Characteristics of Selected Silphium Species as Alternative Plants for Cultivation and Industry with Particular Emphasis on Research Conducted in Poland: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
- anatomical and morphological features of selected Silphium species,
- biomass productivity in various geographic locations,
- chemical composition with division into primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and minerals,
- multidirectional utility values of Silphium species biomass.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Genus Silphium L.
3.1.1. Description of Selected Silphium Species
Blooming
Seeds
3.1.2. Anatomy
3.1.3. Cultivation
3.1.4. Yields and Dry Matter (DM) Content
3.2. Chemical Composition
3.2.1. Carbohydrates
3.2.2. Protein and Amino Acids
3.2.3. Fat
3.2.4. L-Ascorbic Acid
3.2.5. Chlorophyll
3.2.6. Mineral Substances: Ash
3.2.7. Phenolic Acids
3.2.8. Tannins
3.2.9. Flavonoids
3.2.10. Carotenoids
3.2.11. Volatile Components (Essential Oil, Volatile Components of Extracts)
3.2.12. Saponins
3.3. Biological Activity
3.3.1. Historical Medicinal Applications
3.3.2. Research on Biological Activity In Vivo
3.3.3. Research on Biological Activity In Vitro
Experiments on Cancer Cells, against the HIV Virus, and Immunosuppressant Activity
Research in Relation to Fungus- and Bacterium-Caused Diseases of Humans and Animals
Research in Relation to Fungus-Caused Plant Diseases
3.3.4. The Effect of Triterpene Glycosides on Seed Germination and Catalase Activity
3.3.5. Extracts from Silphium as Additives Inhibiting Unfavorable Changes in Fats
3.3.6. Antioxidant Properties of Extracts from Silphium
3.3.7. Application in Animal Feeding
3.3.8. Ornamental Plant and Honeybee Forage
3.3.9. Application for Soil Remediation
3.3.10. Application as an Energy Crop
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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No | Species | Botanical Varieties | Synonyms | Common Name | Natural Occurence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Silphium albiflorum Gray | – * | – | White Rosinweed | |
2 | Silphium asteriscus L. | var. angustatum Gray var.asteriscus var. laevicaule DC | Silphium angustum (Gray) Small, Silphium dentatum var. angustatum (Gray) Perry Silphium asteriscus var. scabrum Nutt. Silphium asteriscus var. dentata (Ell.) Chapman, Silphium dentatum Ell., Silphium elliottii Small, Silphium incisum Greene, Silphium nodum Small | Starry Rosinweed | |
3 | Silphium brachiatum Gattinger | – | – | Cumberland Rosinweed | |
4 | Silphium compositum Michx. | var. compositum var. ovatifolium Torr. & Gray var. reniforme (Raf. ex Nutt.) Torr. & Gray var. venosum (Small) Kartesz & Gandhi | Silphium orae Small Silphium compositum ssp. ovatifolium (Torr. & Gray) Sweeny & T.R. Fisher, Silphium ovatifolium (Torr. & Gray) Small Silphium compositum ssp. reniforme (Raf. ex Nutt.) Sweeny & T.R. Fisher, Silphium reniforme Raf. ex Nutt., Silphium terebinthinaceum Ell. Silphium compositum ssp. venosum (Small) Sweeny & T.R. Fisher, Silphium lapsuum Small; Silphium venosum Small | Kidney-Leaf Rosinweed | |
5 | Silphium gracile Gray | – | Silphium simpsonii var. wrightii Perry | Slender Rosinweed | |
6 | Silphium integrifolium Michx. | var. deamii Perry var. gattingeri Perry var. integrifolium var. laeve Torr. & Gray var. neglectum Settle & T.R. Fisher | – – Silphium laevigatum Pursh Silphium speciosum Nutt. – – | Entire-Leaf Rosinweed | |
7 | Silphium laciniatum L. | var. laciniatum var. robinsonii Perry | – – | Compassplant Mohr’s Rosinweed | |
8 | Silphium mohrii Small | – | – | * | |
9 | Silphium perfoliatum L. | var. connatum (L.) Cronq. var. perfoliatum | Silphium connatum L., Silphium perfoliatum ssp. connatum (L.) Cruden, Silphium scabrum Moench | Cup Plant | |
10 | Silphium pinnatifidum Ell. | – | Silphium chickamaugense Canby, Silphium terebinthinaceum var. pinnatifidum (Ell.) Gray | Tansy Rosinweed | * |
11 | Silphium radula Nutt. | – | Silphium asperrimum Hook., Silphium dentatum var. gatesii (C. Mohr) Ahles, Silphium gatesii C. Mohr | Rough-Stem Rosinweed | |
