Unraveling On-Farm Wheat Loss in Fars Province, Iran: A Qualitative Analysis and Exploration of Potential Solutions with Emphasis on Agricultural Cooperatives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Interviews
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Loss due to Excessive Seed Use
“A part of the wheat loss is due to excessive seed use.”(Agri. Mins. Officer)
“Theoretically, only about 120–140 kg of seed is needed for wheat cultivation. But farmers have to sow 300 kg of seeds to succeed.”(GCCS inspector)
“I sow more than 300 kg seeds per ha, sometimes even more than 400 kg.”(Farmer 1)
“I plant 320–350 kg seeds per ha.”(Farmer 5)
“I planted about 240 kg per ha. I did not have a specific reason for choosing this number. I would say 240 kg was enough; one would argue 300 or more needs to be planted based on another reasoning. There is an old saying: the lands in this region perform well regardless of which and how much seed you plant.”(Farmer 3)
“It is very difficult to introduce a new thing to the farmers. They would certainly not accept implementing something new unless all others try that and assure them that it would work.”(Seed Producer)
“I am known as a pioneer farmer. Yet, I do not plant less than 350 kg seeds per ha, regardless of how much they [the AREEO experts] insist…. I say if we spend more money per ha, my mind would be at ease that we would harvest five to six tonnes per ha. We may harvest the same amount if we seed 100 kg per ha. But we would be worried all the time as to whether it works or not.”(Farmer 1)
“We had around 200 kg of seeds of a new variety. We were asked to test these seeds for wheat cultivation in Fars province. The requirement was to use no more than 25 kg of seeds per ha. We planted 25 kg seeds per ha using an experimental seeder. How much do you think the yield was? More than seven tonnes per ha. However, the cultivation was highly controlled in terms of pests and weeds.”(Seed Producer)
“I heard a rumor that someone sowed 60 kg seeds per ha in [name of a region]. After that, I planted less than 300 kg per ha. The AREEO experts evaluated the tillering in my field as moderate. This means my wheat was grown less than my typical performance. Imagine how bad the performance could have been if I had sowed only 100 kg seeds per ha.”(Farmer 1)
“In this region, maybe only up to 30% of farmers use drill seeders, while more than 60% use centrifugal broadcast machines and a small minority who have small farms do the traditional manual seed spreading.”(Co-op CEO)
“We tillage the land, plant the seed either with a centrifugal broadcast planting machine (normally around 300–350 kg per ha) or manually (around 320 kg per ha) and run a disk tiller.”(Farmer 4)
“The seeds will grow with minimum precipitation when you use a proper planting machinery.”(Farmer 3)
“An issue in this region is that most of the lands are also used for rice cultivation, which makes the land unsuitable for a drill seeder. The land will have many soil clumps after rice cultivation which cannot be broken entirely by tillage. Therefore, a drill seeder cannot operate well on such lands.”(Co-op CEO)
“It’s a matter of work speed. We can get the job done in two hours using a broadcast seeding machine.”(Seed Producer)
“Some farmers use drill seeding machines. Others do not believe that using such machinery is economically sound. A drill seeder works 5 ha per day, 7 ha at best. Farmers who cultivate two crops in one season want to plant 30 ha of land in two days. Or rain is forecasted, and they need to plant their seeds as soon as possible. So, they use a broadcast seeder and run a disk tiller afterward.”(Farmer 2)
“The wheat seed in temperate areas such as Shiraz [the capital of Fars province] and soundings should be embedded in a depth of 2 to 3 cm. In colder areas, it is said that they grow better when seeded 7 to 8 cm deep to avoid frost. When wheat sprouts, its coleoptile has to reach the surface. Once the coleoptile reaches the surface, the plant starts its growth. If you imbed the seed 15 cm deep, the coleoptile will dry up after growing 4 to 5 cm.”(Seed Producer)
“When I dug the soil a bit, I could see the seeds sprouted but did not grow enough to come out of the soil and were dried up underneath the surface.”(Farmer 3)
“Parts of the seeds remain on the land surface, and parts go too deep and cannot grow. That’s why even knowledgeable farmers fear planting a low amount of seeds per ha.”(Seed Producer)
“The disk tiller is strong. It places about a third of the seeds too deep. The other third stays on the surface and will be eaten by insects and animals. Only one-third will be planted in the optimal depth. This means out of 400 kg seeds, only 130 kg is optimally planted.”(Farmer 2)
“A huge part of seed loss is due to improper tillage and soil conditions.”(GCCS Inspector)
