Will COVID-19 Boost Sustainable Tourism: Wishful Thinking or Reality?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. COVID-19 and Sustainable Tourism: Status of Research
3. Methodology of the Empirical Study for the Six Countries
4. Results
4.1. To Travel or Not in the First Pandemic Year of 2020
4.2. Destination Choice in 2020
4.3. Potential Influence of 2020 Holiday Trip on Future Traveling
Participant 24 (Norway): “Norwegian nature: Consider seeing more of your own country”.Participant 1075 (Germany): “Germany trip: will travel more locally” and “nature: Germany has great forests worth visiting”
Participant 296 (Italy): “Travel abroad: I want to travel abroad again”.Participant 439 (USA): “Masks on planes: Hopefully masks will become a thing of the past”.
Participant 2070 (USA): “Will bring hand sanitizer wherever I go”.Participant 748 (USA): “Traveling by plane: I’ll take extra precautions to maintain my distance from others”.
Participant 172 (Switzerland): “Shorter travel distances: no plane travel”.Participant 281 (Finland): “Mode of travel: Going on vacation with own car”.
Participant 452 (Finland): “Crowding in services: I want to travel outside the season times”.Participant 348 (Italy): “Contact with nature: will prefer mountains”.
Participant 53 (Norway): “Plan carefully: Plan more carefully in the future”.Participant 209 (Switzerland): “Buying tickets with refund option: not losing the money”.
Participant 365 (USA): “Staying at Airbnb: will stay here instead of hotel”.Participant 256 (Italy): “At sea: I want a house for myself”.
4.4. Travel Push Factors and Travel Behavior in 2020
4.5. Social Values and Travel Behavior in 2020
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
7. Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Eurostat EU Tourism Halved in 2020. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/ddn-20210315-2 (accessed on 29 November 2021).
- Zenker, S.; Kock, F. The coronavirus pandemic—A critical discussion of a tourism research agenda. Tour. Manag. 2020, 81, 104164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Galvani, A.; Lew, A.A.; Perez, M.S. COVID-19 is expanding global consciousness and the sustainability of travel and tourism. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 567–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, M.J. Does the COVID-19 outbreak mark the onset of a sustainable consumption transition? Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy 2020, 16, 1–3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Romagosa, F. The COVID-19 crisis: Opportunities for sustainable and proximity tourism. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 690–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Benjamin, S.; Dillette, A.; Alderman, D.H. “We can’t return to normal”: Committing to tourism equity in the post-pandemic age. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 476–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crossley, É. Ecological grief generates desire for environmental healing in tourism after COVID-19. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 536–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ioannides, D.; Gyimóthy, S. The COVID-19 crisis as an opportunity for escaping the unsustainable global tourism path. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 624–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hall, C.M.; Scott, D.; Gössling, S. Pandemics, transformations and tourism: Be careful what you wish for. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 577–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mackenzie, S.H.; Goodnow, J. Adventure in the Age of COVID-19: Embracing Microadventures and Locavism in a Post-Pandemic World. Leis. Sci. 2021, 43, 62–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goffman, E. In the wake of COVID-19, is glocalization our sustainability future? Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy 2020, 16, 48–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, J.; Kozak, M.; Yang, S.; Liu, F. COVID-19: Potential effects on Chinese citizens’ lifestyle and travel. Tour. Rev. 2020, 76, 74–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stankov, U.; Filimonau, V.; Vujičić, M.D. A mindful shift: An opportunity for mindfulness-driven tourism in a post-pandemic world. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 703–712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zwanka, R.J.; Buff, C. COVID-19 Generation: A Conceptual Framework of the Consumer Behavioral Shifts to Be Caused by the COVID-19 Pandemic. J. Int. Consum. Mark. 2021, 33, 58–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Haas, M.; Faber, R.; Hamersma, M. How COVID-19 and the Dutch ‘intelligent lockdown’ change activities, work and travel behaviour: Evidence from longitudinal data in the Netherlands. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 2020, 6, 100150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graham, A.; Kremarik, F.; Kruse, W. Attitudes of ageing passengers to air travel since the coronavirus pandemic. J. Air Transp. Manag. 2020, 87, 101865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peluso, A.M.; Pichierri, M. Effects of socio-demographics, sense of control, and uncertainty avoidability on post-COVID-19 vacation intention. Curr. Issues Tour. 2021, 24, 2755–2767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matiza, T. Post-COVID-19 crisis travel behaviour: Towards mitigating the effects of perceived risk. J. Tour. Futur. