for the Shitan Stream area.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the “Four-tiered Protection System” concept for the Shitan Stream area.
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Figure 6. Comparison of pre- and post-ecological restoration of the river system. (A). River erosion restoration. (B). Riparian brownfield restoration.
Figure 6. Comparison of pre- and post-ecological restoration of the river system. (A). River erosion restoration. (B). Riparian brownfield restoration.
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Figure 7. Comparison of pre- and post-ecological restoration of the Shitan Stream area.
Figure 7. Comparison of pre- and post-ecological restoration of the Shitan Stream area.
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Table
Table 1. Human Disturbance Factors and Grading Criteria.
Table 1. Human Disturbance Factors and Grading Criteria.
GradingSlight DisturbanceLight DisturbanceIntermediate DisturbanceSevere DisturbanceComplete Disturbance
Land Useshrubland, arbor woodland, bamboo woodland, other grassland, inland mudflat, other woodlandopen forest, sparse scrub, natural bare ground, river water surfacepark and green area, ditch, pond water, reservoir watermining land, tea plantation, orchard, other garden land, bare rock and gravel land, paddy field, dry landhighway land, rural road, rural residential land, waterworks construction land, public facility land, commercial service land, industrial land, agricultural facility land, special land, railroad land
Vegetation Coverage (%)≥8585–7575–6060–35<35
Slope (°)>4545–2525–1515–66–0
Altitude/m1113–700700–500500–300300–150150–10
Grading Assignment12345
Table
Table 2. Use of the analytic hierarchy process to determine the matrix scoring criteria.
Table 2. Use of the analytic hierarchy process to determine the matrix scoring criteria.
Evaluation IndexLand UseVegetation Coverage (%)Slope (°)Altitude/mWeighted Value
Land Use17530.558
Vegetation Coverage1/711/31/50.057
Slope1/5311/50.122
Altitude1/35310.263
Table
Table 3. Area and proportion of the degree of single-factor anthropogenic disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve.
Table 3. Area and proportion of the degree of single-factor anthropogenic disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve.
FactorsItemSlight
Disturbance		Light
Disturbance		Intermediate
Disturbance		Severe
Disturbance		Complete
Disturbance
Vegetation coverageArea/km2
Percentage/%		52.79
42.19%		6.41
5.12%		44.48
35.55%		7.75
6.19%		13.70
10.95%
Land useArea/km2
Percentage/%		117.05
93.54%		1.49
1.19%		0.11
0.09%		5.43
4.34%		1.05
0.84%
SlopeArea/km2
Percentage/%		3.04
2.43%		23.26
18.59%		54.51
43.56%		44.08
35.23%		0.24
0.19%
Altitude/mArea/km2
Percentage/%		11.45
9.15%		30.51
24.38%		39.00
31.17%		25.38
20.28%		18.79
15.02%
Table
Table 4. Comprehensive evaluation of human disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve.
Table 4. Comprehensive evaluation of human disturbance in the Huangchulin Nature Reserve.
ItemSlight
Disturbance		Light
Disturbance		Intermediate
Disturbance		Severe
Disturbance		Complete
Disturbance
Area/km24.7947.4441.2425.995.67
Percentage/%3.8337.9132.9620.774.53
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Wu, X.; Yi, C.; Cui, W.; Zhang, Z.; Yan, C.; Xie, X. Analysis of Human Disturbance Features in Natural Reserves and Empirical Research on Their Restoration: A Case Study of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve in Fujian Province. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2017. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032017

AMA Style

Wu X, Yi C, Cui W, Zhang Z, Yan C, Xie X. Analysis of Human Disturbance Features in Natural Reserves and Empirical Research on Their Restoration: A Case Study of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve in Fujian Province. Sustainability. 2023; 15(3):2017. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032017

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wu, Xiaopei, Can Yi, Wenwen Cui, Zhi Zhang, Chen Yan, and Xiangcai Xie. 2023. "Analysis of Human Disturbance Features in Natural Reserves and Empirical Research on Their Restoration: A Case Study of the Huangchulin Nature Reserve in Fujian Province" Sustainability 15, no. 3: 2017. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032017

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