“The first reason [for excessive seed use] is the inability in optimal land preparation, mainly due to the unavailability of proper tillage equipment.”(Farmer 1)
“Those who seed 100 kg per ha prepare the farm properly to embed the seed in a certain depth so all the 100 kg can grow… Whatever I do, my land does not reach the optimal condition for growing 100 kg per ha. I run the rototiller once and the disk tiller three times, and still, the sowing is highly inefficient.”(Farmer 1)
“The common crop rotation in this region is usually maize and wheat. In the regions where more water is accessible, farmers cultivate rice too.”(GCCS Inspector)
“Crop rotation in this region is commonly rice and wheat or maize and wheat. Some farmers would cultivate tomatoes every three to four years too.”(Co-op CEO)
“Farmers cultivate maize right away after harvesting wheat. For example, they cultivate a maize variety with a growth period of about only three months.”(Farmer 1)
“We normally cultivate rice after wheat.”(Farmer 4)
“Depending on when wheat is harvested, farmers start transplanting rice seedlings between June and July and harvest rice from mid-September until mid-October.”(Co-op CEO)
“Another issue is the farm size. The farms are not large enough to be divided into different parts for cultivation and fallow. You see cases that five siblings inherited 10 ha, which they divided into five two-ha fields. They fail to work together, and there is not enough space to leave fallow… As long as the farmers have enough water, they don’t leave their farms fallow.”(Co-op CEO)
“The lands are divided among multiple farmers. Each person is trying to make maximum profit, so farming is more intensified. Farmers look for varieties with short growth periods. The new varieties need one or two irrigations less than the old ones, although their yield is slightly less. But it is economically justifiable because of timing.”(Farmer 1)
“To harvest 10 tonnes per ha, farmers need to irrigate several times (up to seven times) and use a lot of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.”(Farmer 4)
“In the past, one run of a disk tiller per year was enough. Now we need to run a heavy disk tiller to break the soil lumps, which are rigid due to the overuse of fertilizers. The soil has lost all of its organic matter. That’s why the farmer has to run the disk tiller three times after plowing. Then the farmer has to run a leveler.”(Farmer 2)
“If we cultivate rice before wheat, we need more wheat seeds (more than 350 kg per ha). Because rice cultivation takes up many nutrients in the soil and also leaves too humid of land behind. Therefore, the tillage cannot be performed properly, and more seeds are needed.”(Farmer 4)
“The fields in this region [the Dorodzan area in the north of Fars province] are used for rice production. Almost all farmers use basin irrigation for wheat cultivation.”(Co-op CEO)
“Farmers use Urea fertilizer excessively. Urea fertilizer makes the land rigid. Overuse of Urea fertilizer is one of the main reasons that we cannot tillage the lands optimally.”(Farmer 1)
3.2. Loss due to Weeds and Pests
“A part of the loss is due to insect infestation.”(GCCS Inspector)
“Pests are also a major cause for losing parts or entire wheat crops.”(Farmer 3)
“We are facing pests and weeds that did not exist, let’s say, 30 years ago. I have been cultivating wheat for more than 40 years. The production costs for wheat cultivation were around 22% of the gross income, although the yield was lower than now. The costs are now more than 50% of the wheat cultivation. The costs of purchasing pesticides are very considerable.”(Farmer 1)
“We need to use a new pesticide every year because the pests develop resistance to the old ones.”(Farmer 1)
“Not all farmers afford to purchase effective pesticides. They need to buy Indian pesticides, which have to be applied three or four times to eliminate the pests.”(Farmer 2)
3.3. Loss due to Harvesting
“Wheat is lost on a farm before or during harvest.”(GCCS Inspector)
“The loss also occurs right before the plant is ready for harvesting.”(Farmer 3)
“The majority of loss occurs during harvesting on the farm.”(Co-op CEO)
“Wheat is harvested [in Fars] mainly using a combine harvester, which is a major point of loss.”(Farmer 1)
“Wheat loss before harvest is mainly due to wind or birds.”(GCCS Inspector)
“If plants do not receive enough water at a critical time, about one month before harvesting, the wind will dry out the wheat head, which would cause loss. Leveling the land properly before cultivation would prevent this loss. If the land is uneven, the plants that are placed higher than others do not receive enough water and would dry out.”(Farmer 3)
“The pre-harvest loss is sometimes higher for some wheat varieties compared to the others.”(GCCS Inspector)
- Wheat variety: different varieties of wheat can impact loss during harvest.
