Investigating the Locus of Control and Epistemological Beliefs of Social Studies Teacher Candidates in Turkey

Abstract

Today, the concepts of “epistemological belief” (EB) and “locus of control” (LOC) have become important in education. It is considerable to investigate these concepts on teacher candidates who are the teachers of the future. This study aimed to examine the LOC and EB of social studies teacher candidates. The research, which adopted a survey model, was conducted with five hundred and fifty social studies teacher candidates studying at seven state universities in Turkey. The Locus of Control Scale and the Epistemological Belief Scale were used to collect research data. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), the Scheffe test, and correlation analysis were employed in the data analysis process. When evaluating the research results, it was determined that female teacher candidates have a higher external LOC. No significant difference was observed in social studies teacher candidates’ LOC regarding their parents’ educational grade level. It was observed that there was a significant difference in the EB of social studies teacher candidates regarding gender. It was revealed that female teacher candidates had underdeveloped/immature EB. No significant difference was found in the EB of social studies teacher candidates based on their parents’ educational levels or grade. It was observed that there is a weak but positive significant relationship between the social studies teacher candidates’ LOC and EB and their sub-scales.

1. Introduction

In today’s world, as education and philosophy have integrated with each other, studies on knowledge and learning have gained momentum, and the concept of “epistemology” has become an important research area [1]. Epistemology, derived from the combination of the Greek words “episteme” meaning “knowledge” and “logos” meaning “word, reason, science, explanation, and theory”, is a branch of philosophy that directly deals with the concept of knowledge [2,3]. Epistemology is a branch that investigates the source, nature, and scope of human knowledge, as well as the criteria for determining what constitutes true knowledge or truth [4,5,6].

Epistemological beliefs (EB), as they are conceived of by educational psychologists, refer to beliefs about the nature, source, justification, acquisition, and structure of knowledge [6]. EB, which constitute a broad and significant research area, are of great importance in today’s world and in the field of education. When EB are considered as the perception, interpretation, and internalization of knowledge, it can be observed that these beliefs influence individuals’ attitudes and behaviors. This highlights the importance of the development of EB [7].

Although epistemology is typically associated with philosophy, the interest in EB (beliefs about knowledge and learning) began with William Perry [8,9], who proposed that students go through the developmental stages of EB. In the initial stage, students accept knowledge as either right or wrong and believe that experts have all the answers. In the late stages of development, however, students believe that there can be multiple possibilities and that even strong beliefs can change. Perry, along with many subsequent researchers, asserted that epistemology is unidimensional and develops through fixed stages. However, Schommer [10] viewed that considering EB solely in terms of beliefs about knowledge was a limited approach. According to her, EB encompass not only beliefs about knowledge but also beliefs about the ability of learning and teaching (intelligence) related to the acquisition and use of knowledge, and EB should be considered a belief system [10]. Schommer designed multidimensional epistemological perspectives and her EB model consists of the following dimensions: (1) beliefs about the source of knowledge; (2) beliefs about the certainty of knowledge; (3) beliefs about the structure of knowledge; (4) beliefs about the speed of learning; and (5) beliefs about the stability of knowledge [11]. If individuals have complex belief tendencies, they believe that knowledge is not absolute or certain, that a significant portion of it is still in the developmental stage, and that knowledge has not been discovered yet. These individuals possess a critical perspective, are knowledgeable, and experienced. On the other hand, those who have simple EB lack a critical perspective and are inexperienced. According to Schommer [10], individuals may hold beliefs that a significant portion of knowledge is certain and unchangeable, that some knowledge will be newly discovered, and that only a small portion of knowledge will change. Schommer [10] suggests that individuals can possess beliefs that are at different levels of development in terms of what knowledge is, how it is obtained, and that coexist, and thus, these beliefs have an impact on students’ behaviors. Students who have developed EB use numerous and more qualified cognitive knowledge processing strategies; correctly metacognitively controlling their learning level of teaching materials more often. These students show more academic success, have more academic attitudes to school, believe in the usefulness of education more, and construct more complex, deep, and sophisticated opinions [12]. While students’ undeveloped EB prevent the critical aspects of learning, developed beliefs expedite high-level learning and critical thinking [13].

Due to the significant impact of beliefs on individuals’ thoughts and behaviors, beliefs from different categories have gained prominence in the educational process [14]. The tendency in education regarding beliefs is to evaluate beliefs as factors conduct behaviors. Based on the hypothesis, beliefs could be changed, students could be more effective learners, more qualified learning can be provided, and their academic success could be affected in a positive way and, more importantly, they could be more competent due to lifelong learning and success in various stages of their life. From the perspective of teacher candidates who will be the teachers of the future, by having teachers with more sophisticated EB, teachers can be better equipped to improve their professional development, and more effective learning environments can be prepared for their students [15]. In addition to EB, LOC beliefs have also been considered as one of the relevant beliefs [14].

In personality psychology, LOC refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them. The concept was developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1954 and, since then, it has become an aspect of personality studies. A person’s “locus” (Latin for “place” or “location”) is conceptualized as either internal (the person believes they can control their life) or external (they believe that their decisions and life are controlled by environmental factors which they cannot influence) [16].

In the social learning theory developed by Rotter [17], the concept of LOC was defined. The individual’s experiences of punishment and reward due to their behaviors lead to the development of certain expectations about the outcomes of their future behaviors. Rotter [16] referred to these expectations as beliefs about internal or external control sources, and he called the place where the forces determining positive or negative events in life (rewards and punishments) have more control over in life as the LOC, which represents the degree to which individuals believe that they can have control over the perceptions about the underlying causes of events in their lives and events that affect them.

Individuals with a high internal LOC believe that they have a significant level of personal control over events in their lives [18]; they believe that events in their lives primarily stem from their own actions. For example, when evaluating exam results, people with an internal LOC praise or blame themselves, while individuals with an external LOC praise or blame the teacher or the test. Individuals with an “internal LOC” generally believe that their successes or failures are a result of the effort and hard work they put into their education. Individuals with an “external LOC” focus, on the other hand, generally believe that their successes or failures are attributed to external factors beyond their control, such as luck, fate, circumstances, injustice, prejudice, or teachers who are unfair, biased, or unqualified [16]. Briefly, internal versus external control refers to the degree to which people expect that a reinforcement or an outcome of their behavior is contingent on their own behavior or personal characteristics versus the degree to which people expect that the reinforcement or outcome is a function of chance, luck, or fate, is under the control of powerful others, or is simply unpredictable [19].

