A Method to Assess Agroecosystem Resilience to Climate Variability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The limits of the system and its configuration (resilience of what?) (or specific resilience).
- The challenges of interest to the system (resilience for what?).
- The essential functions of the system (resilience for what purpose?).
2. Methodological and Structural Approach of AgRI
- (1)
- Diversity: functional diversity and responses to disturbance.
- (2)
- Modularity: internal division of the system into independent but connected modules [59].
- (3)
- Openness: refers to the connectivity between systems [59].
- (4)
- Adjustment of feedbacks or panarchy: the responses of one part of the system to changes in other parts of the system, including the component [60].
- (5)
- System reserves: reserve of resources (human, economic and social capital) for the SES when responding to disturbances or shocks [61]. The reserves provide redundancy and act as a buffer that compensates for losses or failures of system functions.
- (1)
- Resilience of what? agroecosystem resilience.
- (2)
- Resiliency to what? resilience to the disturbance of climate variability.
- (3)
- Resiliency for what purpose? maintain productivity features, profitability, human well-being, and physical and biotic sustainability.
- (4)
- What resilience capacities are assessed?
- Robustness: ability to withstand unanticipated stresses and shocks.
- Adaptability: ability to change the composition of inputs, production, marketing, and management in response to disturbances and maintain the functions of the agroecosystem.
- Transformability: ability to significantly change the internal structure and feedback mechanisms of the agroecosystem in response to disturbances.
- (5)
- What improves resilience? evaluation of the attributes that assess resilience through indicators. These attributes represent the individual and collective competencies and the enabling environment that enhances resilience capacities [10].
2.1. Selection of Indicators and Organization into Components and Categories
2.2. Weighting of Categories, Components, and Indicators
Category Weighting | Component Weighting | Indicators | Generic Principles for Assessing Resilience | Proposed Weighting | Adjusted Weighting | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physico-Biotic (31.24) | Soils (18.16) | Slope % | Diversity | 2.00 | 1.89 | [67,68,69] |
Type of erosion | Diversity | 2.00 | 2.06 | [70,71,72,73] | ||
Soil drainage | Diversity | 2.00 | 2.00 | [74,75,76,77,78,79] | ||
Effective depth | Diversity | 2.00 | 1.87 | [78,80,81,82] | ||
Fertility | Diversity | 2.00 | 2.30 | [82,83,84,85] | ||
Land use | Diversity | 5.00 | 4.91 | [36,68,85,86] | ||
Soil conservation practices | Diversity | 3.00 | 3.13 | [86,87,88,89] | ||
Water (13.08) | Availability of water for irrigation | Adjustment | 6.00 | 5.74 | [69,90,91,92,93,94,95] | |
Irrigation water quality | Adjustment | 4.00 | 4.17 | [69,90,91,92,93,94,95,96] | ||
Water conservation practices | Adjustment | 3.00 | 3.17 | [89,90,97,98] | ||
Sociocultural (25.78) | Capacities (8.78) | Other management practices | Adjustment | 3.00 | 2.87 | [11,44,97,98,99] |
Perception- Consciousness | Adjustment | 3.00 | 2.91 | [100,101,102,103,104] | ||
Capacity for Action | Adjustment | 3.00 | 3.00 | [105,106,107,108] | ||
Public services and social security (3) | Availability of drinking water | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.00 | [90,109,110,111] | |
Energy availability | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.00 | [112,113,114,115,116] | ||
Health care | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.00 | [11,117,118,119,120] | ||
Housing (1) | Housing quality * | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.00 | [121,122] | |
Land structure (7.95) | Land tenure | Adjustment | 4.00 | 4.30 | [123,124,125] | |
Farm size ** | Diversity | 4.00 | 3.65 | [1,126,127,128] | ||
Competencies (5.05) | Training offer | Adjustment | 2.00 | 1.87 | [11,129,130,131] | |
Level of schooling | Adjustment | 1.00 | 0.98 | [23,129,132,133,134] | ||
Participation in organizations | Adjustment | 2.00 | 2.20 | [135,136,137,138] | ||
Technological (11.87) | Practice (6.87) | Agricultural practices | Adjustment | 3.00 | 2.87 | [23,139,140,141] |
Sustainable postharvest practices | Adjustment | 3.00 | 2.83 | [142,143,144,145,146,147] | ||
Weed Management | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.17 | [83,148,149,150,151,152] | ||