- Harvest timing: harvesting too late can increase shattering.
- Decrepit and misaligned machinery: outdated or poorly maintained machinery can result in a higher wheat loss.
- Incorrect adjustment of the machinery: improper settings in the combine harvester can cause the loss of wheat.
- Running the combine harvester too fast: operating the combine harvester at a high speed can result in a further loss of wheat.
“Some varieties have a higher loss during harvest. So, part of the harvest loss depends on the wheat variety.”(Seed Producer)
“Reasons, such as late harvesting, can also cause loss.”(Co-op CEO)
“The demand for combine harvesters is too high during the harvest period and it is difficult to find one at the best time for harvesting my crops.”(Seed Producer)
“New machines have a lower loss indeed, but only when they are well-tuned.”(Seed Producer)
“Another reason for loss during harvesting is an incorrect adjustment or technical issues of a combine harvester, which is the most significant reason.”(Farmer 3)
“When a combine harvester operator runs the machine too fast on the land, the loss will be higher. The operator tends to finish the job as soon as possible, particularly when paid per hectare.”(Seed Producer)
“[Harvest loss happens] mainly due to harvesting too quickly. Especially the new combine harvesters have air conditioner and the operator is sitting in a cabin and does not care how much is lost.”(Farmer 5)
“Combine harvesters are often operated incorrectly, resulting in a high amount of loss that is due to operators’ lack of skill or experience.”(GCCS Inspector)
“Another reason for harvesting loss is the lack of skilled and trained combine operators. Skilled operators demand high wages because it is a difficult job.”(Co-op CEO)
“The combine operators mostly get paid either per hour or per hectare…. [grain loss] is not important for them at all. They just want to get the job done as soon as possible.”(Co-op CEO)
“The more the farmers supervise the harvest, the more they can prevent loss.”(Seed Producer)
“Harvesting takes more time on a large farm. A large-scale farmer can supervise the process and instruct the combine operator to make necessary adjustments or change the speed if they observe that the yield is insufficient or if the first batch delivered to the purchasing center is evaluated as poor [in terms of impurity and broken grains]. But harvesting on a small farm may be completed in one run and there is no room for correction…. I own a large farm. I can afford to hire a supervisor. But farmers who own smaller farms, such as those with only 10 or 15 hectares, may not have the necessary knowledge to supervise harvesting or may not be able to afford a supervisor. It takes four to five days to harvest my farm. Their [small-holder farmer] entire farm will be harvested quickly. They notice that the loss is high when their entire yield has already been harvested, and the damage is done.”(Farmer 1)
“In some regions, combine operators work for a percentage of the income. Even those who work on commission don’t care much about loss.”(Co-op CEO)
“Sometimes, the combine owner does not charge the farmer for harvesting. Instead, the combine owner collects the straws to sell as forage. In those cases, the combine operator may adjust the combine header lower to collect more biomass and make more profit, which leads to more wheat loss and impurity content in the yield.”(Farmer 4)
“Unfortunately, dilapidated harvesting machinery causes enormous loss. For example, 60–70% of our harvesting machines are 50–60 years old.”(Co-op CEO)
