Traditional Knowledge and Modern Motivations for Consuming Seaweed (Limu) in Samoa

Abstract

Seaweeds are a traditional food throughout the Pacific. In Samoa, the edible seaweeds limu fuafua (sea grapes, Caulerpa racemosa and C. chemnitzia) and limu a’au (red seaweed, Halymenia durvillei and Halymenia sp.) are hand-harvested and consumed fresh or cooked, respectively. However, there is limited scientific or traditional documentation of these commodities. Here, we assess the traditional use and cultural value of edible seaweeds and explore modern consumer preferences and perceived nutritional benefits. Structured enumerator-administered questionnaires were used to examine the relationship between consumption and demographics and subsequently to assess the key motivators for consumption, including perceived nutritional benefits. A total of 320 participants were surveyed across 20 village communities, with 95% reporting consumption of Caulerpa and 40% of Halymenia. Consumption was primarily on a weekly to monthly basis, and even once a day. Motivators and barriers for consumption were then assessed in 320 village participants with an additional 203 intercept interviews at fish markets. A content analysis of the open-ended questions revealed the key motivators for eating limu were health and taste (positive), whereas the key barriers were taste (negative) and availability. We identify opportunities to develop a nutrient evidence base for Samoan seaweeds to aid in marketing, especially for youth.

1. Introduction

The Samoan edible seaweeds known as limu fuafua (sea grapes, Caulerpa species) and limu a’au (red seaweed, Halymenia species) are traditionally harvested from the wild and typically eaten fresh or cooked as a side dish and accompaniment to main meals. In Pacific Island countries, plants and marine resources have a long history of being used as food and medicine, and, anecdotally, limu has a range of nutritional benefits. The traditional use of seaweed is underpinned by the existence of traditional names, methods of preparation and cultural values, which together suggest the widespread use of seaweeds for consumption. However, little of this information has been documented, and traditional knowledge is gradually diminishing [1].

Studies have shown that edible seaweeds, including those from the green seaweed genus Caulerpa and the red seaweed genus Halymenia, are mineral-rich, and that these seaweeds can be domesticated from the wild and farmed through aquaculture [2,3,4,5,6]. Their role as functional foods has been poorly documented in Pacific Island countries, with few studies carried out on the nutritional value in marine resources [1,7] and even fewer examining health benefits in empirical settings [8,9,10,11]. However, there is increasing recognition worldwide of the importance of local indigenous foods in meeting the nutritional needs of people [12,13,14].

Beyond the Pacific, edible seaweeds have attracted interest as a good source of nutrients and for their medicinal effects [3]. Some species from the genera Caulerpa and Halymenia are used as food, in the form of fresh vegetables, owing to their palatable taste, their nutritional properties and the general awareness of health-conscious consumers as to the advantage of using natural products [15]. The shift of consumer preference towards a healthy lifestyle, including food with antioxidants and functional properties, is gaining importance worldwide, and seaweeds fit well into this category [16]. Although the nutritional and health benefits of seaweeds from some regions of the world have been documented [4,17,18,19,20], scientific information is scarce for Samoan edible seaweeds and, more specifically, the genera Caulerpa and Halymenia that are commonly collected, bought and sold in the community. Seaweeds consumed in other countries are also reported to be found in Samoa [5,6]; however, there has been no detailed study of whether Samoan people consume these species.

Seaweeds have great potential to address food and nutrition security in Pacific Island countries and improve livelihoods through engagement across the food chain. Given this potential, it is vital to understand the cultural significance and perceived nutrition and health benefits of seaweeds from the perspectives of Samoan consumers in order to identify opportunities to improve consumption. This study sets out to document traditional knowledge on seaweed names, motivations for consumption, eating patterns and preparation methods, and the cultural value of edible seaweeds amongst Samoans.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Context

This study had two phases (Figure 1). Phase one of the study aimed to understand and document the traditional and common names of edible seaweeds from Samoa, assessing the traditional use and cultural values of these seaweeds. This phase collected data from 320 participants, providing a baseline understanding and information on the traditional knowledge of the seaweed names, their consumption patterns and preparation methods, and the cultural value of edible seaweeds amongst Samoans. The second phase explored, through interviews with 523 participants, the consumer preferences and perceived nutritional benefits of the edible seaweeds Caulerpa and Halymenia. This was accomplished through scientific investigation of the nutritional and health benefits and interviews to determine the key motivators and barriers for consumption.

