Multiple Hazards and Governance Model in the Barranquilla Metropolitan Area, Colombia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
The Methodological Framework Followed in the Research
- (1)
- Probability: the possibility that the hazard may occur at a certain time and place. This is measured using the following evaluation scale: 5 (totally probable), 4 (moderately probable), 3 (occasionally probable), 2 (rarely probable), 1 (null or improbable).
- (2)
- Frequency: temporal recurrence of the hazard in the BMA. This variable was measured according to the following scale: 1 (never), 2 (sporadically), 3 (moderately), 4 (almost always), and 5 (always).
- (3)
- Exposure: the exposure level of the BMA to each hazard. The evaluation scale is as follows: 1 (null), 2 (very light), 3 (medium), 4 (severe), and 5 (very severe).
- (4)
- Area affected: territorial space of the BMA that is affected by the hazard: The evaluation scale is: 1 (house), 2 (neighborhood), 3 (commune), 4 (Barranquilla district), 5 (all the BMA).
- (5)
- Ability of the local government to measure the level of capacity of the local government to respond to each hazard in the BMA. The evaluation scale is: 1 (no capacity), 2 (light capacity), 3 (medium capacity), 4 (high capacity), and 5 (very high capacity).
3. Case Study of Barranquilla Metropolitan Area (BMA)
3.1. Results
3.1.1. Identification of Hazards, Government Capacity to Respond to Emergencies, and the Perception of Hazards and Risks by Communities in the BMA.
3.1.2. Level of Effectiveness of Government Entities in Managing Multi-Hazard Scenarios
3.1.3. Model of Governance to Face Disaster Risk Management in the BMA
4. Discussion
4.1. Relevant Aspects Regarding the Identification of Hazards and Public Perception of Hazards and Risks by Communities in the BMA
4.2. Relevant Aspects Regarding the Model of Governance to Face Disaster Risk Management in the BMA
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. List of Job’ Experts Participants in the Focus Groups
Institutions | Number of Experts |
Carnival S.A. | 1 |
University del Norte | 1 |
Public Works | 2 |
District Secretary of Education | 1 |
Coast Guard | 1 |
UPTC | 1 |
Cormagdalena | 1 |
Army | 2 |
Medical mission | 2 |
Mayor’s Office | 3 |
University of the Coast | 2 |
CUL University | 1 |
Risk Management Mayor’s Office | 2 |
Total | 20 |
Institutions | Number of Experts |
Harbor Master | 3 |
University del Norte | 2 |
Army | 3 |
Mayor’s Office | 2 |
APELL | 2 |
University of the Coast | 1 |
Autonomous University of the Caribbean | 2 |
Consultant | 2 |
National Navy of Colombia | 1 |
Departmental Undersecretary for Disaster Risk Management | 2 |
Total | 20 |
Institutions | Number of Experts |
Oceanographic and Hydrographic Research Center | 1 |
Red Cross | 2 |
Mayor’s Office | 1 |
Government | 1 |
Departmental Health Secretariat | 3 |
District Health Secretary | 2 |
District infrastructure secretary | 1 |
Departmental Undersecretary for Disaster Risk Management | 2 |
District Risk Management Office | 2 |
Regional Autonomous Corporation of the Atlantic, (Sp. CRA) | 3 |
Military unit | 2 |
Total | 20 |
Institutions | Number of Experts |
Regional Autonomous Corporation of the Atlantic, (Sp. CRA) | 3 |
APELL | 2 |
Secretary of culture | 2 |
Simon Bolivar University | 2 |
Naval School of Barranquilla | 2 |
District Secretary of Education | 1 |
District Secretary of Culture | 1 |
Local government | 1 |
District Health Secretary | 1 |
Total | 15 |
Appendix B. List of Epistemic Experts Participates in the Questionnaire
Institutions | Number of Experts |
| 4 |
| 2 |
| 3 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 3 |
| 4 |
| 4 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 2 |
Total | 40 |
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No | Type | Hazard | Development Plan 2016–2019 [45] | Atlantic Agenda Vision 2020 [48] | POMCAS [42,43,44] | PGRDDEIPB [41]. | POT 2012–2032 [40] | PMILO 2015 [45] | PDGRA [39] | POT 2014 [24] | Stream Master Plan [47] | Total | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Magdalena River | Mallorquín Swamp | Channel Dique | |||||||||||||
1 | Natural | Geological | Landslides | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 10 | |
2 | Granular flows | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 8 | |||||
3 | Liquefaction | x | x | x | x | x | x | 6 | |||||||
4 | Tsunami/tidal wave | x | x | x | x | x | 5 | ||||||||
5 | Earthquake | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 8 | |||||
6 | Volcanic mud and gas flows | x | x | x | x | x | x | 6 | |||||||
7 | Coastal erosion | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 10 | |||
8 | Hydrometeorological | Hurricanes | x | x | x | x | x | 5 | |||||||
9 | Gale force winds | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 7 | ||||||
10 | Electrical storms | x | x | 2 | |||||||||||
11 | Droughts and desertification | x | x | x | x | 4 | |||||||||
12 | Flood by upswelling | x | x | 2 | |||||||||||
13 | Flood by streams | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 10 | |||
14 | Flood due to heavy rains | x | x | 2 | |||||||||||
15 | Sea level rise | x | x | x | x | 4 | |||||||||
16 | Technological | Toxic gas leaks | x | 1 | |||||||||||
17 | Explosions | x | x | x | 3 | ||||||||||
18 | Oil spills | x | x | x | x | 4 | |||||||||
19 | Structural fire | x | x | x | x | x | x | 6 | |||||||
20 | Anthropogenic | Environmental degradation | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 7 | |||||
21 | Water contamination | x | x | x | x | x | 5 | ||||||||