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shamshiripour, A.; Rahimi, E.; Shabanpour, R.; Mohammadian, A. How is COVID-19 reshaping activity-travel behavior? Evidence from a comprehensive survey in Chicago. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 2020, 7, 100216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pardo, C.; Ladeiras, A. Covid-19 “tourism in flight mode”: A lost opportunity to rethink tourism—towards a more sustainable and inclusive society. Worldw. Hosp. Tour. Themes 2020, 12, 671–678. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Connor, P.; Assaker, G. COVID-19’s effects on future pro-environmental traveler behavior: An empirical examination using norm activation, economic sacrifices, and risk perception theories. J. Sustain. Tour. 2021, 30, 89–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miao, L.; Im, J.; Fu, X.; Kim, H.; Zhang, Y.E. Proximal and distal post-COVID travel behavior. Ann. Tour. Res. 2021, 88, 103159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kane, B.; Zajchowski, C.A.; Allen, T.R.; McLeod, G.; Allen, N.H. Is it safer at the beach? Spatial and temporal analyses of beachgoer behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2021, 205, 105533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ram, Y.; Collins-Kreiner, N.; Gozansky, E.; Moscona, G.; Okon-Singer, H. Is there a COVID-19 vaccination effect? A three-wave cross-sectional study. Curr. Issues Tour. 2021, 25, 379–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- van Wee, B.; Witlox, F. COVID-19 and its long-term effects on activity participation and travel behaviour: A multiperspective view. J. Transp. Geogr. 2021, 95, 103144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lebrun, A.-M.; Corbel, R.; Bouchet, P. Impacts of Covid-19 on travel intention for summer 2020: A trend in proximity tourism mediated by an attitude towards Covid-19. Serv. Bus. 2021, 15, 1–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Del Chiappa, G.; Bregoli, I.; Atzeni, M. Uncovering knowledge on travel behaviour during COVID-19: A convergent parallel mixed-methods study in the context of Italy. Ital. J. Mark. 2021, 2021, 393–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scuttari, A.; Ferraretto, V.; Stawinoga, A.E.; Walder, M. Tourist and Viral Mobilities Intertwined: Clustering COVID-19-Driven Travel Behaviour of Rural Tourists in South Tyrol, Italy. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, I.-J.; Kim, J.; Kim, S.; Lee, J.C.; Giroux, M. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travelers’ preference for crowded versus non-crowded options. Tour. Manag. 2021, 87, 104398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molloy, J.; Schatzmann, T.; Schoeman, B.; Tchervenkov, C.; Hintermann, B.; Axhausen, K.W. Observed impacts of the Covid-19 first wave on travel behaviour in Switzerland based on a large GPS panel. Transp. Policy 2021, 104, 43–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmidt, K.; Sieverding, T.; Wallis, H.; Matthies, E. COVID-19—A window of opportunity for the transition toward sustainable mobility? Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 2021, 10, 100374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, F.M.; Charlton, S.G.; Lewis, I.; Nandavar, S. Commuting before and after COVID-19. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 2021, 11, 100423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cruise Lines International Association. State of the Cruise Industry Outlook 2021; CLIA UK&IRELAND: London, UK, 2021; p. 30. [Google Scholar]
- UNWTO (Ed.) UNWTO Briefing Note—Tourism and COVID-19, Issue 3. Understanding Domestic Tourism and Seizing Its Opportunities; World Tourism Organization (UNWTO): Madrid, Spain, 2020; ISBN 978-92-844-2211-1. [Google Scholar]
- UNWTO (Ed.) International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics, 2008; Studies in Methods Series M: New York, NY, USA, 2010; ISBN 978-92-1-161521-0. [Google Scholar]
- Venter, Z.S.; Barton, D.N.; Gundersen, V.; Figari, H.; Nowell, M.S. Back to nature: Norwegians sustain increased recreational use of urban green space months after the COVID-19 outbreak. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 214, 104175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Derks, J.; Giessen, L.; Winkel, G. COVID-19-induced visitor boom reveals the importance of forests as critical infrastructure. For. Policy Econ. 2020, 118, 102253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grima, N.; Corcoran, W.; Hill-James, C.; Langton, B.; Sommer, H.; Fisher, B. The importance of urban natural areas and urban ecosystem services during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0243344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geng, D.; Innes, J.; Wu, W.; Wang, G. Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on urban park visitation: A global analysis. J. For. Res. 2021, 32, 553–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sirakaya, E.; Woodside, A.G. Building and testing theories of decision making by travellers. Tour. Manag. 2005, 26, 815–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woodside, A.G.; Lysonski, S. A General Model of Traveler Destination Choice. J. Travel Res. 1989, 27, 8–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crouch, G.I.; Huybers, T.; Oppewal, H. Inferring Future Vacation Experience Preference from Past Vacation Choice: A Latent Class Analysis. J. Travel Res. 2014, 55, 574–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FUR First Results of Reiseanalyse|ReiseAnalyse 2021. Available online: https://reiseanalyse.de/first-results/ (accessed on 28 January 2022).