This study was undertaken in Upolu and Savai’i, the two main islands of the Independent State of Samoa (see Figure 2). Samoa’s total population is approximately 195,000, over 78% of whom reside in Upolu Island [21]. Samoa has two main fish markets, located in Apia on Upolu Island and in Salelologa on Savai’i Island, as well as an agricultural market, Fugalei Apia, where processed seafood, including limu, are presented for sale (markets indicated as red dots in Figure 2).

Data for this study were collected in two phases. In phase one, enumerator-administered surveys were conducted from December 2018 to March 2019. Phase two surveys were collected from October 2019 to March 2020. The study was carried out in accordance with the ethics approval granted by the Human Research Ethics Committee (blinded for peer review).

2.2. Selection of Villages

Twenty villages were selected for both phases of data collection. These included: Afega, Faleula, Lalovi, Leauvaa, Nofoalii, Samatau, Satapuala, Satuimalufilufi, Savaia and Toamua on Upolu Island; and Asaga, Falealupo, Lano, Pu’apu’a, Salelavalu, Sapulu, Satufia, Siufaga Vailoa and Vaisala on Savai’i Island (Figure 2, green dots). The selection of villages was carried out based upon background information regarding the marine and fisheries resources of the villages, including existing production and market landing data collected by the Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF). Many of these villages had participated in a previous project on seaweed diversification and are also where seaweeds grow naturally in their marine environment. Prior to the data collection, the villages were contacted through the village mayor with a signed letter from the Fisheries Division explaining the study purpose and requesting their participation. Phase-two surveys were complemented by an additional 203 intercept interviews of consumers in the two main fish markets.

2.3. Selection of Participants

The selection of participants was based on major groups within the traditional Samoan village structure; the Village Council, Women’s Committee, Aualuma (daughters of the village) and Aumaga (untitled men) (one individual from each group, four in total). In addition, youth and older participants were specifically included to ensure that others, who may not have been a part of the village management groups, were represented. This included three females and three males aged 18–25 years, and three females and three males over 26 years of age. The 16 participants from each village were recruited based on convenience on the day of the data collection. In the fish markets, a convenience sampling method was also followed, whereby potential participants were initially asked two questions to determine their eligibility (are you >18 years of age and a Samoan resident?) before commencing the consent process and proceeding with the enumerator-administered survey. Different participant pools were recruited for phase one and phase two of the study.

2.4. Survey Instruments

Both phase-one and phase-two surveys were developed by the research team for the purposes of this study. The phase-one survey explored traditional knowledge and cultural values of seaweed and included (i) demographic characteristics (gender, age, highest level of education); (ii) knowledge of seaweed names; (iii) cultural values (use for special occasions) and (iv) utilisation and inclusion in the diet (consumption of Caulerpa and Halymenia, preparation methods). The phase-two survey explored (i) demographic characteristics; (ii) consumer choice and preferences (key motivators and barriers for seaweed consumption) and (iii) perceived health and nutritional benefits. Questions in the second survey were informed by Australian consumer insights on the future use of seaweeds, covering constructs of health consciousness, perceptions of benefits, drivers and barriers to seaweed consumption [22]. Both survey instruments were piloted with 10 consumers at the Apia fish market to ensure accurate and appropriate translation. Minor modifications to question wording were made to improve the accuracy of translation of Samoan to English and vice versa.

2.5. Data Collection

Data collection was undertaken by ten enumerators from the Inshore Fisheries and Aquaculture sections of the Fisheries Division—MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Apia, Samoa), under the supervision of the lead author. The enumerators were provided with training on the purpose of the surveys and research objectives as well as the data collection process and relevant ethical considerations. Each survey took approximately 20–30 min to complete and took place at a mutually convenient location within the participant’s village, at their home, or at the market. All responses were recorded verbatim by the enumerator on the survey instrument and were then read back to the participant to ensure accuracy, inviting any feedback or clarification. The villages were provided with a WST 200 honorarium as part of traditional protocol.