“Some owners of combine harvesters would rather keep their machines running all the time to maximize their profit and would skip the necessary maintenance. As a result, a considerable amount of wheat is lost due to technical problems with harvesting machinery.”(Farmer 3)
“Most farmers [in Fars province] are small-holder farmers and don’t have a good financial situation.”(Seed Producer)
3.4. Reliability of the Results
3.5. The role of Agricultural Cooperatives in Reducing On-Farm Loss
“Their [small-holder farmers’] farm areas are small, which hinders mechanization in the field. Most of these small-holder farmers cannot reach an agreement to merge their lands for easier mechanization.”(Seed Producer)
“The new combine harvesters are designed for large farms; as there are many small farms, it does not make sense to use them.”(Co-op CEO)
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Rank | Country | Wheat Production in Thousand Tonnes |
---|---|---|
1 | China | 134,255 |
2 | India | 107,590 |
3 | Russian Federation | 85,896 |
4 | USA | 49,691 |
5 | Canada | 35,183 |
6 | France | 30,144 |
7 | Pakistan | 25,248 |
8 | Ukraine | 24,912 |
9 | Germany | 22,172 |
10 | Türkiye * | 20,500 |
11 | Argentina | 19,777 |
12 | Iran | 15,000 |
22 | Iraq * | 6238 |
25 | Afghanistan * | 5185 |
42 | Turkmenistan * | 1320 |
45 | Azerbaijan * | 1819 |
76 | Armenia * | 132 |
Participant ID | Role |
---|---|
Seed producer | The owner of a plant-breeding and seed-production company |
Farmer 1 | A farmer with a large-sized land (over 70 ha) |
Farmer 2 | A farmer with a small-sized land (10 ha) |
Farmer 3 | A farmer with a small-sized land (10 ha) |
Farmer 4 | A farmer with a small-sized land (20 ha) |
Farmer 5 | A farmer with a small-sized land (20 ha) |
Co-op CEO | The chief executive officer (CEO) at a local agricultural cooperative and a farmer with a medium-sized land (50 ha) |
GCCS inspector | The technical inspector of the Grain Company and Commercial Services (GCCS) of Fars province |
Agri. Mins. Officer | A high-ranking officer at t he Ministry of Agriculture |
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Ghaziani, S.; Dehbozorgi, G.; Bakhshoodeh, M.; Doluschitz, R. Unraveling On-Farm Wheat Loss in Fars Province, Iran: A Qualitative Analysis and Exploration of Potential Solutions with Emphasis on Agricultural Cooperatives. Sustainability 2023, 15, 12569. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612569
Ghaziani S, Dehbozorgi G, Bakhshoodeh M, Doluschitz R. Unraveling On-Farm Wheat Loss in Fars Province, Iran: A Qualitative Analysis and Exploration of Potential Solutions with Emphasis on Agricultural Cooperatives. Sustainability. 2023; 15(16):12569. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612569
Chicago/Turabian StyleGhaziani, Shahin, Gholamreza Dehbozorgi, Mohammad Bakhshoodeh, and Reiner Doluschitz. 2023. "Unraveling On-Farm Wheat Loss in Fars Province, Iran: A Qualitative Analysis and Exploration of Potential Solutions with Emphasis on Agricultural Cooperatives" Sustainability 15, no. 16: 12569. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612569
APA StyleGhaziani, S., Dehbozorgi, G., Bakhshoodeh, M., & Doluschitz, R. (2023). Unraveling On-Farm Wheat Loss in Fars Province, Iran: A Qualitative Analysis and Exploration of Potential Solutions with Emphasis on Agricultural Cooperatives. Sustainability, 15(16), 12569. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612569