Rotter [17] states that the LOC is a personality dimension that ranges from externality to internality, and individuals can vary in their position on this dimension. However, it would be incorrect to categorize individuals into unchanging categories of having internal and external LOC when it comes to predicting behavior because having an internal or external LOC is associated with many characteristics of individuals, such as their learning style, cognitive structures, self-confidence, and motivation. Individuals tend to prefer an internal LOC when they succeed and a more external LOC when they fail. Thus, individuals show a tendency that allows them to maintain cognitive and emotional balance and make judgments that serve their ego [20].

In the educational process, the transformation of individuals with external LOC into individuals with internal LOC is not only important for academic achievement but also crucial for fostering the overall development of the individual. Thus, it serves the goal of education in building a democratic society [17].

When reviewing the literature, it can be seen that there are studies related to both EB and LOC, and these studies have also been carried out on teacher candidates. As a result of the literature review, studies that aim to determine the EB of teacher candidates based on various variables have been encountered. In this context, Karabulut and Ulucan [21] examined the level of scientific EB of first- and fourth-year students studying in physical education and sports teaching departments of different universities. In addition, Can and Arabacıoğlu [22] determined the EB of pre-service science and mathematics teachers based on certain variables. Orhan [23] determined the EB of university students and examined whether these beliefs differed according to gender, educational status of parents, age, and grade level variables.

Bra˚ten and Strømsø [24] examined the relative contribution of EB and implicit theories of intelligence to the adoption of mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals, respectively, in a sample of 80 Norwegian student teachers in an innovative, cooperative instructional context with little emphasis on grades and performance evaluation. EB regarding the speed of knowledge acquisition predicted achievement goals. Students who believed that learning quickly occurs or not at all were less likely to adopt mastery goals and more likely to adopt performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. In addition, students who believed in stable and given knowledge were less likely to adopt mastery goals. EB were found to play more important roles in goal adoption than implicit theories of intelligence.

In addition to these studies, there was a study involving a survey conducted with teacher candidates in Hong Kong. In this study, EB were divided into four dimensions and teaching and learning concepts were divided into two dimensions, and the relational analysis of the concepts of teaching and learning with personal epistemological knowledge was carried out [5]. Another study carried out in Nigeria examined the relationship between the three dimensions of EB (simple knowledge, certainty of knowledge, quick learning) and learning goal orientation in the prediction of deep knowledge acquisition approach among teacher candidates [25].

When examining the research on the EB of social studies teacher candidates, it can be seen that there are several studies: one study examined the relationship between the EB of teacher candidates and the educational philosophies they adopt, considering various variables [26]; another study aimed to determine the EB of social studies teacher candidates based on variables such as the university they attended, their gender, grade level, and the high school they graduated from [27]; another study determined the relationship between social studies teacher candidates’ attitudes towards learning and their scientific EB [28]; and there was a study that aimed to determine the EB and information literacy levels of social studies teacher candidates in relation to gender and grade level variables [29].

Another study aimed to determine if the teacher candidates’ undergraduate education affected their EB, comparing the EB of the first- and fourth-year students at the Department of Social Studies Education in a state university in terms of their EB. The results of the study showed that, except for the third dimension of the questionnaire, the fourth graders had more sophisticated beliefs than the first graders. There was no statistically significant difference between male and female teacher candidates regarding their EB [30].

In addition to these studies, there was a study conducted by Topkaya [1]. The purpose of this study was to determine the EB of teacher candidates who attended social studies and science and technology teaching programs, and to investigate how these beliefs varied regarding grade level, gender, and departments. According to the research findings, it was determined that there are significant differences in EB of social studies and science and technology teachers regarding the variables of gender, department, and grade level. Significant differences were found regarding gender in favor of females; between first- and fourth-year social studies teacher candidates, in favor of first graders; between first- and fourth-year science and technology teacher candidates, again in favor of first graders. Regarding the department variable, it was determined that first-year social studies teacher candidates had more sophisticated EB than fourth-year social studies teacher candidates and both first- and fourth-year students of the science and technology teaching department.

When examining the literature regarding LOC, it can be found that Yanılmaz [31] examined teacher candidates’ LOC in relation to variables such as gender, academic department attended, academic achievement level, family’s socioeconomic status, and place of residence. According to the findings of the study, it was observed that males tend to have a higher internal LOC compared to women. However, there were no statistically significant differences based on variables such as academic department attended, academic achievement level, family’s socioeconomic status, and place of residence. Saracaloğlu ve Yılmaz [32] examined the relationship between critical thinking attitudes and the locus of control of primary school teacher candidates in terms of the variables of grade level and gender. In addition, Uğur [33] conducted a study to examine whether the LOC levels of university students residing in the Credit and Dormitories Institution varied based on demographic characteristics. It was found that the LOC levels of the participating students were below average. While there were no significant differences based on variables such as gender, age, faculty/college/vocational school attended, grade, duration of stay in the credit dormitories, parents’ educational levels, father’s occupation, mother’s employment status, and monthly family income, there was a significant difference regarding the environment in which they grew up and that participants had levels of internal LOC. Albert and Dahling [34] examined how internal locus of control and learning goal orientation related to academic self-concept and academic achievement among U.S. college students. Afolabi and Dennis [35] examined the locus of control and dispositional optimism influences reciprocal altruism among Nigerian university undergraduate students.

Regarding social studies teacher candidates, there was a study that examined the relationship between the LOC and global social responsibility levels of history and social studies teacher candidates [36].

When examining the studies that discuss LOC and EB together, it can be found that there have been various studies. For instance, Kıralp, Şahin, and Dinçyürek [37] examined the LOC and EB of different psychological counseling and guidance students in terms of gender, age, nationality, and grade level. Another study aimed to determine whether there is a relationship between students’ LOC and EB, and the criteria they used during the evaluation process for comprehending information in printed instructional material was based on program type and grade levels [38]. Additionally, another study was conducted to investigate the relationship between nursing students’ EB and LOC [39].

Despite the significant amount of research carried out on both EB and LOC, the fact that these two variables have not been examined in the context of social studies teacher candidates is a great deficiency and remarkable. For this reason, this study was needed, and it is believed that the study will contribute to the literature.