Technical assistance (2) | Technical assistance availability | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.00 | [96,153,154] | |
Type of technical assistance | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.00 | [91,153,155,156] | ||
Information management (3) | Management of climatic information | Adjustment | 2.00 | 1.96 | [93,154,157,158] | |
Administration Record | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.04 | [159,160] | ||
Economic (15.98) | Financial capacity (8.99) | Savings Capacity | Reserves | 2.00 | 2.30 | [45,161] |
Productivity | Reserves | 6.00 | 5.39 | [162,163,164,165] | ||
Availability and access to credit | Reserves | 1.00 | 1.30 | [95,166,167,168,169] | ||
Market (6.99) | Destination of Production/generation of income | Adjustment | 2.00 | 2.26 | [169,170,171] | |
Access to credit services | Adjustment | 1.00 | 1.30 | [172,173,174,175] | ||
Generation of Added Value | Reserves | 4.00 | 3.43 | [8,176] | ||
Agroecological (15.13) | Agrobiodiversity and connectivity (15.13) | Connection with the Main Ecological Structure | Modularity | 5.00 | 5.00 | [177,178,179,180,181] |
Extension of External Connectors | Openness | 2.00 | 1.91 | [42,182] | ||
Extension of Internal Connectors | Openness | 2.00 | 1.96 | |||
Diversity of the External Connectors | Diversity | 3.00 | 3.13 | [180,182,183,184,185,186] | ||
Diversity of the Internal Connectors | Diversity | 3.00 | 3.13 | |||
Total | 100 | 100 | 100 |
2.3. Assignment of Interpretive Scales to the Indicators
2.4. Equations for the Calculation of the Agroecosystem Resilience Index (AgRI)
2.5. Interpretation of the Agroecosystem Resilience Index (AgRI)
3. Case Study
3.1. Determination of Resilience by Group
3.2. Interpretation of the AgRI in Six Groups of Citrus Agroecosystems
4. Financial Evaluation of Agroecosystems Resilient to CV
- Internal Rate of Return (IRR): the benefit received, expressed as a percentage of interest (%) when the investment is made, using the opportunity interest rate (TIO) ≥ 4.77% effective per year.
- Net Present Value (NPV): indicates the economic viability of the project (>0).
- Benefit/Cost Ratio (B/C): analyzes the relationship between the present value of gross income and expenses (>1).
- Investment Payback Period (PRI): the time that elapses for the investor to recover the invested capital.
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Indicators | |||
---|---|---|---|
Indicator | Resilience and Ranges of Value | ||
Resilience High | Resilience Medium | Resilience Low | |
Slope | ≤4% | 4–10% | ≥10% |
Type of erosion | Weak | Moderate | Severe |
Soil drainage | Well drained | Imperfectly drained | Poorly drained |
Effective depth | Deep ≥1 m | Moderate ≤0.50 m | Superficial ≤0.25 m |
Fertility | High ≥20 cmol/kg | Medium 10–20 cmol/kg | Low ≤10 cmol/kg |
Land use | 100−75% | <75–50% | <50% |
Soil conservation practices | Yes | Occasional | No |
Availability of water for irrigation | Optimal | Regular | Deficient |
Irrigation water quality | Some 500–1000 ppm | Moderate >1000–2000 ppm | Severe >2000–5000 ppm |
Water conservation practices | Permanent | Occasional | None |
Other management practices | Agroecological | Mixed | Conventional |
Perception- Consciousness | Environmental perception | Mixed perception | Object perception |
Capacity for action | High (Willingness and commitment no restrictions) | Medium (Willingness and commitment with restrictions) | Poor (None willingness and commitment) |
Availability of drinking water | Permanent | Occasional | None |
Energy availability | Permanent | Occasional | None |
Health care | Permanent | Occasional | None |
Housing quality * | ≤2 people/room | 3 people/room | >3 people/room |
Land tenure | Owner | Lessee | Possessor |
Farm size FAU | >1 FAU | 1 FAU | <1 FAU |
Training offer | Yes | Occasional | None |
Level of schooling | Vocational, technical, or professional | Secondary | Primary |
Participation in organizations | Yes | Occasional | None |
Agricultural practices | Agriculture based on the principles of environmental sustainability | Agriculture in transition to sustainability | Agriculture based on maximizing production with exogenous material and energy subsidies |
Sustainable Postharvest practices | Yes | Occasional | None |
Weed management | Agroecological Management | In transition Management | Conventional Management |
Technical assistance availability | Yes | Occasional | None |
Type of technical Assistance | Public | Private with subsidies | Private |
Management of climatic information | Yes | Occasional | None |
Administrative record keeping | Yes | Occasional | None |