12 | Silphium reverchonii Bush | – | – | Reverchon’s Rosinweed | * |
13 | Silphium scaberrimum Ell. | – | – | Rough-Leaf Rosinweed | * |
14 | Silphium simpsonii Greene | – | – | Simpson’s Rosinweed | * |
15 | Silphium terebinthinaceum Jacq. | var. luciae–brauniae Steyermark var. terebinthinaceum | Silphium rumicifolium Small | Prairie Rosinweed | |
16 | Silphium trifoliatum L. | var. latifolium Gray var. trifoliatum | Silphium confertifolium Small; Silphium glabrum Eggert ex Small Silphium atropurpureum Retz. ex Willd., Silphium laevigatum Ell. | Whorled Rosinweed | |
17 | Silphium wasiotense M. Medley | – | – | Appalachian Rosinweed | * |
Yields [t DM/ha] | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|
Phase of Spring Re-Growth | Budding Phase | Blooming Phase | |
S. perfoliatum | |||
2.9 | 36.6 | [7] | |
5.4–24.7 | 8.0–32.9 | 27.7–36.6 | [59,74,80] |
7.7–23.0 * | [19,56,57] | ||
9.6–22.3 | [28] | ||
19.1–20.6 | [81] | ||
8.8–17.6 | [82] | ||
14–19 | [83] | ||
20.5–22.4 | [84] | ||
10.8–16.1 | [85] | ||
9.3–18.1 | [86] | ||
4.5–8.5 | [87] | ||
7.4–10.8 | [88] | ||
9.5–26.6 | [89] | ||
11.5–22 | [87] | ||
17.3–27.8 | [90] | ||
12.7–23.3 | [91] | ||
13–18 | [92] | ||
11.7 –16.8 | [23] | ||
13.4–21.7 | [81] | ||
11.4–21.9 | [87] | ||
10.8–14.3 | [93] | ||
11.5 | [94] | ||
13.5 | [95] | ||
15.4 | [96] | ||
11.2 | [97] | ||
15.4 | [96] | ||
S. trifoliatum | |||
2.4 | 28.8 | [26] | |
S. integrifolium | |||
2.2 | 19.8 | [27] |
Phenolic Acid | Content of Phenolic Acids (mg/100 g DM) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leaves | Inflorescences | Rhizomes | |||||||
FPA | AH | BH | FPA | AH | BH | FPA | AH | BH | |
S. perfoliatum | |||||||||
Hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) | |||||||||
Caffeic | 2.20–3.09 | 0.18–0.26 | 9.47–12.87 | 2.57 | 0.30 | 13.22 | 4.21 | 1.06 | 12.67 |
p-Coumaric | 0.35–0.48 | – | 1.01–1.74 | 0.09 | – | 0.17 | 0.48 | – | – |
Ferulic | – | – | – | 0.33 | – | 0.13 | 0.19 | – | – |
Σ HCAs | 2.55–3.57 | 0.18–0.26 | 11.21–13.88 | 2.98 | 0.30 | 13.52 | 4.87 | 1.06 | 12.67 |
Hydroxybenzoic acids (HBAs) | |||||||||
Protocatechuic | 1.54–2.16 | 0.35–0.44 | 0.53–1.26 | 2.13 | 0.83 | 0.91 | 0.15 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
p-Hydroxybenzoic | 0.83–1.11 | – | – | 1.35 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.14 | – | – |
Vanilic | 0.77–1.09 | – | – | 1.22 | 0.13 | – | – | – | – |
Σ HBAs | 3.14–4.36 | 0.35–0.44 | 0.53–1.26 | 4.70 | 1.13 | 1.09 | 0.29 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
Depsides (Ds) | |||||||||
Chlorogenic | – | 0.18 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Σ Ds | – | 0.18 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Σ (HCAs + HBAs + Ds) | 5.69–7.93 | 0.61–0.79 | 12.47–14.41 | 7.68 | 1.43 | 14.61 | 5.16 | 1.11 | 12.72 |
S. trifoliatum | |||||||||
Hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) | |||||||||
Caffeic | 0.97–3.96 | 0.78–1.12 | 2.33–9.44 | 1.21–5.84 | – | 15.99–35.88 | 1.53–1.54 | 0.08–0.54 | 6.46–6.76 |
p-Coumaric | 0.14–0.37 | – | 0.12–1.35 | 0.15–0.21 | – | 0.13–0.31 | 0.25–1.31 | – | – |
Ferulic | 0.01–0.05 | – | – | 0.28–0.54 | – | 0.09–0.10 | – | – | – |
Σ HCAs | 1.17–4.383 | 0.78–1.12 | 2.45–10.79 | 1.97–6.27 | – | 16.21–36.29 | 1.79–2.84 | 0.08–0.54 | 6.46–6.76 |
Hydroxybenzoic acids (HBAs) | |||||||||
Protocatechuic | 0.22–1.65 | 0.50–1.61 | 0.01–1.09 | 1.97–6.86 | 1.23–5.27 | 1.23–2.18 | 0.16–039 | 0.01 | – |
p-Hydroxybenzoic | 0.48–0.89 | – | – | 1.79–2.08 | 0.12–0.20 | – | 0.07–0.09 | – | – |
Vanilic | – | – | – | 1.86–1.87 | 0.30–0.31 | – | – | – | – |
Salicylic | 0.82–0.96 | – | – | 1.28–4.81 | – | – | – | – | – |
Σ HBAs | 1.49–3.09 | 0.50–1.61 | 0.01–1.09 | 7.20–15.32 | 1.74–6.14 | 1.23–2.18 | 0.23–0.48 | 0.01 | – |
Σ (HCAs + HBAs) | 2.73–7.02 | 1.28–2.47 | 2.54–11.88 | 13.47–17.29 | 1.74–6.14 | 18.39–37.52 | 2.02–3.32 | 0.09–0.55 | 6.46–6.76 |
S. integrifolium | |||||||||
Hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs) | |||||||||