2.6. Analysis

All survey responses were entered into an Excel spreadsheet. Qualitative content analysis of open-ended responses was conducted, whereby similar responses were systematically organised into common themes [23]. Open-ended responses were independently read and re-read before being assigned initial descriptive codes. Codes were then refined through a process of comparison and discussion between three members of the research team before the key themes were agreed upon. Data were transferred to IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for statistical analysis including chi-square, p-values and t-tests of the data to determine the linear relationships of the dependent and independent variables.

3. Results

3.1. Participation Characteristics

A total of 843 participants took part in this study, with 320 completing the phase-one survey and 523 completing phase two (

Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of phase-one and phase-two study participants.

Phase-One Characteristics	Phase 1 n (%)
	Female	Male
Age (years)
18–25	57 (18)	63 (20)
>26	103 (32)	97 (30)
Education
Primary education	11 (7)	22 (14)
Secondary education	129 (81)	123 (77)
Vocational/technical	3 (2)	4 (2)
University	17 (10)	11 (7)
Village groups
Aualuma	73 (23)	0
Aumaga	0	93 (29)
Village Council	4 (1)	60 (19)
Women’s Committee	55 (17)	0
Youth (18–25 years)	28 (9)	7 (2)
Phase-Two Characteristics	Phase 2 n (%)
	Female	Male
Age (years)
18–34	89 (17)	94 (18)
35–44	52 (10)	49 (10)
45–59	73 (14)	94 (18)
60+	30 (5)	42 (8)

). All participants in phase one were recruited from participating village communities (Table 1). Of the phase-two participants (Table 1), approximately 60% (n = 320) were recruited from the village communities (n = 288 were also respondents in phase one), and the remaining 40% (n = 203) were interviewed at fish market outlets in Upolu and Savai’i.

3.2. Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Values of Seaweed

3.2.1. Knowledge of Seaweed Names

Three variant names for seaweed were reported by participants. The most commonly used name for each species was the full traditional Samoan name—limu fuafua (Caulerpa) (88%) and limu a’au (Halymenia) (65%). Participants also used colour to identify the seaweed species as limu meamata—green seaweed (Caulerpa)—and limu mumu—red seaweed (Halymenia). Thirdly, the name “limu” alone as a general term for seaweed was used by some participants.

Participants were less familiar with traditional names for Halymenia compared with Caulerpa. Almost one third (29%) of participants were “not aware” of any names for Halymenia. Of those who were familiar with traditional names, men were more likely to report knowing these in comparison with women (67 vs. 56%, p = 0.04). The majority of participants (51.6% for Caulerpa and 56.6% for Halymenia) reported that they were not aware of any meaning or reason behind the Samoan names given to seaweeds; however, older people were more likely to know the meaning behind the Samoan names than younger people (53 vs. 41%, p = 0.04).

The formal scientific names of the two Caulerpa species (Caulerpa racemosa and C. chemnitzia, most commonly found on the Upolu and Savai’i Islands, respectively, each with distinct morphology) were not differentiated by any of the reported traditional names, although the geography could have been a layer to this. Similarly, the formal scientific names of the Halymenia species (Halymenia durvillei and Halymenia sp.—a potential new species yet to be identified through DNA barcoding, Supplementary File S1 Figure S1) were not differentiated by the traditional names either.

3.2.2. Cultural Values

Samoans attached cultural values to Caulerpa, whereas Halymenia held no cultural value for the majority of participants (69.7%). The main cultural attachment to Caulerpa was as a significant gift (31%) presented to families and visitors or at annual church conferences. Formal occasions such as weddings, funerals and informal church gatherings were special events at which participants (30%) noted that Caulerpa was served and eaten. Participants also talked about giving away Caulerpa to their neighbours and families (26.9%) as a gift or exchanging it in a barter system—for example, they borrowed a canoe for fishing in exchange for a bowl or bundle of Caulerpa.

3.2.3. Utilisation and Inclusion of Seaweed in the Diet

The majority of participants (95%) reported that they had consumed Caulerpa, but less than half (40%) had consumed Halymenia (Figure 3). Males and females reported higher consumption for Caulerpa (95% of males and 90% of females) than Halymenia (50% of males and 40% of females). Older Samoans aged 26+ years were more likely to report consumption of Caulerpa and Halymenia than the younger Samoans aged 18–25 years (61 vs. 34%, p = 0.02).