In the development of EB, several factors can influence them, including age, gender, education, family structure, culture, parents’ educational level, LOC, place of residence, field of study, and cognitive development (intelligence) [4,8,9,24,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]. One of the factors that affect students’ EB is LOC, which is among the individual characteristics. Research has shown that LOC can be measured and evaluated as a functional personality dimension in many situations, and this construct has become one of the fundamental variables in personality research [17,42]. Collins states that individuals have different beliefs in their lives, and these diverse beliefs influence whether they are individuals with internal or external LOC in a particular matter. Wilkinson and Schwartz found in their study that individuals with advanced EB had higher levels of verbal abilities and were more oriented toward internal LOC [14,47,48].

Epistemic acceptance of education stakeholders (administrative authorities, program developers, families, teachers and students) has a significant impact on the planning, regulation and outcomes of the teaching-learning process [49]. It has been emphasized that the cognitive changes that will be created through EB in teacher candidates, who are one of the stakeholders of education, will affect their teaching behaviors and teaching performances in their own classrooms, as well as their learning skills [50]. Teacher candidates’ EB and conceptions of teaching and learning are viewed as important since they will influence their behavior in the classroom and determine their teaching strategies [51]. With this effect, the assumption that beliefs can be identified and changed makes it possible for teacher candidates to experience effective and qualified learning experiences. Tezci et al. (2016) found that teacher candidates’ EB predicted their teaching-learning conceptions [52]. In this respect, identifying teacher candidates’ EB and LOC and evaluating the results of this determination will contribute to their roles as both learners and teachers.

In studies on EB, it has been concluded that these beliefs are not an innate personality trait, but they have a psychological structure that can change over time, and that EB are affected by some factors in this developmental process. The main categories of these factors are: age, gender, mental development, class level, residential area, family structure, parental education level and profession, locus of control, the field of study and culture, grade point average, type of high school, faculty studied, socio-economic status, branch, nationality, use of technology, etc. [5,6,8,14,40,53].

The results of the research showing that EB are affected by the variables mentioned above constitute the reason for examining variables such as gender, class level, and parental education level in this study. Within this context, the aim of this study is to examine the social studies teacher candidates’ LOC and EB and to determine the relationship between these two variables. Within this main objective, the study sought answers to the following research questions:

• What are the social studies teacher candidates’ levels of LOC and EB?
• Do the social studies teacher candidates’ LOC and EB differ regarding gender?
• Do the social studies teacher candidates’ LOC and EB differ regarding their parents’ educational level?
• Do the social studies teacher candidates’ LOC and EB differ regarding their grade levels?
• Is there a relationship between the LOC and EB of social studies teacher candidates?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Method

This research was conducted using the survey research model, which is one of the quantitative research designs. Survey research examines characteristics of individuals such as beliefs, attitudes, opinions, and tendencies. Additionally, survey research can test whether these characteristics of individuals vary across different variables. Alternatively, in research, multiple characteristics can be discussed, and the relationships between them can be explored. In other words, survey research can be conducted for the purposes of identification, explanation, and prediction [54].

2.2. Participants

The study consisted of a total of 550 social studies teacher candidates enrolled in 7 state universities located in 7 geographical regions in Turkey. A total of 700 teacher candidates participated in the research; however, 127 teacher candidates had incomplete responses on the scales, and 23 teacher candidates provided extreme values on the scales, so they were not included in the study.

The participants of the study were selected using a multi-stage sampling method. The process of sampling from the population was completed in two stages. In this research, the population was defined as all state universities in Turkey. In the first stage, cluster sampling was employed, and 7 state universities, one from each geographical region, were randomly selected. In the second stage, simple random sampling was employed, and a predetermined number of teacher candidates were selected from each grade level (first, second, third, and fourth year). The reason why the participants were chosen from seven different universities was to ensure maximum diversity. The universities where the participants studied differ in terms of some characteristics, such as demographic structure, socioeconomic status, and human resources. In addition, since the data were collected on a voluntary basis, pre-service teachers who wanted to contribute to the study were preferred. The demographic information of the participants is provided in

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Teacher Candidates.

Variable	Group	N	%
Gender	Male	158	28.7
	Female	392	71.3
Grade Level	First Year	133	24.2
	Second Year	158	28.7
	Third Year	130	23.6
	Fourth Year	129	23.5
Mother’s Educational Level	Unable to read or write	58	10.5
	Elementary School	234	42.5
	Secondary School	130	23.6
	High School	98	17.8
	Associate degree	6	1.1
	Undergraduate degree	20	3.6
	Graduate degree	4	0.4
Father’s Educational Level	Unable to read or write	10	1.8
	Elementary School	166	30.2
	Secondary School	157	28.5
	High School	123	22.4
	Associate degree	24	4.4
	Undergraduate degree	57	10.4
	Graduate degree	13	2.4
Total		550	100

.

2.3. Data Collection Tools

This study utilized data collection instruments including the “LOC Scale (LOCS)” developed by Dağ [55] and the “EB Scale” developed by Shommer and tested by Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk regarding its validity and reliability.

2.3.1. Locus of Control Scale (LOCS)

The LOCS was developed by Dağ [55]. Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient of the LOCS consisting of 47 items was found to be .92. While 25 items on the scale were positively scored, 22 of them were reverse-scored items. Thus, this approach helped to mitigate response bias. The scale items were created in such a way that they could be answered using a five-point Likert scale format. The response options for the scale are as follows: “not appropriate at all” (1), “not very appropriate” (2), “moderately appropriate” (3), “quite appropriate” (4), and “completely appropriate” (5). The scale consists of 18 items that measure internal LOC and the other 4 sub-scales consisting of 29 items measure external LOC. Higher scores on the scale indicate higher external LOC, while lower scores indicate higher internal LOC [55]. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha value of the LCS was found to be .77.