- Russell, J.A.; Ward, L.M.; Pratt, G. Affective Quality Attributed to Environments: A Factor Analytic Study. Environ. Behav. 1981, 13, 259–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hudson, S.; Ritchie, J.R.B. Cross-cultural tourist behavior: An analysis of tourist attitudes towards the environment. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 2001, 10, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bausch, T.; Schröder, T.; Tauber, V.; Lane, B. Sustainable Tourism: The Elephant in the Room. Sustainability 2021, 13, 8376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manfredo, M.J.; Driver, B.L.; Tarrant, M.A. Measuring Leisure Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of the Recreation Experience Preference Scales. J. Leis. Res. 1996, 28, 188–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oh, H.C.; Uysal, M.; Weaver, P.A. Product bundles and market segments based on travel motivations: A canonical correlation approach. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 1995, 14, 123–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Loker, L.E.; Perdue, R.R. A Benefit-based Segmentation of a Nonresident Summer Travel Market. J. Travel Res. 1992, 31, 30–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FUR. Abschlussbericht zu dem Forschungsvorhaben: Nachfrage für Nachhaltigen Tourismus im Rahmen der Reiseanalyse (Final Report on the Research Project: Demand for Sustainable Tourism in the Context of Travel Analysis; Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety); Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit (BMUB): Kiel, Germany, 2014; p. 77. [Google Scholar]
- Moscardo, G.; Morrison, A.M.; Pearce, P.; Lang, C.-T.; O’Leary, J.T. Understanding vacation destination choice through travel motivation and activities. J. Vacat. Mark. 1996, 2, 109–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schwartz, S.H. A Proposal for Measuring Value Orientations across Nations (Chap. 7). In European Social Survey Core Questionnaire Development; European Social Survey, City University London: London, UK, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, E.C.L.; Khoo-Lattimore, C.; Arcodia, C. A systematic literature review of risk and gender research in tourism. Tour. Manag. 2017, 58, 89–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Barber, S.J.; Kim, H. COVID-19 Worries and Behavior Changes in Older and Younger Men and Women. J. Gerontol. Ser. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 2021, 76, e17–e23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uğur, N.G.; Akbıyık, A. Impacts of COVID-19 on global tourism industry: A cross-regional comparison. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 2020, 36, 100744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FUR. Selected First Results of the 50th Reiseanalyse for the ITB 2020; FUR: Kiel, Germany, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Bundesamt für Statistik Reisen der Schweizer Wohnbevölkerung 2019|Publikation. (Federal Statistical Office Travel of the Swiss Resident Population 2019). Available online: https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/kataloge-datenbanken/publikationen.assetdetail.14816741.html (accessed on 22 December 2021).