22 | Contamination by solid waste | x | x | x | x | x | 5 | ||||||||
23 | Air pollution | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | 8 | |||||
24 | Forest fires | x | x | x | 3 | ||||||||||
25 | Colmatation 1 | x | x | 2 | |||||||||||
26 | Social | Extortion | 0 | ||||||||||||
27 | Poverty | 0 | |||||||||||||
28 | Sexual abuse | 0 | |||||||||||||
29 | Drug addiction | 0 | |||||||||||||
30 | Epidemiological and of Health | Malnutrition | 0 | ||||||||||||
31 | Infant mortality | 0 | |||||||||||||
32 | Sexually transmitted diseases | 0 | |||||||||||||
33 | Dengue | 0 | |||||||||||||
34 | Chicunguña | 0 | |||||||||||||
35 | Zika | 0 | |||||||||||||
36 | Covid 19 | 0 | |||||||||||||
Total by the source of information | 13 | 6 | 11 | 8 | 12 | 12 | 14 | 10 | 23 | 16 | 8 |
N | Type | Hazard | Presence (x) | Probability | Frequency | Exposition | Affected Area | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||
1 | Natural | Geological | Landslides | 28 | 11 | 10 | 7 | 15 | 6 | 1 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 8 | 6 | 3 | ||||
2 | Granular flows | 33 | 5 | 18 | 6 | 4 | 11 | 15 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 8 | 5 | 14 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 9 | 10 | 6 | ||||
3 | Liquefaction | 34 | 1 | 16 | 11 | 6 | 4 | 15 | 15 | 7 | 12 | 11 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 16 | 5 | 6 | ||||||
4 | Tsunami / tidal wave | 28 | 2 | 14 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 10 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 7 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 7 | 4 | 5 | 9 | 3 | ||||
5 | Earthquake | 32 | 4 | 5 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 8 | 13 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 8 | 6 | 12 | ||||
6 | Volcanic mud and gas flows | 12 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 2 | 3 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | ||||||
7 | Coastal erosion | 15 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 5 | ||||
8 | Hydrometeorological | Hurricanes | 31 | 4 | 8 | 10 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 13 | 6 | 3 | 9 | 12 | 7 | 5 | 8 | 10 | 8 | |||||
9 | Gale Winds | 40 | 11 | 15 | 14 | 7 | 13 | 12 | 8 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 10 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 10 | 12 | ||||||
10 | Electrical storms | 18 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 5 | |||
11 | Droughts and desertification | 14 | 2 | 6 | 6 | 4 | | | 1 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 6 | ||||||
12 | Flood by upwelling | 17 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 10 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 5 | |||
13 | Flood by streams | 40 | 6 | 8 | 16 | 10 | 15 | 19 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 18 | 8 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 11 | 11 | ||||||
14 | Flood due to heavy rains | 35 | 6 | 5 | 13 | 11 | 6 | 11 | 8 | 10 | 6 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 6 | 7 | 12 | 10 | ||||||
15 | Sea level rise | 12 | 1 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 2 | |||
16 | Technological | Toxic gas leaks | 18 | 2 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 3 | ||||
17 | Explosions | 17 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 5 | 4 | |||||
18 | Spills | 18 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | |||||
19 | 1Structural fire | 16 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 4 | |||
20 | Anthropogenic | Environmental degradation | 17 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 9 | |||
21 | Water contamination | 35 | 6 | 4 | 12 | 13 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 7 | 11 | 13 | 11 | 11 | 5 | 6 | 11 | 13 | ||||||
22 | Contamination by solid waste | 17 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 7 | |||||
23 | Air pollution | 20 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 2 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 9 | ||||||
24 | Forest fires | 38 | 6 | 6 | 10 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 13 | 7 | 7 | 15 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 13 | 11 | |||||
25 | Colmatation | 14 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 4 | |||||||
26 | Social | Extortion | 40 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 8 | 8 | 10 | 14 | 7 | 9 | 9 | 15 | 14 | 26 | ||||||||
27 | Poverty | 38 | 18 | 20 | 9 | 14 | 15 | 9 | 16 | 13 | 8 | 14 | 16 | |||||||||||
28 | Sexual abuse | 21 | 3 | 6 | 3 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 2 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 10 | |||||||
29 | Drug addiction | 33 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 9 | 11 | 8 | 12 | 13 | 10 | 12 | 11 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 13 | |||||||
30 | Epidemiological and of Health | Malnutrition | 38 | 6 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 6 | 14 | 9 | 9 | 6 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 7 | 10 | 9 | 12 | |||||
31 | Infant mortality | 16 | 3 | 6 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 9 | 4 | 2 | 10 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 8 | |||||||
32 | Sexually transmitted diseases | 16 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 8 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 9 | |||||||||
33 | Dengue | 16 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 8 | ||||||