2.3.2. Epistemological Beliefs Scale (EBS)

The scale developed by was translated into Turkish by Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk who also carried out validity and reliability studies of the scale. Factor analysis was administered to the remaining thirty-five items, and it was found that the scale could be divided into three independent factors. Due to the differences in factor structure exhibited by the scale in Turkish culture compared to the original scale, new names were given to the factors. The first factor, consisting of 18 items, was identified as “Belief that Learning Depends on Effort”. The second factor, consisting of 8 items, was identified as “Belief that Learning Depends on Talent”. The third factor, comprising 9 items, was determined as “Belief that There is Only One Correct Knowledge”. While 17 items on the scale were negatively coded and 18 of them were positively coded. Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficients calculated for the reliability of the scale were determined as follows: .83 for the first factor, .62 for the second factor, .59 for the third factor, and .71 for the entire scale. The first two factors in the scale measure beliefs about learning, while the third factor measures beliefs related to knowledge. The scale items were created in a five-point Likert scale format for response options. These response options include the following: “strongly disagree” (1), “disagree” (2), “neutral” (3), “agree” (4), “strongly agree” (5). A high score obtained from each dimension of the scale indicates the presence of underdeveloped/immature EB, while a low score indicates the presence of developed/mature/advanced EB [56]. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha value of the EB scale was found to be .76.

2.4. Statistical Analyses

The SPSS 22 statistical package program was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Pearson correlation coefficient were administered for the analysis of the data obtained in the study. Before carrying out the statistical analyses of the obtained data, a normality test was used to determine if a data set followed a normal distribution. In this context, skewness and kurtosis values were examined. For normality, the skewness and kurtosis values should be less than ±1 standard deviation [57,58]. However, as the sample size increases, it is often considered acceptable for skewness and kurtosis values to be within the range of ±2 for normal distribution [59,60]. Based on the analysis results, it was found that the skewness and kurtosis values of the total scores of the LOC and EB scales were within the range of ±1; the skewness and kurtosis values of the sub-scales of the scales were within the range of ±2. Based on these findings, it was decided to use parametric tests for data analysis, and a 0.05 level of significance was adopted as the basis for interpreting the data.

The demographic characteristics of the teacher candidates that comprised the study group (gender, parents’ educational level, and grade level) were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage distributions). Descriptive statistics (minimum and maximum scores, mean, and standard deviation) of the scores obtained by the teacher candidates from the LOC Scale and EB Scale were calculated. To determine whether there were significant differences in the scores obtained by the teacher candidates from the LOC Scale and EB Scale regarding the variable of gender, an independent sample t-test was used. Additionally, the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to determine if there were significant differences in the scores regarding the variables of grade level and parents’ educational levels. The Scheffe test, a post hoc analysis, was used to determine the differences after executing the Anova analysis. The Scheffe test is preferred when there is a variance equality comparing multiple groups and when the sample sizes are different in the groups [61]. In this study, the Scheffe test was adopted due to the equal variances in the groups and the unequal sample sizes in the groups. Pearson correlation analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between the LOC and EB.

3. Results

3.1. Results Related to the First Sub-Problem

Descriptive analyses were carried out for the data obtained from the social studies teacher candidates’ LOC, and its sub-scales, and EB, and its sub-scales; as shown in

Table 2. Teacher Candidates’ Levels of LOC and EB.

Dimension	Lowest	Highest	Mean	SS.
Locus of Control	2.30	4.21	3.25	0.34
Individual Control	1.17	5.00	3.17	0.61
Belief in Chance	1.36	4.82	3.15	0.47
Meaninglessness of the Effortfulness	2.00	4.90	3.43	0.48
Belief in Fate	1.00	5.00	2.84	0.81
Belief in an Unjust World	1.40	5.00	3.62	0.72
Epistemological Belief	3.03	4.77	3.85	0.31
Belief that Learning Depends on Effort	3.00	4.89	4.06	0.35
Belief that Learning Depends on Talent	2.11	5.00	3.68	0.57
Belief that There is Only One Correct Knowledge	2.63	4.88	3.58	0.43

.

Upon examining Table 2, it can be seen that teacher candidates generally responded to the items in the LOC scale at an “appropriate” level. When examining the arithmetic mean scores obtained from the sub-scales of LOC, it can be seen that the highest mean score is in the sub-scale of belief in an unjust world. In this context, it can be stated that teacher candidates exhibit a higher level of external LOC in the sub-scale of belief in an unjust world.

It can be stated that teacher candidates generally responded to the items in the EBS at an “agree” level. Upon examining the arithmetic mean scores obtained by the teacher candidates from the sub-scales of EB, it can be seen that the highest mean score is related to the belief that learning depends on effort. In this context, it can be stated that teacher candidates have an underdeveloped/immature EB on the sub-scale of the belief that learning depends on effort.

3.2. Results Related to the Second Sub-Problem

The results of the independent samples t-test administered to determine whether there were differences in the mean scores of teacher candidates on the LOC scale and its sub-scales, as well as the EB scale and its sub-scales, regarding the gender variable are presented in

Table 3. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ LOC Regarding Gender Variable.

Scale and Dimensions	Gender	N	X	SS	sd	t	p
Locus of Control	Male	158	3.22	0.36	548	−1.075	0.283
	Female	392	3.26	0.34
Individual Control	Male	158	3.18	0.62	548	0.216	0.829
	Female	392	3.17	0.60
Belief in Chance	Male	158	3.13	0.48	548	−0.854	0.393
	Female	392	3.17	0.47
Meaninglessness of the Effortfulness	Male	158	3.40	0.49	548	−0.805	0.421
	Female	392	3.44	0.48
Belief in Fate	Male	158	2.92	0.87	548	1.377	0.169
	Female	392	2.81	0.78
Belief in an Unjust World	Male	158	3.42	0.71	548	−4.259	0.000 *
	Female	392	3.71	0.70

* p < 0.05.

and

Table 4. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ Epistemological Beliefs (EB) Regarding Gender Variable.

Scale and Dimensions	Gender	N	X	SS	sd	t	p
Epistemological Belief	Male	158	3.76	0.30	548	−4.116	0.000 *
	Female	392	3.89	0.31
Belief that Learning Depends on Effort	Male	158	3.99	0.35	548	−2.930	0.004 *
	Female	392	4.08	0.35
Belief that Learning Depends on Talent	Male	158	3.57	0.58	548	−3.100	0.002 *
	Female	392	3.73	0.55
Belief that There is Only One Correct Knowledge	Male	158	3.49	0.43	548	−3.091	0.002 *
	Female	392	3.62	0.42

* p < 0.05.

.