- Eisenmann, C.; Nobis, C.; Kolarova, V.; Lenz, B.; Winkler, C. Transport mode use during the COVID-19 lockdown period in Germany: The car became more important, public transport lost ground. Transp. Policy 2021, 103, 60–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, I.M.; Ackerman, J.M. The Infectiousness of Crowds: Crowding Experiences Are Amplified by Pathogen Threats. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2019, 45, 120–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Corbisiero, F.; Monaco, S. Post-pandemic tourism resilience: Changes in Italians’ travel behavior and the possible responses of tourist cities. Worldw. Hosp. Tour. Themes 2021, 13, 401–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Plog, S. Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity: An update of a Cornell Quarterly classic. Cornell Hotel Restaur. Adm. Q. 2001, 42, 13–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bausch, T.; Gartner, W.C.; Ortanderl, F. How to Avoid a COVID-19 Research Paper Tsunami? A Tourism System Approach. J. Travel Res. 2021, 60, 467–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Authors | Focus of the Publication | Type | Date |
---|---|---|---|
Galvani et al. [3] | Potential impact related to sustainable tourism | E | 20 February |
Cohen [4] | Onset of sustainable consumption transition | E | 20 March |
Romagosa [5] | Potential impact on economy | E | 20 April |
Benjamin et al. [6] | Tourism equity in the post-pandemic age | E | 20 April |
Crossley [7] | Desire for environmental healing in tourism | E | 20 April |
Ioannides and Gymóthy [8] | Opportunity for change | E | 20 April |
Hall et al. [9] | Pandemics, transformations, and tourism | TRP/E | 20 April |
Mackenzie and Goodnow [10] | Before, during, and after-pandemic adventure tourism | E | 20 April |
Goffman [11] | Glocalization as a sustainability future | E | 20 April |
Wen et al. [12] | Potential effects on Chinese citizens’ lifestyle and travel | E/ERP | 20 May |
Stankov et al. [13] | Potential consequences for tourism industry | E | 20 May |
Zwanka and Buff [14] | Conceptual framework of the consumer’s behavioral shifts | E/TRP | 20 May |
de Hass et al. [15] | Dutch ‘intelligent lockdown’ change activities, work, and travel behavior | ERP | 20 July |
Graham et al. [16] | Attitudes of aging passengers to air travel | ERP | 20 July |
Peluso and Pichierri [17] | Socio-demographics, sense of control, and uncertainty avoidance– effects on vacation intention | ERP | 20 November |
Matiza [18] | Linking risk and post-crisis tourism with COVID-19 | TRP | 20 September |
Shamshiripour et al. [19] | Reshaping of activity/travel behavior before, during, and after the pandemic | ERP | 20 September |
Pardo and Ladeiras [20] | Reflection by tourism agents of pandemic and future | ERP | 20 December |
O’Connor and Assaker [21] | Effects on future pro-environmental traveler behavior | ERP/TRP | 21 January |
Miao et al. [22] | Post-COVID-19 travel behavior | TRP | 21 May |
Kane et al. [23] | Behavioral change of social distancing at the beach | ERP | 21 May |
Ram et al. [24] | Vaccination effect on share of domestic/international traveling | ERP | 21 July |
Van Wee and Witlox [25] | Possible long-term effects of COVID-19 on activity/travel behavior | TRP | 21 July |
Lebrun et al. [26] | Travel intention of French consumers for summer 2020 | ERP | 21 July |
Del Chiappa et al. [27] | Uncovering knowledge on travel behavior during COVID-19 | ERP | 21 August |
Scuttari et al. [28] | Clusters of COVID-19-driven travel behavior | ERP | 21 October |
Park et al. [29] | Travelers’ preference for crowded vs. non-crowded options | ERP | 21 December |
Country | N | Gender | % | |
Germany | 272 | male | 47.7 | |
Italy | 252 | female | 51.0 | |
Switzerland | 254 | diverse | 1.30 | |
