Heterogeneous Catalyzed Biodiesel Production Using Cosolvent: A Mini Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Techniques for Heterogeneous Catalyst Synthesis
3. Heterogeneous Catalyzed Biodiesel Generation Using Cosolvents
Catalyst | Catalyst Preparation | Feedstock | Cosolvent | Reaction Parameters (MeOH/O, Catalyst wt. %, Time, Temperature, Cosolvent) | Yield | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CaO as heterogeneous catalyst | The catalyst was synthesized from waste snail shells via calcination for the specific time and temperature. | Soybean oil | Acetone | 6, 3, 120, 28, 20 wt. % of oil | Y = 98 | [31] |
River snail shells-derived CaO | The biomaterial was scrubbed with water and dried followed by grinding, sieving and calcination at various temperatures (600–1000 °C) for 3 h. | Palm oil | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 12, 5, 90, 65, 10% v/v (THF in methanol) | Y = 98.5 ± 1.5 | [67] |
Scalable imidazolium salts-based solid acid | 1,3-disulfonic acid imidazolium chloride and anhydrous ferric chloride were used to prepare the 1,3-disulfonic acid imidazolium tetrachloroferrate. | Firmiana platanifolia oil | Biomass-derived tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 15, 5, 480, 120, 48.8 mmol THF | Y = 97 | [68] |
Calcium aluminium oxide catalyst | Solid state technique was applied for the synthesis of calcium aluminium oxide using CaCO3 and Al2O3 calcined at 900 °C. | Waste vegetable oil | Acetone | 6, 1.2, 25, 55, 20 wt. % of acetone | C = 97.98 | [55] |
OH-impregnated CaO as heterogeneous catalyst | OH-impregnated CaO was synthesized by wet impregnation method | Refined coconut oil | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 6, 5, 10, 60, 0.58 mol% of oil | C = 81.70 | [59] |
Strontium lanthanum mixed metal oxide | Co-precipitation method was used to prepare strontium lanthanum mixed metal oxide | Schleichera oleosa oil | Di-isopropyl ether (DPE) | 14, 1.5, 40, 60, cosolvent to alcohol molar ratio, 1/1 | C = 96.37 | [56] |
SO4−2/SnO2–SiO2 (solid acid catalyst) | Sulfated tin oxide carried with silica was synthesized as per method reported by Lam et al. [30] | Waste cooking oil | Biodiesel | 15, 6, 90, 150, biodiesel as cosolvent | Y = 88.2 | [69] |
Na/NaOH/γ-Al2O3 heterogeneous base catalyst | The successive processing of γ-Al2O3 with sodium hydroxide and sodium at 320 °C under nitrogen was carried out to prepare the Na/NaOH/γ-Al2O3 catalyst accompanied by the technique suggested by Suzukamo et al. [70]. | Soybean oil | n-hexane | 9, 1 g, 120, 60, 5:1 (oil to n-hexane molar ratio) | Y = 94 | [71] |
Mg–Fe mixed oxides | Hydrotalcite was used to prepare Mg–Fe mixed oxides through calcination for 3 h | Rapeseed oil | Butanol | 24, 1, 240, 120, methanol and butanol at a molar ratio of 1/1 | C = 97.5 | [29] |
Limescale (kettle limescale deposit) | The catalyst was synthesized from kettle limescale deposit after crushing, grinding and sieving followed by oven drying. Subsequently, the catalyst was calcined at 900 °C. | Waste cooking oil | Acetone | 2.15/5 (v/v), 7.875, 12.5, 60, acetone concentration (pure oil-based) of 13.95 wt. % | C = 97.16 | [72] |
Calcium oxide (CaO) derived from eggshell | The eggshell material was heat-treated at designated temperature of 800 °C in air for 3 h to generate CaO materials | Palm oil | Acetone | 12, 13, 600, 75 ± 2, 10% v/v of acetone | Y = 97.5 | [73] |
Mg–Al hydrotalcites | Hydrotalcites were synthesized by the co-precipitation technique | Canola oil. | Isopropyl alcohol | 6, 3, 540, 60, cosolvent content: 10 wt. % | C > 60 | [74] |
SrO doped SiO2 (SrO/SiO2) | The sol-gel approach was applied to prepare SrO-doped CaO and SrO-doped SiO2 catalysts | Refined olive oil | Hexane | 6, 5, 30, 45, hexane to olive oil (volume basis)/1/2 | Y > 90 | [75] |
Novel catalyst (β-tricalcium phosphate) | The catalyst was produced by the calcination of ground fish bones at various temperatures, ranging from 600 °C to 900 °C for 4 h | Karanja oil | Tetrahydrofuran | 10, 2.5, 90, 65, (THF): methanol 1:1 | Y = 97 | [58] |
Calcium-based catalysts | The scallop shells were calcined at 800 °C for 3 h to derive Ca-based catalysts | Mixture of 50 wt. % (soybean oil and non-edible beef tallow) | Acetone | 12, 5, 150, 65, (Vsolvent/V methanol = 0.36 | Y = 85.3 | [27] |
Modified ZrO2 | WO3–ZrO2 was produced through incipient wetness impregnation of sulfuric acid or ammonium meta tungstate over zirconium oxide (ZrO2), prepared via the precipitation technique | Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) | Toluene | 9, 0.5, 120, 80, 10% v/v | Y > 90 | [57] |