Upon examining Table 3, it can be observed that a significant difference was observed in the sub-scale of the belief in an unjust world of the LOC scale. It was observed that female teacher candidates had higher mean scores in the sub-scales of belief in chance, meaninglessness of effortfulness, and belief in an unjust world. Thus, it can be stated that female teacher candidates a had higher external LOC.

Upon examining Table 4, it can be observed that there was a significant difference based on the gender variable in the teacher candidates’ mean scores in the EBS. It was determined that female teacher candidates had higher arithmetic means from the EBS and its sub-scales. Therefore, female teacher candidates had underdeveloped/immature EB.

3.3. Results Related to the Third Sub-Problem

The results of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) applied to determine whether there were differences in the mean scores of teacher candidates on the LOC scale and its sub-scales, as well as the epistemological belief scale and its sub-scales, regarding the variable of parents’ educational levels are presented in

Table 5. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ LOC Regarding Mother’s Educational Level.

Dimension	Educational Level	N	X	Source of Variation	Total Sum of Squares	sd	Mean Square	F	p
Locus of Control	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.27 3.27 3.23 3.25 2.95 3.13 3.23 3.25	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.965 66.240 67.205	6 543 549	0.161 0.122	1.318	0.247
Individual Control	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.15 3.20 3.16 3.18 2.75 3.01 2.97 3.17	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1.990 204.888 206.878	6 543 549	0.332 0.377	0.879	0.510
Belief in Chance	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.23 3.18 3.10 3.16 2.71 3.11 3.34 3.15	Intergroup Intragroup Total	2.295 123.745 126.040	6 543 549	0.383 0.228	1.679	0.124
Meaninglessness of the Effortfulness	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.48 3.43 3.41 3.44 3.35 3.34 3.55 3.43	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.521 129.501 130.021	6 543 549	0.087 0.238	0.364	0.902
Belief in Fate	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	2.92 2.88 2.82 2.71 3.27 2.75 3.41 2.84	Intergroup Intragroup Total	5.093 356.048 361.141	6 543 549	0.849 0.656	1.295	0.258
Belief in an Unjust World	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.61 3.63 3.67 3.64 3.26 3.44 3.25 3.62	Intergroup Intragroup Total	2.408 282.830 285.238	6 543 549	0.401 0.521	0.771	0.593

,

Table 6. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ EB Regarding Mother’s Educational Level.

Dimension	Educational Level	N	X	Source of Variation	Total Sum of Squares	sd	Mean Square	F	p
Epistemological Belief	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.87 3.82 3.88 3.88 3.67 3.82 3.77 3.85	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.650 54.700 55.350	6 543 549	0.108 0.101	1.075	0.376
Belief that Learning Depends on Effort	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	4.04 4.05 4.08 4.07 3.91 3.97 3.94 4.06	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.493 69.097 69.590	6 543 549	0.082 0.127	0.646	0.693
Belief that Learning Depends on Talent	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.77 3.63 3.68 3.79 3.42 3.65 3.88 3.68	Intergroup Intragroup Total	2.907 176.059 178.965	6 543 549	0.484 0.324	1.494	0.178
Belief that There is only one Correct Knowledge	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	58 234 130 98 6 20 4 550	3.63 3.55 3.64 3.56 3.39 3.68 3.28 3.58	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1,710 101.444 103.154	6 543 549	0.285 0.187	1.525	0.167

,

Table 7. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ LOC Regarding Father’s Educational Level.

Dimension	Educational Level	N	X	Source of Variation	Total Sum of Squares	sd	Mean Square	F	p
Locus of Control	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.32 3.22 3.31 3.24 3.17 3.19 3.34 3.25	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1.222 65.982 67.205	6 543 549	0.204 0.122	1.677	0.124
Individual Control	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.33 3.12 3.28 3.14 2.90 3.16 3.24 3.17	Intergroup Intragroup Total	4.357 202.521 206.878	6 543 549	0.726 0.373	1.947	0.071
Belief in Chance	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.27 3.11 3.19 3.16 3.16 3.11 3.27 3.15	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.924 125.116 126.040	6 543 549	0.154 0.230	0.668	0.675
Meaninglessness of the Effortfulness	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.42 3.43 3.45 3.42 3.48 3.34 3.48 3.43	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.621 129.400 130.021	6 543 549	0.103 0.238	0.434	0.856
Belief in Fate	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	2.26 2.87 2.83 2.86 2.73 2.64 3.25 2.84	Intergroup Intragroup Total	6.821 354.321 361.141	6 543 549	1.134 0.653	1.742	0.109
Belief in an Unjust World	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.30 3.58 3.67 3.64 3.83 3.52 3.66 3.62	Intergroup Intragroup Total	3.348 281.890 285.238	6 543 549	0.558 0.519	1.075	0.376

and

Table 8. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ Epistemological beliefs (EB) Regarding Father’s Educational Level.

Dimension	Educational Level	N	X	Source of Variation	Total Sum of Squares	sd	Mean Square	F	p
Epistemological Belief	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.80 3.88 3.85 3.82 3.86 3.87 3.76 3.85	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.358 54.993 55.350	6 543 549	0.060 0.101	0.589	0.739
Belief that Learning Depends on Effort	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.88 4.09 4.04 4.05 4.00 4.06 4.00 4.06	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.647 68.943 69.590	6 543 549	0.108 0.127	0.850	0.532
Belief that Learning Depends on Talent	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.71 3.69 3.69 3.61 3.86 3.73 3.68 3.68	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1.563 177.403 178.965	6 543 549	0.260 0.327	0.797	0.572
Belief that There is only one Correct Knowledge	Unable to read or write Elementary School Secondary School High School Associate degree Undergraduate degree Graduate degree Total	10 166 157 123 24 57 13 550	3.71 3.61 3.58 3.55 3.58 3.60 3.31 3.58	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1.371 101.782 103.154	6 543 549	0.229 0.187	1.219	0.295

.

Upon examining Table 5, Table 6, Table 7 and Table 8, it can be observed that there was no significant difference in terms of the teacher candidates’ mean scores in the LOC scale and its sub-scales, as well as the epistemological belief scale and its sub-scales, regarding the variable of parents’ educational level. The findings indicated that teacher candidates with different parental educational levels have similar levels of LOC and EB.