Finland | 253 | |||
Norway | 254 | Age group | % | |
USA | 500 | 18–29 | 25.0 | |
30–44 | 29.6 | |||
Current economic activity | % | 45–65 | 45.3 | |
independent | 10.0 | |||
employed/public servant | 59.4 | Household size | % | |
currently not employed | 12.0 | 1 person | 30.4 | |
retired or pensioner | 10.1 | 2 persons | 33.3 | |
student/in education | 8.3 | 3 or more persons | 36.4 | |
College/University degree | % | Children in household | % | |
yes | 44.9 | yes | 22.4 | |
no | 55.1 | no | 77.6 | |
Household pre-tax income | % | |||
below EUR 2000/CHF 3000/USD 3000/NOK 25,000 | 27.3 | |||
up to EUR 4000/CHF 6000 /USD 6000/NOK 40,000 | 36.6 | |||
above EUR 4000/CHF 6000/USD 6000/NOK 40,000 | 36.1 |
Country (participants) | No Holiday Trip in 2020 (%) | No Holiday Trip Because of the Coronavirus Pandemic (%) | Different Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 (%) | Usual Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
DE (272) | 57.0 | 96.1 | 18.4 | 24.6 |
IT (252) | 52.4 | 93.9 | 20.6 | 27.0 |
CH (254) | 60.6 | 92.9 | 15.7 | 23.6 |
FIN (253) | 71.5 | 96.1 | 13.0 | 15.4 |
NOR (254) | 57.5 | 97.3 | 18.1 | 24.4 |
USA (500) | 63.2 | 96.2 | 16.6 | 20.2 |
ALL (1785) | 60.7 | 95.6 | 17.0 | 22.2 |
No Holiday Trip in 2020 (%) | Different Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 (%) | Significance | |
---|---|---|---|
In general, I felt uncomfortable to travel as usual because of the pandemic | 49.7 | 30.3 | 0.000 |
In my country, it was not possible/very complicated to travel abroad | 42.4 | 31.9 | 0.100 |
My originally intended destination was not accessible because of the pandemic | 37.3 | 36.2 | 0.733 |
I wanted to stay close to home in case infection numbers rose and restrictions were imposed | 27.4 | 17.4 | 0.000 |
To reach my preferred destination, I would have needed to take a plane/train, which seemed too much of a risk to me because of a possible infection | 15.6 | 17.8 | 0.376 |
I was afraid about a potential loss of my money when booking a trip which could have eventually been cancelled | 13.8 | 11.2 | 0.628 |
My originally intended destination was a hotspot of the pandemic | 13.7 | 14.8 | 0.236 |
Usually, I travel with friends or my family, but traveling as a group was not appropriate because of the pandemic | 10.8 | 7.9 | 0.139 |
Because of the pandemic, I had to expect a significant reduction of my income and could not afford to travel | 9.7 | 5.3 | 0.170 |
Usually, I stay in a nice hotel/resort/on a cruise ship together with many other guests but because of the virus, this seemed too much of a risk to me | 6.9 | 6.3 | 0.712 |
Instead of making a holiday I chose to visit my family because I could not do that during lockdown | 5.3 | 5.3 | 0.975 |
I could not take off work because of the pandemic (e.g., health care workers and worker in gastronomy) | 2.6 | 3.0 | 0.737 |
Relatives/friends or I personally had an infection with the virus and could therefore not travel as planned | 2.4 | 4.3 | 0.850 |
Other | 2.2 | 9.2 | 0.000 |
Group | DE % | IT % | CH % | FIN % | NOR % | USA % | Sign. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Share of non-travelers (NT) | NT | 57.0 | 52.4 | 60.6 | 71.5 | 57.5 | 63.2 | 0.006 |
Share of travelers with different destination (TDD) | TDD | 18.4 | 20.6 | 15.7 | 13.0 | 18.1 | 16.6 | |
In general, I felt uncomfortable to travel as usual because of the pandemic | NT | 45.6 | 42.7 | 39.9 | 46.0 | 68.3 | 52.6 | 0.000 |
TDD | 28.0 | 26.9 | 32.5 | 27.3 | 47.8 | 24.1 | 0.115 | |
In my country, it was not possible/very complicated to travel abroad | NT | 38.3 | 37.1 | 35.7 | 51.7 | 57.0 | 37.5 | 0.000 |
TDD | 28.0 | 40.4 | 20.0 | 27.3 | 52.2 | 25.3 | 0.009 | |
My originally intended destination was not accessible because of the pandemic | NT | 47.0 | 26.6 | 50.3 | 37.4 | 38.7 | 29.9 | 0.000 |