Caffeic | 0.41–1.95 | 1.21–2.04 | 1.24–6.27 | 2.38–2.49 | 1.52–1.70 | 18.14–23.80 | 1.70–1.96 | – | 3.50–4.43 |
p-Coumaric | 0.35–0.76 | – | 0.64–1.47 | 0.57–2.00 | – | 1.00–1.24 | 0.09–0.28 | – | – |
Ferulic | 0.01–0.04 | 0.01–0.04 | 0.01–0.27 | 0.88–1.04 | – | 0.22–1.18 | 0.43–0.59 | – | – |
Σ HCAs | 0.77–2.72 | 1.21–2.08 | 1.97–8.01 | 3.83–5.53 | 1.52–1.70 | 19.36–26.22 | 2.22–2.83 | – | 3.50–4.43 |
Hydroxybenzoic acids (HBAs) | |||||||||
Protocatechuic | 5.44–13.04 | 3.97–9.22 | 1.73–6.56 | 4.31–6.22 | 3.58–4.03 | 2.83–3.09 | 0.17–0.27 | – | 0.12–0.17 |
p-Hydroxybenzoic | 0.40–0.87 | 0.17–0.40 | 0.08–0.48 | 1.21–2.20 | 0.52–0.87 | 0.65–0.72 | 0.09–0.14 | – | – |
Vanilic | 0.29–0.87 | – | – | 1.36–3.30 | 1.03–1.41 | – | 0.26 | – | – |
Σ HBAs | 6.19–14.50 | 4.14–9.62 | 1.81–7.04 | 6.88–11.72 | 5.13–6.31 | 3.55–3.74 | 0.41 | – | 0.12–0.17 |
Σ (HCAs + HBAs) | 6.96–17.22 | 5.49–11.64 | 3.85–13.30 | 10.71–17.25 | 6.83–7.83 | 23.10–29.77 | 2.48–3.24 | – | 3.62–4.60 |
Benzoic Acids | |
p-Hydroxybenzoic Protocatechuic Isovanilic Gallic Ellagic | S. compositum, S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. perfoliatum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. radula, S. morhii, S. brachiatum, S. asteriscus |
Vanilic | S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. perfoliatum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. radula, S. morhii, S. asteriscus |
Syringic | S. compositum, S. laciniatum, S. perfoliatum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. radula, S. morhii, S. asteriscus |
Salicylic | S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. perfoliatum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. radula, S. morhii, S. brachiatum, S. asteriscus |
Cinnamic acids | |
Chlorogenic, Rosmarinic | S. compositum, S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. perfoliatum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. radula, S. morhii, S. brachiatum, S. asteriscus |
p-Coumaric | S. compositum, S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. perfoliatum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. morhii, S. brachiatum, S. asteriscus |
Caffeic | S. compositum, S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. wasiotense, S. radula, S. morhii, S. brachiatum, S. asteriscus |
Hydrocaffeic | S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. perfoliatum, S. integrifolium, S. radula, S. brachiatum, S. asteriscus |
Ferulic | S. laciniatum, S. morhii |
Isoferulic | S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum |
m-Coumaric | S. terebinthinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. abliflorum, S. wasiotense, S. integrifolium, S. morhii |
Flavonoids Detected in Leaf Extracts | COM * | TER | LAC | ALB | PER | WAS | INT | RAD | MOR | BRA | AST |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Silphium Section Composita | Silphium Section Silphium | ||||||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–β–D–glucopyranoside | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–β–D–galactopyranoside | + | + | + | ||||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–robinobioside | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–rutinoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | ||||
Kaempferol 3–O–β–D–apioside | + | + | |||||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–β–L–apiosyl–(1″″→6″′)–O–β–D–glucopyranoside | + | ||||||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–β–D–apiofuranoside 7–O–α–L–rhamnosyl (1″″→6″′)–O–β–D–galactopyranoside | + | + | + | + | |||||||
Kaempferol 3–O–β–D–apiofuranoside 7–O–α–L–rhamnosyl (1″″→6″′)–O–β–D (2″′–O–E–caffeoylgalactopyranoside) | + | + | + | ||||||||
Quercetin 3–O–β–D–glucopyranoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | ||||
Quercetin 3–O–β–D–galactopyranoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + |
Quercetin 3–O–robinobioside | + | + | + | + | |||||||
Quercetin 3–O–rutinoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | |||||
Quercetin 3–O–β–D–apioside | + | ||||||||||