CaO | Calcined at 700 °C for 5 h and stored in oven. | Rapeseed oil | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 12, 2.5, 360, 60, THF (30.0 wt. %) | Y > 90 | [76] |
Calcium methoxide catalyst | The calcined quick lime powder was utilized to prepare calcium methoxide by reacting it with methanol at a specific temperature for 2 h | Waste cooking oil | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 11.6, 2.83, 100.14, 65, 8.65% v/v of THF in methanol concentration | C = 99.13 | [77] |
Sr–Al double oxides | The sol-gel citrate method was applied to prepare Sr–Al mixed oxides | Lard oil | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 5.5, 0.9, 45, 50, 5 wt. % THF | Y = 99.7 | [26] |
Quaternized polysulfone alkali-catalyzed membrane | The solvent evaporation phase inversion method was employed to synthesize a series of alkalized polysulfones APSF membrane. | Soybean oil | n-hexane | 10 g soybean oil/10 g methanol, 25 wt. % of soybean oil mass, 240, 60, 50 wt. % hexane as cosolvent | C = 95.3 | [78] |
Calcium methoxide | The quick lime was employed to make calcium methoxide catalyst | Palm stearin | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 9.39, 2.33, 102, 65, 9.07% v/v based on methanol of THF cosolvent | C = 98.23 | [79] |
Eggshell-derived catalyst | Calcined at 850 °C for 3 h | Jatropha oil | Acetone | 9, 7, 120, 65, 1:1 (acetone/oil) weight ratio | Y = 93 | [80] |
TiO2-supported ZnO catalyst | The catalyst was manufactured by the impregnation of titanium support with zinc nitrate accompanied by drying and calcination | WCO | Hexane | 18, 10, 60, 200, hexane to oil mole ratio of 1/1 | C > 90 | [28] |
Zeolite Y interchanged with CsCl | The zeolites Y411 and Y756 were treated with CsCl using 1 M and 0.5 M solutions. | Waste vegetable oil | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 80, 2.5, 270, 65, 10 wt. % concentration of cosolvent | Conversion increase = 9 to 18% | [81] |
CaO/scoria (a kind of ignition rock) | The wet impregnation technique and calcination were applied to prepare the catalyst | Waste cooking oil | n-hexane | 14.76, 12, 262, 59.7, n-hexane to oil volume ratio = 0.905/1 | C = 97.7 | [32] |
CaO | Anhydrous calcium oxide (99.99% purity) was procured | Soybean oil | Glymes | 430 μL/700μ L, 0.03g, 240, 60, 300μ L glyme | C = 99 | [82] |
CaO | The CaO catalyst was procured and activated using methanol | Soybean oil | Iso-propanol | 20, 30 mg, 6.5, 65, 14.5 wt. % | Y = 99 | [83] |
CaO as heterogeneous catalyst | CaO catalyst was procured and used | Linseed oil | Diethyl ether (DEE) | 9.48, 160 g CaO, 180, 30, DEE/methanol ratio of 1.19:1 (continuous mode) | Y = 98.08 | [84] |
Carbon based heterogeneous catalyst | The catalyst was synthesized using hydrothermal carbonization, sulfonation and combination of two. | Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) | Tetrahydrofuran (THF) | 6, 3, 180, 333K, THF: 0.2% of PFAD feedstock, ultrasonic assisted 120 W | C = 86 | [61] |
Calcined sodium silicate as heterogeneous catalyst | The sodium silicate was purchased, dehydrated and calcined in furnace | Refined soybean oil | Petrodiesel | 9, 3, 120, -, 10 wt. % of cosolvent, ultrasonic assisted 20 KHz | Y = 97 | [62] |
4. Optimization of Reaction Parameters for Heterogeneously Catalyzed Biodiesel Generation Using Cosolvents
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Khan, H.M.; Iqbal, T.; Yasin, S.; Irfan, M.; Abbas, M.M.; Veza, I.; Soudagar, M.E.M.; Abdelrahman, A.; Kalam, M.A. Heterogeneous Catalyzed Biodiesel Production Using Cosolvent: A Mini Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5062. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095062
Khan HM, Iqbal T, Yasin S, Irfan M, Abbas MM, Veza I, Soudagar MEM, Abdelrahman A, Kalam MA. Heterogeneous Catalyzed Biodiesel Production Using Cosolvent: A Mini Review. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5062. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095062
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Haris Mahmood, Tanveer Iqbal, Saima Yasin, Muhammad Irfan, Muhammad Mujtaba Abbas, Ibham Veza, Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar, Anas Abdelrahman, and Md. Abul Kalam. 2022. "Heterogeneous Catalyzed Biodiesel Production Using Cosolvent: A Mini Review" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5062. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095062