TDD | 40.0 | 36.5 | 37.5 | 51.5 | 43.5 | 22.9 | 0.049 | |
I wanted to stay close to home in case infection numbers rose and restrictions were imposed | NT | 19.5 | 18.5 | 24.5 | 37.9 | 31.0 | 28.6 | 0.001 |
TDD | 10.0 | 26.9 | 15.0 | 21.2 | 23.9 | 12.0 | 0.123 | |
To reach my preferred destination, I would have needed to take a plane/train, which seemed too much of a risk to me because of a possible infection | NT | 20.1 | 15.3 | 15.4 | 10.3 | 23.2 | 13.2 | 0.018 |
TDD | 16.0 | 23.1 | 12.5 | 15.2 | 30.4 | 12.0 | 0.112 |
2019 % | 2020 % | Diff 2020 % | 2019 % | 2020 % | Diff 2020 % | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DE (51) | CH (40) | |||||
Domestic | 11.8 | 54.9 | +43.1 | 22.5 | 35.0 | +12.5 |
Europe | 68.6 | 33.3 | −35.3 | 40.0 | 50.0 | 10.0 |
Non-Europe | 19.6 | 11.8 | −7.8 | 37.5 | 15.0 | −22.5 |
IT (52) | FIN (52) | |||||
Domestic | 44.2 | 90.4 | +46.2 | 18.8 | 43.8 | +25.0 |
Europe | 46.2 | 9.6 | −36.5 | 71.9 | 43.8 | −28.1 |
Non-Europe | 9.6 | 0.0 | −9.6 | 9.4 | 12.5 | 3.1 |
NOR (46) | USA (79) | |||||
Domestic | 15.2 | 67.4 | +52.2 | 70.9 | 83.5 | +12.7 |
Europe | 76.1 | 32.6 | −43.5 | 6.3 | 3.8 | −2.5 |
Non-Europe | 8.7 | 0.0 | −8.7 | 22.8 | 12.7 | −10.1 |
Criteria for Selecting a Different Destination | DE | IT | CH | FIN | NOR | USA | ALL |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Accessible by car/individual means of transportation | 52.0 | 50.0 | 42.5 | 54.5 | 60.9 | 45.8 | 50.3 |
Possibility to stay/move around in nature with a distance to other people | 30.0 | 34.6 | 47.5 | 36.4 | 32.6 | 24.1 | 34.2 |
Not crowded, lonely places | 32.0 | 34.6 | 35.0 | 45.5 | 17.4 | 39.8 | 32.6 |
Small accommodation units with no other/few people | 32.0 | 26.9 | 25.0 | 30.3 | 15.2 | 20.5 | 24.3 |
Low infection rates in the destination | 26.0 | 17.3 | 20.0 | 48.5 | 21.7 | 15.7 | 22.7 |
Possibility to prepare/getting served meals in room/apartment/place I stayed at | 16.0 | 25.0 | 17.5 | 30.3 | 10.9 | 12.0 | 17.4 |
Professional hygienic concepts in my accommodation | 26.0 | 17.3 | 15.0 | 9.1 | 17.4 | 12.0 | 16.1 |
Special rates/reasonable prices | 12.0 | 19.2 | 15.0 | 21.2 | 4.3 | 18.1 | 15.1 |
Option for late cancellation with full refund | 16.0 | 21.2 | 12.5 | 15.2 | 8.7 | 13.3 | 14.5 |
To escape to a place where I felt safe and free from the daily coronavirus threats | 8.0 | 9.6 | 12.5 | 9.1 | 26.1 | 13.3 | 13.2 |
Possibility to practice my preferred activities despite the pandemic | 16.0 | 9.6 | 7.5 | 15.2 | 13.0 | 10.8 | 11.8 |
Good standard medical care at or nearby my destination | 12.0 | 9.6 | 17.5 | 12.1 | 10.9 | 8.4 | 11.2 |
Visitor management at attractions to avoid crowding/waiting in lines | 8.0 | 9.6 | 5.0 | 9.1 | 8.7 | 8.4 | 8.2 |
Other (please specify) | 4.0 | 1.9 | 5.0 | 3.0 | 13.0 | 8.4 | 6.3 |
Spacious campgrounds/caravan park | 2.0 | 9.6 | 7.5 | 0.0 | 2.2 | 7.2 | 5.3 |
Holiday Experiences of 2020 Will Influence Future Traveling YES in % | DE | IT | CH | FIN | NOR | USA | ALL |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Different than usual holiday destination in 2020 | 54.0 | 50.0 | 67.5 | 42.4 | 37.0 | 56.6 | 52.0 |
Usual holiday destination in 2020 | 26.9 | 39.7 | 40.0 | 35.9 | 19.4 | 43.6 | 35.0 |
Frequently Mentioned Potential Changes of Future Traveling by Experiences Made in 2020 (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Destination choice | 29.6 | Decreased crowding acceptance | 15.4 |
Desire to travel again | 21.3 | Nature/outdoor preference | 9.5 |
Safety measures/fear of COVID-19 | 17.8 | Planning | 8.3 |
Mobility use | 16.0 | Accommodation choice | 4.1 |
Travel Push Factors | Mean (Scale 1: Very Important–6: Not Important at All) | ANOVA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No Holiday Trip in 2020 | Different Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 | Usual Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 | All | F | Sig. | |