Caulerpa was predominantly (98%) eaten fresh on its own or raw in a salad. Contrary to the preparation of Caulerpa, Halymenia was mainly (46%) consumed cooked, often alongside coconut cream, either boiled, charcoaled or baked in a ground oven (umu). The Halymenia was typically wrapped in banana and breadfruit leaves before charcoaling or baking. More than half of participants (53%) were not aware of any preparation methods for Halymenia. Male participants were more likely to know how to prepare Halymenia than females (53 vs. 41%, p = 0.02); this was also the case for older participants (26+ years) compared with younger participants (18–25 years) (59 vs. 28%, p < 0.01).

3.3. Consumer Preferences

3.3.1. Motivators for Consuming Seaweed

The phase-two survey invited participants to identify key motivators and barriers (Section 3.3.2) for consuming seaweed. The majority of participants (88%) responded to this question. A content analysis of the open-ended responses revealed six key themes for motivators for seaweed consumption: perception of seaweed as being healthy (47%), taste (33%), familiarity (13%), nutrition (4%), sensory (smell and texture) (2%) and availability (1%) (

Table 2. Reported motivation for seaweed consumption (n = 461).

Motivator	Percentage of Participants	Theme Description	Example Quotes (See Note on Code Below)
	% (n)
Healthy	47 (217)	Participants were aware that eating seafood, including seaweed, is healthy. Participants spoke about general health associations, as well as specific health benefits including the prevention and treatment of diseases. Prevention of diseases such as asthma, diarrhoea, diabetes, thyroid gland diseases, gout, high blood pressure, immune system disorders, eyesight problems, white blood cell issues and brain cell damage.	To gain energy (LAN), For good health (ASA), Helps cure diseases (SAV), Strengthen the body (SAV), For health benefits with diabetes, cancer, high blood pressure (MKT), Seafood are healthy food (TOA)
Taste and sensory	35 (160)	Participants spoke about the freshness and pleasant salty taste as motivators for them to eat seaweeds. The sensory properties of seaweeds, such as texture, smell and appearance, were motivators for consumption.	I love eating seafood (PUA) I like the taste of limu (LAN) Limu has a fresh taste (SAL) I like the taste of limu with pork and beef (MKT) I like the smell of limu (SIU) I like limu texture and appearance (AFE)
Familiarity	13 (62)	Participants reported that familiarity from childhood and their awareness of seaweeds motivated them to eat seaweed.	Samoan traditional food (MKT) Delicacy food (ASA) Usual family dish and diet since my childhood (MKT)
Nutrition	4 (16)	Participants identified nutrients and were aware of the nutritional benefits of seaweeds.	Vitamins for the body (SAL) Good vitamin source for the body (SIU) Supplements to other foods—frozen foods and meat (MKT)
Availability	1 (5)	Participants reported that the availability of seaweed locally increased their motivation to consume seaweed.	Usually available for free (SIU) Available at all times (ASA) Free food available without buying them (SIU)

Note: village codes: LAN (Lano village), ASA (Asaga), SAV (Savaia), MKT (market), TOA (Toamua), SAL (Salelavalu), PUA (Puapua), SIU (Siufaga), AFE (Afega).

, containing theme descriptions and exemplar quotes).

3.3.2. Barriers to Consuming Seaweed

Fewer participants (17%, n = 89) responded to the question asking them to identify barriers to consuming seaweed. Six key themes emerged from the data, including taste (34%), unavailability (24%), unfamiliarity (21%), improper cleaning (10%), allergies (6%) and sensory deterrents (6%). These themes are described in

Table 3. Reported barriers to seaweed consumption (n = 89).