Quercetin 3–O–α–L–rhamnosyl (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–glucoside | + | + | |||||||||
Quercetin 3–O–α–L–rhamnosyl (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–galactoside | + | + | |||||||||
Quercetin 3–O–α–D–rhamnosyl 7–O–β–L–apiofuranoside | + | ||||||||||
Quercetin 3–O–α–L–rhamnosyl (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–galactopyranoside 7–O–β–L–apiofuranoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | |||||
Quercetin 3–O–β–L–galactosyl (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–rhamnopyranoside 7–O–α–L–apiofuranoside | + | ||||||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–β–D–glucopyranoside | + | + | + | + | |||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–β–D–galactopyranoside | + | + | + | ||||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–robinobioside | + | + | + | ||||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–rutinoside | + | + | |||||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–α–L–rha (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–galactoside | + | + | + | ||||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–α–L–rha (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–glucoside | + | + | |||||||||
Isorhamnetin 3–O–α–L–rhamnosyl (1′″→6″)–O–β–D–galactopyranoside 7–O–β–L–apiofuranoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | ||||
Total number of flavonoids detected in leaf extracts | 5 | 9 | 8 | 10 | 9 | 7 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 4 | 13 |
Flavonoids Content (% DM) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Plant development stage | |||
Leaves of 1-year-old plants | |||
S. perfoliatum | S. trifoliatum | S. integrifolium | |
Leaf rosette | 0.58 | 0.64 | 0.80 |
Leaves of 2-year-old plants | |||
Spring re-growth | 0.89 | 0.87 | 1.19 |
Flower buds | 0.94 | 0.88 | 1.04 |
Beginning of flowering | 0.85 | 0.79 | 1.02 |
Full flowering and fructification | 0.80 | 0.72 | 0.95 |
Inflorescences of 2-year-old plants | |||
Beginning of flowering | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.32 |
Full flowering and fructification | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.32 |
Rhizomes of 2-year-old plants | |||
Fructification | tr. | tr. | tr. |
Oleanolic Acid/Oleanosides Content (% DM) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Plant development stage | |||
Leaves of 1-year-old plants | |||
S. perfoliatum | S. trifoliatum | S. integrifolium | |
Leaf rosette | 1.27/2.46 | 1.21/2.34 | 1.18/2.28 |
Leaves of 2-year-old plants | |||
Spring re-growth | 3.02/5.82 | 3.10/6.02 | 2.06/3.99 |
Flower buds | 1.58/3.04 | 1.82/3.52 | 1.80/3.49 |
Beginning of flowering | 1.80/3.48 | 1.54/2.99 | 1.76/3.4 |
Full flowering and fructification | 1.61/3.11 | 1.39/2.69 | 1.32/2.56 |
Inflorescences of 2-year-old plants | |||
Beginning of flowering | 1.94/3.75 | 0.95/1.84 | 2.39/4.64 |
Full flowering and fructification | 1.98/3.82 | 0.93/1.81 | 2.34/4.54 |
Rhizomes of 2-year-old plants | |||
Fructification | 0.91/1.75 | 0.97/1.88 | 1.25/2.42 |
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Kowalska, G.; Baj, T.; Kowalski, R.; Hanif, M.A. Characteristics of Selected Silphium Species as Alternative Plants for Cultivation and Industry with Particular Emphasis on Research Conducted in Poland: A Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095092
Kowalska G, Baj T, Kowalski R, Hanif MA. Characteristics of Selected Silphium Species as Alternative Plants for Cultivation and Industry with Particular Emphasis on Research Conducted in Poland: A Review. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095092
Chicago/Turabian StyleKowalska, Grażyna, Tomasz Baj, Radosław Kowalski, and Muhammad Asif Hanif. 2022. "Characteristics of Selected Silphium Species as Alternative Plants for Cultivation and Industry with Particular Emphasis on Research Conducted in Poland: A Review" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5092. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095092