Discovery of unknown, other countries and cultures, adventure, thrill, and experiencing excitement | 2.51 | 2.13 | 3.04 | 2.56 | 41.231 | 0.000 |
Enriching perspective on life, broadening personal horizon, and taking on new or other perspectives | 2.40 | 2.21 | 2.78 | 2.45 | 20.837 | 0.000 |
Having many new experiences and new impressions | 2.09 | 1.88 | 2.37 | 2.11 | 18.317 | 0.000 |
Meeting of and talking to new people, observing other people, and making contact with locals | 2.82 | 2.55 | 3.16 | 2.85 | 17.969 | 0.000 |
Being in motion, being on the move, getting around, and going with the flow | 2.84 | 2.51 | 3.05 | 2.83 | 14.324 | 0.000 |
Learning something, development of skills and abilities, testing abilities, and being creative | 3.03 | 2.78 | 3.32 | 3.05 | 13.613 | 0.000 |
Being physically active, doing sports, and outdoor activities such as hiking, biking, fishing, and hunting | 3.12 | 2.69 | 3.04 | 3.03 | 10.693 | 0.000 |
Enjoying life with all senses, getting pampered, and indulging in luxury for some days | 2.43 | 2.38 | 2.75 | 2.49 | 10.358 | 0.000 |
Recognition, sharing my trip on social media, visit and share places friends have not been to, and gaining prestige | 4.05 | 3.65 | 4.13 | 4.00 | 8.894 | 0.000 |
Rediscovering myself, gaining self-fulfillment and self-confidence, introspection, and mindfulness | 3.01 | 2.77 | 3.16 | 3.00 | 6.698 | 0.001 |
Having fun, enjoying entertainment and partying, and being together with people who enjoy the same things | 2.45 | 2.44 | 2.73 | 2.51 | 6.67 | 0.001 |
Being independent and free, having no obligations, doing things one’s own way, and being in control of things that happen | 2.12 | 1.89 | 2.09 | 2.07 | 6.164 | 0.002 |
Being close to nature, enjoying pristine nature, view beautiful scenery, and observing and studying nature | 2.45 | 2.29 | 2.23 | 2.37 | 5.385 | 0.005 |
Giving your mind a rest, slowing down, and getting into other thoughts | 2.1 | 1.98 | 1.94 | 2.04 | 3.851 | 0.021 |
Maintaining or improving my health status, keeping myself physically fit, and exercise and feel good after being physically active | 2.84 | 2.68 | 2.92 | 2.83 | 2.707 | 0.067 |
Development and growth of personal spiritual values and reflecting on religious or other spiritual values | 3.69 | 3.50 | 3.76 | 3.67 | 2.368 | 0.094 |
Enjoying sun, warmth, and sunbathing and suntanning | 2.56 | 2.43 | 2.62 | 2.55 | 1.625 | 0.197 |
Just relaxing, chilling, lounging, and doing nothing | 2.06 | 2.15 | 2.03 | 2.07 | 1.185 | 0.306 |
Experiencing tranquility, solitude, peace, and being on one’s own away from people and crowds | 2.68 | 2.59 | 2.57 | 2.64 | 1.173 | 0.31 |
To be safe, avoiding the unexpected, to be with others if you need them, and to be near considerate people | 2.64 | 2.62 | 2.55 | 2.62 | 0.717 | 0.489 |
Having time for and sharing time with family, partner, and friends, and doing things with members of my group | 1.91 | 1.97 | 1.91 | 1.92 | 0.381 | 0.683 |
Distance from daily routine and avoidance of everyday responsibilities | 1.87 | 1.85 | 1.87 | 1.86 | 0.047 | 0.954 |
Bringing back and reflecting on pleasant memories, thinking about good times had in the past, and visiting familiar places | 2.39 | 2.37 | 2.39 | 2.39 | 0.013 | 0.987 |
Social Values by Schwartz (Male Text Version) | Mean (Scale 1: Very Much Like Me–6: Not Like Me at All) | ANOVA | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No Holiday Trip in 2020 | Different Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 | Usual Holiday Trip/Destination in 2020 | All | F | Sig. | |
He looks for adventures and likes to take risks. He wants to have an exciting life. | 3.40 | 3.05 | 3.69 | 3.41 | 17.054 | 0.000 |
Being very successful is important to him. He hopes people will recognize his achievements. | 3.66 | 3.27 | 3.79 | 3.62 | 11.828 | 0.000 |