3.4. Results Related to the Fourth Sub-Problem

The results of the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) executed to determine whether there were differences in the mean scores of teacher candidates in the LOC scale and its sub-scales, as well as the EBS and its sub-scales, regarding the variable of grade levels are presented in

Table 9. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ Level of LOC Regarding the Variable of Grade Level.

Scale Dimensions	Grade Level	N	X	Source of Variation	Total Sum of Squares	sd	Mean Squares	F	p Difference
Locus of Control	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.26 3.26 3.20 3.27 3.25	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.443 66.762 67.205	3 546 549	0.148 0.122	1.207	0.307 -
Individual Control	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.09 3.20 3.16 3.22 3.17	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1.332 205.547 206.878	3 546 549	0.444 0.376	1.179	0.317 -
Belief in Chance	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.22 3.16 3.07 3.17 3.15	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1,398 124,642 126,040	3 546 549	0.466 0.228	2.041	0.107 -
Meaninglessness of the Effortfulness	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.45 3.41 3.40 3.45 3.43	Intergroup Intragroup Total	,213 129,808 130,021	3 546 549	0.071 0.238	0.299	0.826 -
Belief in Fate	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	2.94 2.80 2.88 2.77 2.84	Intergroup Intragroup Total	2,533 358,608 361,141	3 546 549	0.844 0.657	1.286	0.278 -
Belief in an Unjust World	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.75 3.70 3.39 3.64 3.62	Intergroup Intragroup Total	10.222 275.015 285.238	3 546 549	3.407 0.504	6.765	0.000 1 > 3

and

Table 10. Analysis of Teacher Candidates’ Epistemological beliefs (EB) Regarding the Variable of Grade Level.

Scale and Dimensions	Grade Level	N	X	Source of Variation	Total Sum of Squares	sd	Mean Squares	F	p
Epistemological Belief	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.84 3.86 3.85 3.85 3.85	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.026 55.325 55.350	3 546 549	0.009 0.101	0.084	0.969
Belief that Learning Depends on Effort	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	4.04 4.08 4.03 4.06 4.06	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.230 69.360 69.590	3 546 549	0.077 0.127	0.604	0.613
Belief that Learning Depends on Talent	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.66 3.68 3.67 3.72 3.68	Intergroup Intragroup Total	0.249 178.716 178.965	3 546 549	0.083 0.327	0.254	0.858
Belief that There is only one Correct Knowledge	1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year Total	133 158 130 129 550	3.61 3.56 3.64 3.51 3.58	Intergroup Intragroup Total	1.155 101.998 103.154	3 546 549	0.385 0.187	2.062	0.104

.

Upon examining Table 9, it can be seen that there was a significant difference in the teacher candidates’ mean scores from the sub-scale of the belief in an unjust world in the LOC scale regarding the variable of grade level. It was determined that the calculated effect size of the test was η² = 0.035. In order to identify the source of the significant difference, a test for homogeneity was applied, and it was found that the variances were equal (Sig. = 0.324 > 0.05). In this case, the results of the Scheffe test used to test multiple comparisons indicates that the significant difference in the mean scores of teacher candidates is due to the relationship between the first-year and third-year teacher candidates. It has been determined that first-year teacher candidates have higher arithmetic mean scores compared to third-year teacher candidates. Based on the findings, it can be stated that first-year teacher candidates have a higher level of external LOC compared to third-year teacher candidates.

Upon examining Table 10, it can be seen that there was no significant difference in the mean scores of pre-service teachers on the epistemological belief scale and its sub-scales regarding the grade level variable. The findings indicated that the EB of teacher candidates did not significantly differ according to the grade levels. In other words, it shows that teacher candidates from different grade levels have a similar level of EB.

3.5. Results Related to the Fifth Sub-Problem

The results of the Pearson correlation analysis applied to determine whether there was a relationship between the scores of pre-service teachers on the LOC scale and its sub-scales, as well as the epistemological belief scale and its sub-scales, are presented in

Table 11. Pearson Correlation Analysis of the Relationship between the Locus of Control (LOC) and Epistemological Beliefs (EB).

	X	Sd	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Locus of Control	3.25	0.34	1
2. Individual Control	3.17	0.61	0.72 **	1
3. Belief in Chance	3.15	0.47	0.68 **	0.24 **	1
4. Meaninglessness of the Effortfulness	3.43	0.48	0.58 **	0.06	0.36 **	1
5. Belief in Fate	2.84	0.81	0.10 *	−0.28 **	0.1 7 **	0.20 **	1
6. Belief in an Unjust World	3.62	0.72	0.47 **	−0.00	0.30 **	0.46 **	0.16 **	1
7. Epistemological Belief	3.85	0.31	0.35 **	0.30 **	0.17 **	0.18 **	−0.11 **	0.24 **	1
8. Belief that Learning Depends on Effort	4.06	0.35	0.26 **	0.23 **	0.11 **	0.16 **	−0.10 *	0.17 **	0.82 **	1
9. Belief that Learning Depends on Talent	3.68	0.57	0.34 **	0.27 **	0.20 **	0.17 **	−0.04	0.24 **	0.70 **	0.29 **	1
10. Belief that There is Only One Correct Knowledge	3.58	0.43	0.12 **	0.13 **	0.05	0.03	−0.10 *	0.10 *	0.63 **	0.36 **	0.23 **

** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.

.

The correlation relationship between the variables is shown in Table 11. When the findings were examined in terms of the LOC scale and its sub-scales, the following relationships were observed: There is a positive and high-level significant relationship between the dimension of locus of control and its sub-scale individual control; there is a positive and moderately significant relationship between the LOC dimension and the sub-scales of belief in chance and meaninglessness of the effortfulness, and there is a positive and weak significant relationship between the LOC dimension and the other sub-scales belief in fate and belief in an unjust world.

When the findings were examined in terms of EB and its sub-scales, the following relationships were identified: There is a positive and highly significant relationship between the EB and its sub-scales (the belief that learning depends on effort and belief that learning depends on talent) and there is a positive and moderately significant relationship between the epistemological belief and its sub-scale belief that there is only one correct knowledge.

When the findings were examined in terms of the relationship between the teacher candidates’ LOC and EB, a positive and weak significant relationship was found between the LOC and EB.

It was observed that there is a positive and very weak significant relationship between the LOC and the sub-scales of EB (the belief that learning depends on effort and the belief that there is only one correct knowledge (r = 0.12, p < 0.01)) and there is a positive and weak significant relationship between the LOC and the sub-scale of EB belief that learning depends on talent.