Saving capacity | Yes | Occasional | None |
Productivity | Significantly higher than the national average | Like the national average | Significantly lower than the national average |
Availability and access to credit | Yes | Occasional | None |
Destination of production/generation of income | National | Regional | Local |
Access to credit services | Yes | Occasional | None |
Generation of added value | Yes | Occasional | None |
Connection with the main ecological structure | ≤3 L | 4–5 L | ≥5 L |
Extension of external connectors | >70% | 31–70% | <30% |
Extension of internal connectors | >70% | 31–70% | <30% |
Diversity of external connectors | ≥3 species | 2 species | 1 species |
Diversity of internal connectors | ≥3 species | 2 species | 1 species |
AgRI Degree | Range | Description |
---|---|---|
Low | 100–250 | It is necessary to make design adjustments in the ecosystem components that have a low rating, through the implementation of cultural management practices that promote innovation and adjustment in the design of the categories, components, and parameters that present greater limitations. |
Medium | 251–350 | The agroecosystem has categories, components, and parameters with a medium capacity for an adaptive response to disturbance, which must be promoted or at least maintained. |
High | 351–500 | The agricultural or livestock system has categories, components, and parameters with a high capacity to respond and adapt to ecosystemic or cultural disturbances, in such a way that it can continue to function. However, this requires the continual strengthening of its components. |
Group | Average Area (h) | Characteristics |
---|---|---|
1 | 6.33 | Farms with poor phytosanitary management. Peasants with a low level of education (incomplete elementary school) and associativity. Farmers without technical assistance and with limited economic income. Use of exclusively family labor. Mostly owners with more than 25 years of permanence in the region, without the ability to save. Production system based on multi-strata polyculture. Low link to the credit system due to high informality in land tenure (holders of good faith). Limited generational renewal. Originally 100% settlers from the interior of the country, mainly from the departments of Huila, Tolima, and Boyacá. |
2 | 2.3 | Farms with phytosanitary limitations. Medium level of schooling (incomplete secondary). Moderate infrastructure. Incidence of severe effects associated with climatic variability. No availability of technical assistance, little articulation with the financial system. Labor supply composed of day laborers at least three times a week. 90% are owners. High intensity land use, which does not allow the incorporation of rotation. Little afforestation and generational renewal in production systems. High permanence in the region. |
3 | 9.6 | High level of infrastructure. It was possible to evidence renewal of orange crop var. Valencia (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) and mandarin (Citrus reliculata Blanco) by Tangelo minneola (Citrus reticulata × Citrus paradisi), technified using the Fly Dragon dwarfing pattern, which allows increasing planting density. 60% of citrus growers are linked to some type of association. They have private technical assistance and extensive experience in citrus management. 50% have savings capacity, 40% have credit. Although they have not received training in climate information management, they relate temperature to preventive phytosanitary management techniques. 100% are owners and 10% delegated administration. |
4 | 117.33 | Highly technical agribusinesses with solid logistical, administrative, technical, and financial infrastructure. Articulation to specialized markets. Processing of climatological information and incorporation into phytosanitary management. Gallery forests that promote the connectivity of minor and major agroecosystems. No limitations of a phytosanitary nature. High productivity. Lot rotation and integration of livestock species. Development of quality certification processes with a view to offering products in specialized markets. 100% are owners and have multiple investments in other productive and service sectors based in the country’s capital. |
5 | 4.25 | Renewed crops. Young plants with a lower planting age. Presence of more than three varieties of citrus and other permanent crops such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), semi-annual crops such as corn (Zea mays), and annual crops such as cassava (Manihot esculenta) and plantain (Musa × paradisiaca). Plants for self-consumption and marketing of a small volume at the village level. Low level of schooling and infrastructure. High experience in crop management, medium productivity, organization, savings, and credit availability. Farmers handle climate information. 100% are owners with 40 or more years living in the region. |