It is important to him to be rich. He wants to have a lot of money and expensive things. | 3.99 | 3.62 | 4.13 | 3.96 | 11.517 | 0.000 |
It’s important to him to show his abilities. He wants people to admire what he does. | 3.55 | 3.17 | 3.62 | 3.5 | 10.385 | 0.000 |
He likes surprises and is always looking for new things to do. He thinks it is important to do lots of different things in life. | 2.95 | 2.81 | 3.20 | 2.98 | 8.66 | 0.000 |
It is important to him to get respect from others. He wants people to do what he says. | 3.33 | 3.05 | 3.41 | 3.3 | 6.767 | 0.001 |
Having a good time is important to him. He likes to “spoil” himself. | 2.72 | 2.60 | 2.92 | 2.74 | 6.393 | 0.002 |
Tradition is important to him. He tries to follow the customs handed down by his religion or his family. | 3.27 | 3.13 | 3.37 | 3.27 | 2.428 | 0.089 |
He seeks every chance he can to have fun. It is important to him to do things that give him pleasure. | 2.91 | 2.86 | 3.03 | 2.93 | 1.742 | 0.175 |
It is important to him that the government ensures his safety against all threats. He wants the state to be strong so it can defend its citizens. | 2.71 | 2.70 | 2.82 | 2.73 | 1.241 | 0.289 |
Thinking up new ideas and being creative is important to him. He likes to do things in his own original way. | 2.74 | 2.64 | 2.77 | 2.73 | 1.167 | 0.311 |
He thinks it is important that every person in the world should be treated equally. He believes everyone should have equal opportunities in life. | 2.20 | 2.26 | 2.29 | 2.23 | 1.058 | 0.347 |
It is important to him to listen to people who are different from him. Even when he disagrees with them, he still wants to understand them. | 2.50 | 2.57 | 2.59 | 2.53 | 0.939 | 0.391 |
It is important to him always to behave properly. He wants to avoid doing anything people would say is wrong. | 2.82 | 2.75 | 2.74 | 2.79 | 0.705 | 0.494 |
He believes that people should do what they are told. He thinks people should follow rules at all times, even when no one is watching. | 3.31 | 3.21 | 3.26 | 3.28 | 0.681 | 0.506 |
It’s very important to him to help the people around him. He wants to care for their well-being. | 2.43 | 2.41 | 2.37 | 2.42 | 0.433 | 0.649 |
It is important to him to live in secure surroundings. He avoids anything that might endanger his safety. | 2.68 | 2.73 | 2.65 | 2.68 | 0.357 | 0.7 |
He strongly believes that people should care for nature. Looking after the environment is important to him. | 2.45 | 2.40 | 2.45 | 2.44 | 0.237 | 0.789 |
It is important to him to make his own decisions about what he does. He likes to be free and not depend on others. | 2.18 | 2.20 | 2.21 | 2.19 | 0.176 | 0.838 |
It is important to him to be loyal to his friends. He wants to devote himself to people close to him. | 2.15 | 2.13 | 2.12 | 2.14 | 0.166 | 0.847 |
It is important to him to be humble and modest. He tries not to draw attention to himself. | 2.85 | 2.80 | 2.83 | 2.83 | 0.124 | 0.884 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tauber, V.; Bausch, T. Will COVID-19 Boost Sustainable Tourism: Wishful Thinking or Reality? Sustainability 2022, 14, 1686. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031686
Tauber V, Bausch T. Will COVID-19 Boost Sustainable Tourism: Wishful Thinking or Reality? Sustainability. 2022; 14(3):1686. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031686
Chicago/Turabian StyleTauber, Verena, and Thomas Bausch. 2022. "Will COVID-19 Boost Sustainable Tourism: Wishful Thinking or Reality?" Sustainability 14, no. 3: 1686. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031686
APA StyleTauber, V., & Bausch, T. (2022). Will COVID-19 Boost Sustainable Tourism: Wishful Thinking or Reality? Sustainability, 14(3), 1686. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031686