Barrier	Percentage of Participants	Theme Description	Example Quotes (See Note on Code Below)
	% (n)
Taste	34 (30)	Participants reported that sour and spicy tastes limited their consumption of seaweeds.	Too salty (AFE) Spicy (SAV)
Unavailability	24 (21)	The unavailability of seaweeds, e.g., due to the distance of their residence from the sea, and the expensive price at the market prevented consumption of seaweeds.	Hardly available (NOF) Depend on the season (AFE) Expensive at the market (MKT) Lives far from the ocean (MKT)
Unfamiliarity	21 (19)	Unfamiliarity with the seaweeds meant that participants did not eat seaweed.	I don’t know much about limu (MKT) Pictured it to a grass growing on soil (MKT) Not used to eating limu (TOA) Not sure if it’s good to eat (LAL) Not used to Halymenia (FAL) Told by my parents it’s food for old people only (LAL)
Not properly cleaned	10 (9)	Participants reported that seaweeds are not properly cleaned during preparation.	Limu is not cleaned properly (LEA) It’s only been partially cleaned (MKT)
Allergy	6 (5)	Participants noted that consuming seaweeds triggered allergies, stomach ache and hiccups.	Cause hiccups (MKT) Allergies to seafood (MKT) Triggers stomach ache (MKT)
Sensory	6 (5)	Sensory aspects (smell) limited consumption.	I don’t like the smell (MKT)

Note: participating villages: AFE (Afega), SAV (Savaia), NOF (Nofoalii), MKT (market), TOA (Toamua), LAL (Lalovi), FAL (Falealupo), LEA (Leauvaa).

and are accompanied by exemplar quotes.

3.4. Perceived Health and Nutritional Benefits

When asked if participants would eat more seaweed if they were aware of the health and nutrition benefits, 95% said “yes” and 5% said “no”. Older Samoans (>45 years) were more likely to say they would eat seaweed if they had knowledge of the nutritional benefits of seaweed when compared with younger Samoans (<18–44 years) (56 vs. 34%, p = 0.05). Participants put forward numerous nutritional and health benefits which they associated with eating seaweed. The qualitative content analysis of these open-ended responses generated four common themes, presented in

Table 4. Common themes relating to the perceived nutritional and health benefits associated with seaweed consumption.

Theme Description	n (%)
Healthy and nutritious food	245 (48)
Strengthens body and bones; provides energy and fights fatigue; improves blood circulation and eyesight	225 (44)
Improves thyroid function; helps with diabetes, breastfeeding, brain cells, body tissues and immune system	38 (7)
Contains vitamins and proteins	6 (1)

.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to understand and document traditional knowledge on seaweed names, their consumption patterns and preparation methods, and the cultural value of edible seaweeds amongst Samoans. Our work additionally explored consumer preferences and the perceived nutritional benefits of the edible seaweeds Caulerpa and Halymenia to determine the key motivators and barriers for consumption. This is the first study to capture perspectives from a large, diverse sample of adults from coastal and metro areas in Samoa and is one of the few studies on seaweed consumption behaviours in the Pacific Islands region. This insight into the barriers and motivations for local seaweed consumption, especially for youth, can inform unique opportunities to develop a nutrient evidence base for Samoan seaweeds to aid in marketing.

Globalisation, economic development, urbanisation and the modernisation of food systems have resulted in a nutrition transition from traditional to global food systems. Since the 1970s, diets in developing countries have been shifting from traditional foods toward an increased reliance upon processed foods, edible oils and sugar-sweetened beverages, resulting in a rapid increase in diabetes, hypertension and obesity throughout the globe [24,25,26]. This transition is well-recognised in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) throughout the Pacific that share similar environmental, socioeconomic and nutritional vulnerabilities and challenges to sustainable development [27]. Anthropological studies conducted before the Second World War described Pacific Island communities as having a particularly good nutritional status, being physically strong and living in robust and community-oriented societies [28]. Traditional diets included food from both the land and sea, resulting in simple and nutritious meals consisting of starchy root crops as the main energy source, seafood as protein and green vegetables (and seaweed) as an accompaniment [29,30]. In the last three to four decades, however, considerable social, cultural and lifestyle changes have occurred throughout the Pacific, resulting in health and nutritional status changes [29]. Nonetheless, cultural food patterns reportedly remain strong, especially at festival and feast times [31]. Recent research in Samoa [32,33] and the Solomon Islands [13] has demonstrated that preference for local foods is still strong.

The findings of phase one of our study support the view that local foods are still preferred. Almost all of the study participants (95%) reported having eaten Caulerpa and attached a number of cultural values to it. The cultural roles of Caulerpa as a significant gift or a significant food at weddings, funerals and church functions were reported by about a third of participants. This finding is in line with other studies that report the strong association of Samoan consumers with Caulerpa, who see it as a local food with links to their cultural background and heritage [12]. However, potential threats to these traditions are noted in the statistically lower consumption pattern for younger compared to older Samoans found in our study. This is also reflected in the literature, which reports strong Caulerpa consumption patterns in some Pacific countries (Hawaii, Fiji) [34] but weakened linkages in other [12]. The consumption of Halymenia was reported in our study as much lower than that of Caulerpa, a finding potentially worthy of further research to understand if supply or demand issues contribute to this.