It was seen that there is a positive and weak significant relationship between the EB and the sub-scales of the LOC (individual control) and there is a positive and very weak significant relationship between EB and the sub-scales of the belief in chance, meaninglessness of the effortfulness, and an unjust world; however, there is a negative and very weak significant relationship between the EB and the sub-scale of belief in fate.

4. Discussion

The results of this research, which aimed to examine the LOC and EB of social studies teacher candidates, revealed the relationship between these two variables.

In this research, considering the sub-scale of the belief that learning depends on effort, it can be stated that teacher candidates have underdeveloped/immature EB. Yordamlı [29] found that social studies teacher candidates have a high level of EB, a high level of belief that learning depends on effort, and a low level of belief that learning depends on talent, but they have the lowest level of belief that there is only one correct knowledge. Yılmaz and Kaya [39], regarding students’ EB, found that their beliefs that learning depends on effort and learning depends on talent were moderately developed. However, their belief that there is only one correct knowledge was found to be less developed when compared to the other two subscales.

Consistent with our research findings, Demirtaş and Mutlu-Yener [62] observed that there was no significant difference in the teacher candidates’ LOC overall regarding gender. However, they determined that the teacher candidates’ perceptions regarding the sub-scales of LOC, including meaninglessness of the effortfulness and belief in an unjust world, significantly differed based on gender. In the same study, when looking at the arithmetic mean scores in the dimensions of meaninglessness of the effortfulness and belief in an unjust world, it was observed that female teacher candidates obtained lower scores than male teacher candidates. In this context, it can be concluded that female teacher candidates have a lower level of external LOC in terms of the dimensions of meaninglessness of the effortfulness and belief in an unjust world compared to male teacher candidates. Mohanty [16] concluded that there was no significant difference between the genders in the LOC scale. Garipağaoğlu and Güloğlu [63] found that the teacher candidates’ levels of LOC did not differ based on the gender variable. Kıralp, Şahin, and Dinçyürek [37] conducted a study and did not find any significant differences in students’ LOC based on their genders. However, it is noteworthy that the mean scores of female students regarding the LOC were higher than the mean scores of male students. Yeşilyaprak [64] found that there was no significant difference in terms of gender. Zembat et al. [65] found that the scores obtained by teacher candidates from the LOC Scale and its sub-scales did not show significant differences based on gender. Uğur [33] concluded that the students’ levels of LOC were below average. He also found that there were no differences in participants’ LOC levels based on gender. Eksterowicz [66] did not find any differences between genders in terms of LOC. In contrast to these studies, Joe [67] stated that gender differences influenced individuals’ beliefs about LOC.

Consistent with our research findings, Schommer [68] discussed students’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning, i.e., the development of their EB. Schommer found that girls exhibited more complex thinking in the dimension of the belief that learning depends on effort and that there was no significant difference between girls and boys in the dimension of the belief that there is only one correct knowledge. Additionally, Schommer stated that male students had stronger beliefs in the quick learning of knowledge compared to female students

Schommer [10] examined students’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and how these beliefs influenced comprehension, and, as a result, she found that knowledge depends on natural talent, simple knowledge, quick learning, and belief in certainty. Moreover, she stated that gender had a significant impact on these four epistemological factors. In other words, it was concluded that female students think in a less simple way than male students in terms of the belief that “learning depends on talent”. This study indicates that female students do not believe that learning depends on talent but rather believe that learning depends on effort.

Baydar [30] did not find statistically significant differences between male and female teacher candidates regarding their epistemological beliefs. Eroğlu and Güven [69] found that students’ EB differentiated based on the gender variable. However, they revealed that female students had higher beliefs that “learning depends on effort” compared to male students, while male students had higher beliefs that “learning depends on talent” when compared to female students. Similarly, Kaleci [70] determined that teacher candidates’ EB exhibited a significant difference in favor of female students in all sub-scales based on the gender variable. Öngen [42] conducted a study with education faculty students and the findings revealed that girls had a lower tendency to believe that learning depends on talent compared to boys. Kıralp, Şahin, and Dinçyürek [37] found that male students have more developed/advanced beliefs regarding that learning depends on effort and that learning depends on talent when compared to female students. However, Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk [12] determined that female students had more advanced EB regarding the belief that learning depends on talent. Aytaç [71] determined that female teacher candidates had more advanced EB compared to male teacher candidates. In addition, Mohamed [72] stated in his study that men are less sophisticated than women.

In contrast to these studies, İçen, İlğan, and Göker [27] stated that the beliefs of teacher candidates regarding the dimensions of “the source of knowledge is authority”, “learning is an innate ability”, “learning does not depend on effort”, and “knowledge is single and certain” did not differ regarding gender. Karabulut and Ulucan [21] found that there was no significant relationship between the gender variable and “scientific EB” of physical education teacher candidates. Yordamlı [29] found that there was no significant difference in the mean scores of effort and belief in only one correct knowledge based on gender. However, it was revealed that male teacher candidates had higher beliefs that learning depends on talent compared to female teacher candidates. In Tümkaya’s [73] study, the EB did not differ depending on the gender of the students.

Consistent with our research findings, Uğur [33] also found that there was no difference in terms of LOC and parents’ educational level.

Similar to the findings of our research, Kıralp, Şahin, and Dinçyürek [37] also found that there was no significant difference between the group means of EB based on the father’s educational level.

There have been studies in the literature that show differences in students’ EB based on the education levels of their parents. Schommer [68] explored the relationship between parents’ educational levels and students’ EB in her study. The study revealed that the students who believed that there is only one correct knowledge had parents with lower education levels; on the other hand, as parents’ educational levels increased, students were more likely to develop beliefs that learning depends on talent and that there is only one correct knowledge. This suggests that parental education can play a role in shaping students’ EB regarding the nature of knowledge and learning. Eroğlu and Güven [69] determined that university students had higher beliefs in the dimension of the belief that there is only one correct knowledge compared to the other two dimensions. In addition, the study revealed that students’ EB differed based on their fathers’ educational level.

