The Origin of the Crisis in the Spatial Development of Contemporary Cities: A Review of Selected Historical and Modern Mechanisms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The historical trend: its main aims include the study of the evolution and theory of urban structure; it is present in the research of geographers, as well as the Birmingham and French schools.
- The development trend: its main aims include studying how cities can further evolve based on the morphology; it is present mainly in the Italian and French schools.
- The practical trend: its main aims include how theories of urban structure are transferred on their further development; it is present in the French school.
- Urban forms comprise buildings, lots, the space between them, and streets; form determination.
- Urban forms occur in multiscale relationships, from building/lot, through to streets, quarters, to relations in the scale of the entire region or city; form resolution.
- Urban forms may be interpreted with regard to their historical components and should be subject to potential transformations taking into consideration these components; form in time.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Patterns of European Cities
- ‘Inner city expansion’: the revitalization and development of historical urban space, with the simultaneous supplementation of undeveloped areas and reinforcement of space that is losing significance;
- ‘External/territorial city expansion’: the development of city margins and peripheral space along with technical and communication infrastructure.
- English cities, characterized by dispersed areas of single-family houses, located in the suburbs;
- Continental cities, emphasizing the development of structures allowing for going to work on foot and relatively efficient public transport [35].
2.2. Patterns of American Cities
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Sentimentalism
3.2. Monumentalism
3.2.1. Political Monumentalism
3.2.2. Success Monumentalism
3.2.3. Shopping Space Monumentalism
3.3. Radicalism
3.4. ‘Black Swan’ and the City Landscape
3.5. Identity and Theming of the City Landscape
- Historical groups and complexes—including historical parks—representing space corresponding to particular events from the past, often based on the revitalization of historical structures with new functions. These are often developments based on the continuation of existing structures, and may also contribute to enhancing the identity of local space.
- Contemporary commercial complexes—devoted to shopping and entertainment—created as completely new urban structures, related to a specific economic plan. They may represent a completely new space or that which is already part of the historical urban structure.
- ‘Thematic parks’ complexes; newly created spaces associated with a particular attraction, based on a specific thematic narrative. These are places founded on an attempt to idealize space, where the narrative is linked with the expected concrete reaction of the spectator. Uniqueness, treated as one of the crucial criteria, is of high significance (similarly to the case of commercial complexes).
- New urban structures constructed on the basis of ancient ones, usually based on specific functional design developments, which represent a topic specific to a given space. This group of structures refers to the new urban trend, often referred to as the third wave of the ‘urban revolution’ [45] (after the first urban utopias associated with Monumentalism and Sentimentalism, through to the urbanism of modern times). It is related to the construction of social enclaves based on a ‘neighbour unit’, high safety levels, and extensive structures of single-family houses. The space issue lies in the foundation of the design process. The creation of such urban systems is known as ‘neotraditional design’ [45].
- Reconstructed old-town complexes; urban systems which reflect space after annihilation, also subordinated to presently determined functions. The created structures are supposed to reproduce the genius loci of historical space, at the same time retaining modern demands in relation to the functional pattern. The resulting urban patterns are of great significance in the shaping of urban identity. They are often a retaliation to the downtown feeling, or a reconstruction of the mental and physical ‘heart of the city’.
3.6. Demographic and Climate Crisis in Relation to the Presented Problems of Urban Development
3.7. Threats in City Development
- The reduction of the traditional bond of people to the land, partial resignation and transformation of the farming policy in accordance with industrial development, with simultaneous village depopulation;
- The inhibition and gradual fall of industry that flourished in the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th century;
- A complete change of the system and usage of the means of transport, with bicycle maintenance as one of the most crucial transport methods in cities, the development of public communication, an increase of the number of vehicles in cities;
- The change of global policy, movement away from the rules of colonialism, global economic policy;
- An IT and telecommunication revolution in information and knowledge exchange.
- Reasons related to environmental and climatic policies: the waste of resources, atmospheric pollution, the impoverishment of ecological systems in cities, the insufficient protection of environmental elements, coupled with the steady expansion of urbanized areas, the diminishing of farmlands and the lack of forest protections;
- Infrastructural problems: often insufficient water supplies, incorrect sewage systems coupled with continuously rising energy demands;
- Functional problems: the non-adjusting of function to genuine necessity, the decreasing quality of land usage;
- Transport problems: increasing urbanization related to the rising demand for transportation and communication systems;
- Social problems: crime, unemployment, increasing non-tolerance to everything that is different, diminishing intergenerational, gender and ethnic acceptance, social stratification [30];
- Identity problems: the attenuation of the downtown role with simultaneous periphery development, the reduction of authenticity and space theming leading to a disappearance of urban identify;
- Structural problems: a common lack of comprehensive legal regulations in developmental policy planning, causing a distinctiveness decrease in the structural proportions of urban space and the uncontrolled spread of suburban areas; the urban sprawl phenomenon [31].
- Traditional business cores: developed around crucial parts of the city with the most important identity and with significant economic functions (City of London, Chatelet in Paris, Marunouchi/Otemachi in Tokyo);
- Secondary business cores: with residential–business offerings and rich cultural programs (the West End in New York, Midtown in London, XVI district in Paris), usually developed in the beginning of the 20th century;
- Inner edge cities: developed since the 1960s, spaces with a concentration of business and entertainment functions (La Defence in Paris, Potsdam Square in Berlin);
- Outer edge cities: located along main exit axes or leading to airports, with dispersed developments with residential–service functions (Okęcie in Warsaw, Zuid in Amsterdam);
- Outermost edge cities: estates of low-density residential development with basic services, and also huge shopping malls located near the city boundaries (Marki near Warsaw, Omiya near Saitama);
- Specialized concentrations of activity: usually artificial structures related to thematic parks, arenas, and exhibition and conference centres (Disneyland near Paris, Greenwich Dome near London).
4. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Achievements | Threats |
---|---|
Increased role of green areas and their significant impact on the structure of cities. | Sprawl of the urban space through the scattered development of the suburbs. |
Aeration wedges in cities. | The emergence of the phenomenon of space theming. |
Communication as the basis of the city structure. | Development of the city in isolation from historical structures. |
Achievements | Threats |
---|---|
Restoring the dominant role of the city. | Overscaled buildings, gigantism, pomposity in cities. |
Attempts at introducing cohesion of the urban and landscape structure in cities. | Failure to respect the context when designing commercial and high-rise facilities. |
Commercialization of space. |
Achievements | Threats |
---|---|
Green areas as important elements of urban structures | Monofunctional zoning in cities |
Scattering and chaos in the building structure | |
Over scaled public spaces | |
Priority transit transport in the development of cities | |
Disappearance of neighborhood zones, no functional differentiation on a local scale | |
Complete negation of the spatial and historical context in cities |
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Rybak-Niedziółka, K. The Origin of the Crisis in the Spatial Development of Contemporary Cities: A Review of Selected Historical and Modern Mechanisms. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10482. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710482
Rybak-Niedziółka K. The Origin of the Crisis in the Spatial Development of Contemporary Cities: A Review of Selected Historical and Modern Mechanisms. Sustainability. 2022; 14(17):10482. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710482
Chicago/Turabian StyleRybak-Niedziółka, Kinga. 2022. "The Origin of the Crisis in the Spatial Development of Contemporary Cities: A Review of Selected Historical and Modern Mechanisms" Sustainability 14, no. 17: 10482. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710482