In our sample, health and sensory characteristics, but not familiarity, appeared to be significant drivers for consuming seaweed. We found that Samoan participants reported perceptions of seaweed as a healthy food (47%), with a pleasant taste and smell (35% of respondents). Familiarity with a food is also known to increase consumption [35], but familiarity was reported in our study as a motivator for only 13% of participants. Furthermore, 21% reported not being familiar with the seaweed as a barrier to consumption. In addition, food availability, reported in the literature as significantly and positively associated with food acquisition [36], was reported in our study as a motivator for seaweed consumption by only 1% of respondents; 24% reported lack of availability and high price as a barrier. This is in contrast to findings in the literature, where reasonable pricing has been reported as the third major motivator for seaweed consumption in Samoa, after taste and health [12]. The recruitment of participants in this study was largely from coastal villages, where there may have been better access to fresh seafood. Future studies should target inland villages to better understand accessibility issues. An earlier study in Samoa, with 79 participants, reported that the majority of consumers did not consume seaweed more than one to three times per month [12]. As such, it is unlikely that seaweed contributes substantially to the quality of nutrition, despite having a favourable nutrient profile and the portion size being relatively high (reported as 365 g per portion [12]).

Our study reports that the single strongest motivator for the consumption of seaweed was the perceived health benefit. When participants were asked if they would eat more seaweed if they were aware of the health and nutrition benefits, 95% said “yes”. In addition, 47% of respondents reported health benefits as the main motivators for their current seaweed consumption. The general perception of seaweed being a ‘healthy and nutritious food’ was most commonly reported, followed by specific claims that it strengthened the body and bones; provided energy; and improved blood circulation, eyesight, thyroid function, diabetes, breastfeeding, brain cells, body tissues and the immune system. Given the coexistence of undernutrition and overnutrition in the Pacific region [37], the high fiber and micronutrient content of indigenous seaweeds may potentially offer preventative health solutions [9,12]. Based on our findings, the future promotion of the health benefits of seaweed emerges as a promising marketing avenue. Although the cultural linkages reported in our study also open up possibilities for the promotion of the seaweed as a traditional and cultural food, the increasing unfamiliarity of the younger generation with this food source is of concern.

5. Conclusions

Seaweeds are a traditional food throughout the Pacific, including in Polynesia, where they are called limu. While there is a rich heritage of seaweed consumption in Samoa, which we captured in the present study, there are gaps in the formal taxonomic record that needed to be addressed. The nomenclature of seaweeds, especially those of economic importance, can be problematic, yet it is crucial to future efforts relating to sustainable development and the growth of their production and utilisation [38,39]. To this end, we took the first steps to provide a molecular characterization of the edible seaweeds and found that limu fuafua (sea grapes) are comprised of two species of Caulerpa (Caulerpa racemosa and C. chemnitzia) and that limu a’au (red seaweed) is comprised of two species of Halymenia (Halymenia durvillei and Halymenia sp.), with one yet to be formally identified. A more comprehensive program of sampling to identify the distribution of the four different species will provide the technical data required to overlay with the consumption patterns and preferences. Developing seaweed farming activities to ensure a reliable supply to the market would also be beneficial.

The key advantage of our interdisciplinary study was the breadth and diversity of the respondents, covering a sample size of 832 people or almost 0.5% of the Samoan population. This comprehensive work highlighted opportunities to increase the consumption of existing consumers (through evidence-based health messaging) and to increase the scope of consumers by making seaweed more accessible to new consumers through the development of new recipes that assuage the issues around taste. Furthermore, improved awareness, through targeted marketing across the country, has the potential to improve consumption, with a combination of tradition and health being a potential winning solution. Future research should target the youth in order to better understand their unique perspectives and health-related needs. Future efforts should also focus on seaweed product development, in consultation with consumers, to create palatable, appealing and familiar recipes that also address food and nutrition security.