Kıralp, Şahin, and Dinçyürek [37] found that there was a significant difference in the sub-scale of the epistemological belief that learning depends on effort regarding the educational level of mothers. There was a significant difference in favor of individuals with no literacy skills among university graduates when compared to those with no literacy skills; there was a significant difference in favor of middle school graduates when compared to elementary school graduates, high school graduates, and university graduates. However, there was no significant difference based on the father’s educational level.

Consistent with the results of our research, Başal et al. [74] found that the teacher candidates’ LOC did not differ according to the grade level. Similarly, Garipağaoğlu and Güloğlu [63] determined that teacher candidates’ LOC did not differ according to the grade level.

Consistent with the research findings, Paulsen and Wells [69] also did not find a statistically significant difference between the grade level and EB in their study carried out with university students. However, they observed that upper-level students had simple beliefs regarding the beliefs that learning depends on talent and there is only one correct knowledge. Öngen [42] revealed that there was no significant difference between the EB of education faculty students and different grade levels (first, second, third, and fourth year). However, he revealed that female students tended to have a lower tendency to believe that learning depends on talent compared to male students. Yordamlı [29] found that effort and ability mean scores did not significantly differ according to grade level. In addition, studies have confirmed that epistemological beliefs do not differ according to grade level [37], the three dimensions of EB do not develop based on grade level [12], and there is no significant difference in the belief that there is only one correct knowledge [70].

There are also studies in the literature that have indicated a differentiation of EB based on grade level. Schommer [68] examined the EB of university students in the fields of natural sciences and social sciences across different grade levels. The findings of the study indicated that students’ EB varied according to their grade levels and university students’ EB showed significant differences regarding the belief that learning depends on talent and belief that there is only one correct knowledge. Yılmaz and Kaya [39] found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the students’ grade levels and the dimensions of beliefs that learning depends on talent and that there is only one correct knowledge, while there was no significant difference regarding the belief that learning depends on effort. Tümkaya [73] found that two beliefs, one of which is that “learning depends on effort” and the other one is that “there is one unchanging truth”, differ, according to the grade levels. However, the belief that “learning depends on ability” does not differ. There have also been studies suggesting that students’ EB become more complex as their grade levels increase [69,75]. These studies indicate that there is a developmental progression in students’ EB, with beliefs about knowledge becoming more sophisticated over time. Perry carried out a study to reveal the intellectual and moral diversity of university students at Harvard University. Perry [69,76] examined the changes in knowledge-related beliefs of a group of students, mostly males, at Harvard University from their freshman year to their senior year and found that students’ EB matured/developed through their final year. Jehng et al. [75] examined the relationship between students’ grade level and their EB and found that EB varied according to the grade level, and they determined that, as the grade level increases, students tend to believe in the certainty of knowledge and perceive learning as an irregular process. Karabulut and Ulucan [21] found that there was a significant relationship between physical education teacher candidates’ “scientific EB” and the grade level variable. They observed that fourth-year students had higher mean scores on the Scientific EB Scale compared to first-year students. Kaleci [70] found significant differences between the groups in terms of beliefs that learning depends on effort and that learning depends on talent regarding the grade levels. However, he did not find significant differences in the belief that there is only one correct knowledge. Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk [12] found that the three dimensions of EB did not develop regarding grade levels. Aytaç [71] found that EB becomes more sophisticated as the grade level increases. Keskin and Aydın [77] observed that teacher candidates had higher levels of traditional EB based on the grade level variable. Yordamlı [29] found that students in their first year of university had a greater belief that there is only one correct knowledge compared to fourth-year students. Schommer [68] found that the EB of university students matured/developed more as their grade levels increased, but emphasized that this finding cannot be generalized to all university students.

When the relationship between the social studies teachers’ LOC and EB and their sub-scales is evaluated, it is observed that there is a weak but positive relationship between the LOC and EB and their sub-scales.

It can be stated that teacher candidates with higher EB tend to have a more internal LOC. It has been emphasized in the literature that there is a significant relationship between the EB and LOC and that individuals with internal LOC have more developed/advanced EB compared to those with an external LOC. Furthermore, it has been emphasized that individuals’ EB and LOC can be positively developed in the teaching and learning process [14,41,64].

Yılmaz and Kaya [39] determined the relationship between nursing students’ EB and LOC, they found that there was a very weak but positive relationship between the students’ LOC scale and the dimensions of beliefs that learning depends on effort and that learning depends on talent. However, they determined that there was no linear relationship between the students’ LOC scale and the belief that there is only one correct knowledge. The findings suggest that students’ EB regarding the belief that learning depends on effort and that learning depends on talent are moderately developed, thus indicating a tendency towards internal LOC.

Wilkinson and Schwartz [14,48] conducted two separate studies and found that there was a significant relationship between the university students’ EB, verbal ability levels, and LOC. In addition, they determined that individuals with advanced EB had higher verbal ability levels as well as higher internal LOC.

Deryakulu [38] conducted a study aiming to investigate whether there was a relationship between students’ LOC, EB, and the criteria they used to monitor their comprehension of information in printed instructional material regarding the program type and grade level. It was found that LOC had a significant differentiation in the level of monitoring comprehension, while EB and grade level had a significant differentiation in the type of monitoring comprehension.

5. Limitations and Future Directions

In this study, the data were obtained with quantitative data collection tools. Richer data can be obtained by using qualitative methods and data collection tools. Therefore, future researchers could study the relevant topic using mixed methods. This research was conducted with 550 teacher candidates. There is a need for carrying out research with larger sample sizes, comparing social studies teacher candidates to different groups of university students, and conducting further advanced studies in order to examine the relationship between the social studies teacher candidates’ EB and LOC. The fact that EB are influenced by cultural differences suggests that the observed differences in research may stem from cultural factors. Additionally, it is considered that factors such as the psychological, sociological, economic, and geographical characteristics of families can be influential. Therefore, it is suggested that researchers should examine individuals’ family structures in relation to different dimensions in future studies. When looking at studies, it can be observed that teacher candidates’ EB yield different results depending on the grade level variable. Thus, longitudinal studies can be conducted to determine the underlying reasons for this difference by examining both the LOC and EB of teacher candidates considering the grade level variable.

6. Conclusions

It has been concluded that the EB of social studies teacher candidates in Turkey are generally underdeveloped and their LOC is externally controlled. Therefore, in the education process, efforts should be made to develop the EB and LOC of social studies teacher candidates in Turkey.