6 | 6.79 | Agrotourism without productive interest in the cultivation of citrus crops. Purpose of cultivation is only to conserve and improve the landscape. Phytosanitary management is limited exclusively to the control of weeds and management of meadows with light machinery. Very low productivity destined for the consumption of hotel guests. Plantations of very advanced age over 16 years without renovation. 20% are tenants from urban centers. 30% delegated administration. |
Indicators | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 | Group 4 | Group 5 | Group 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slope | 5.61 | 5.61 | 5.61 | 9.35 | 5.61 | 5.61 |
Types of erosion | 6.13 | 6.13 | 8.86 | 10.22 | 3.41 | 3.41 |
Soil drainage | 6.00 | 6.00 | 7.33 | 10.00 | 3.33 | 3.33 |
Effective depth | 6.86 | 5.61 | 8.10 | 9.35 | 4.36 | 3.12 |
Fertility | 6.91 | 6.91 | 8.45 | 6.91 | 6.91 | 5.38 |
Land use | 14.74 | 14.74 | 18.01 | 24.57 | 11.46 | 14.74 |
Soil conservation practice | 5.22 | 7.30 | 7.30 | 15.65 | 3.13 | 5.22 |
Availability of water for irrigation | 9.57 | 5.74 | 21.04 | 28.70 | 17.22 | 9.57 |
Irrigation water quality | 18.09 | 12.52 | 12.52 | 20.87 | 12.52 | 12.52 |
Water conservation practices | 3.17 | 3.17 | 3.17 | 15.87 | 3.17 | 3.17 |
Other management practices | 2.87 | 2.87 | 2.87 | 8.61 | 2.87 | 2.87 |
Perception-Consciousness | 4.86 | 8.74 | 8.74 | 14.57 | 8.74 | 2.91 |
Capacity for action | 3.00 | 9.00 | 15.00 | 15.00 | 9.00 | 3.00 |
Availability of drinking water | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Energy availability | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Health care | 3.67 | 5.00 | 4.33 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 |
Housing quality | 3.00 | 3.00 | 4.33 | 5.00 | 2.33 | 3.67 |
Land tenure | 21.52 | 21.52 | 21.52 | 21.52 | 21.52 | 21.52 |
Farm size | 3.65 | 3.65 | 8.52 | 18.26 | 8.52 | 3.65 |
Training offer | 3.12 | 5.61 | 5.61 | 9.35 | 4.36 | 3.12 |
Level of schooling | 1.63 | 2.28 | 1.63 | 4.89 | 2.28 | 2.93 |
Participation in organizations | 5.12 | 2.20 | 5.12 | 10.98 | 2.20 | 3.66 |
Cultural practices | 4.78 | 4.78 | 6.70 | 14.35 | 4.78 | 2.87 |
Sustainable postharvest practices | 6.59 | 2.83 | 8.48 | 10.36 | 8.48 | 2.83 |
Weed management | 1.17 | 1.17 | 3.52 | 5.87 | 3.52 | 1.17 |
Technical assistance availability | 1.67 | 1.67 | 4.33 | 5.00 | 1.67 | 1.00 |
Type of technical assistance | 1.67 | 1.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Management of climatic information | 1.96 | 1.96 | 4.57 | 9.78 | 1.96 | 1.96 |
Administration record | 1.04 | 1.74 | 3.83 | 5.22 | 2.43 | 1.04 |
Saving capacity | 5.38 | 5.38 | 8.45 | 11.52 | 3.84 | 11.52 |
Productivity | 5.39 | 16.17 | 19.77 | 26.96 | 8.99 | 5.39 |
Availability and access to credit | 5.65 | 4.78 | 5.65 | 6.52 | 3.04 | 4.78 |
Destination of production/ generation of income | 8.29 | 11.30 | 11.30 | 11.30 | 9.80 | 2.26 |
Access to credit services | 2.17 | 3.04 | 4.78 | 6.52 | 1.30 | 1.30 |
Generation of added value | 5.72 | 10.30 | 10.30 | 10.30 | 10.30 | 3.43 |
Connection with the main ecological structure | 11.67 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 15.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
Extension of external connectors | 4.46 | 8.29 | 8.29 | 9.57 | 8.29 | 9.57 |
Extension of internal connectors | 3.26 | 4.57 | 7.17 | 9.78 | 3.26 | 5.87 |
Diversity of external connectors | 15.65 | 13.57 | 7.30 | 15.65 | 7.30 | 11.48 |
Diversity of internal connectors | 11.48 | 9.39 | 11.48 | 15.65 | 7.30 | 11.48 |
AgRI | 242.74 | 254.55 | 322.02 | 469.01 | 238.23 | 210.35 |
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Cleves, A.; Youkhana, E.; Toro, J. A Method to Assess Agroecosystem Resilience to Climate Variability. Sustainability 2022, 14, 8588. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148588
Cleves A, Youkhana E, Toro J. A Method to Assess Agroecosystem Resilience to Climate Variability. Sustainability. 2022; 14(14):8588. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148588
Chicago/Turabian StyleCleves, Alejandro, Eva Youkhana, and Javier Toro. 2022. "A Method to Assess Agroecosystem Resilience to Climate Variability" Sustainability 14, no. 14: 8588. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148588