34 | Chicunguña | 16 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 8 | ||||
35 | Zika | 16 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 7 | ||||
36 | Covid 19 | 40 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 19 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 12 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 24 | ||||||||
Total by the source of information | 37 |
Weaknesses | Strengths |
---|---|
1. Low budget for Risk Management 2. Outdated Management Plan [24]. 3. Poor identification of the hazard hierarchy in planning and risk management plans for BMA.4. An increasing number of low-income households in BMA. 5. Poor performance by public officials in charge of disaster risk management in BMA. 6. Increase in migrant settlements towards the western slopes in the capital of BMA due to deficient territorial and land use control. 7. Increase of the areas exposed to the risk of flooding, such as the land surrounding the Magdalena River wetlands. 8. Little awareness and empowerment of citizens regarding biotic and abiotic resource management, (especially water). 9. Low level of government response to some hazards. 10. Little attention to families living in precarious conditions. 11. Increased land invasion in high-risk areas that are not “liberated” but reoccupied by resettled migrants. 12. High densification in specific city sectors and restricted use of green areas, open spaces, and recreational areas. 13. BMA transformed by anthropic interventions. 14. Little implementation of corrective and preventive measures to relocate populations from high-risk areas, improving their livelihoods, employment rate, access to services. 15. Insufficient promotion of urban agriculture. 16. Weak government management to minimize mitigable environmental risks and hazards such as atmospheric pollution. 17. Proliferation of commercial activities in residential areas. 18. Unjustified delays in the relocation processes affecting populations due to hazards like landslides and granular flows. 19. Few urban planning initiatives to change the use of liberated territories and convert them into recreational or productive public space. 20. Occupation of fragile local ecosystems and vulnerable areas in the BMA. 22. Serious problems due to poor solid waste management inside the newly built rainwater runoff channels, caused by the lack of an environmental culture in the population living in BMA (See Figure 6a–d). 23. Corruption and centralization are considered as the most significant problems to overcome for facing hazards on the territory. Some measures require the authorization of the national government to obtain economic resources. 24. Limited infrastructure and personnel capacity to attend emergencies, especially in the health system. 25. Poor adoption of measures for adapting to climate change in planning and risk management plans. | 1. Local governments have carried out different actions in the search to increase the knowledge of hazards among the inhabitants of the BMA. 2. Several local authorities and decision-makers have managed resources to promote investments to solve the impacts of hazards. Channeling of the streams in the capital of BMA is the most important action (See Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5). 3. BMA is increasingly attractive to investments. 4. Development of new studies to update the management of flooding hazard in BMA. 5. Design and implement structural measures developed to control impacts on hydrographic basins [42,43,44]. 6. Government strategies include funds for the construction of artificial conduits, retention or detention works, channelling and sediment control, as well as new collectors and water storage works, which improves the macro-drainage network of the streams (See Figure 4). 7. Government approval of investments to improve the micro-drainage network in the capital city of BMA, which guarantees efficient underground and surface drainage (See Figure 5). 8. Development of government measures for maintenance and cleaning of canals, as well as other prevention and management actions related to raising public awareness and control of impacts derived from final disposal of solid urban waste (See Figure 7). 9. High level of human capital formation. 10. Small territory that allows execution of integrated strategies. 11. Academic sector willing to contribute to solving problems. 12. Private sector ready to enter public-private alliances, as well as to address identified and characterized risk scenarios, especially technological risk. |
Institutions | Assessment Scale | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 (Bad) | 2 (Poor) | 3 (Regular) | 4 (Good) | 5 (Very Good) | |
Mayor’s Office | 23 | 10 | 7 | ||
Barranquilla Verde | 2 | 19 | 11 | 8 | |
Government | 14 | 15 | 11 | ||
Departmental Health Secretariat | 1 | 1 | 18 | 15 | 5 |
District Health Secretary | 16 | 14 | 10 | ||
Departmental infrastructure secretary | 22 | 12 | 6 | ||
District infrastructure secretary | 2 | 3 | 25 | 7 | 3 |
Departmental Undersecretary for Disaster Risk Management | 17 | 14 | 9 | ||
District Risk Management Office | 9 | 15 | 16 | ||
Regional Autonomous Corporation of the Atlantic, (Sp. CRA) | 28 | 10 | 2 | ||
Regional Autonomous Corporation of Rio Grande de la Magdalena (Sp. CORMAGDALENA) | 1 | 30 | 8 | 1 | |
Colombian Civil Defense Department. | 36 | 4 | |||
Colombian Red Cross of the Department. | 12 | 18 | 10 | ||
Atlantic Firefighters | 14 | 18 | 8 | ||
Commander of the Departmental Police or his delegate | 2 | 3 | 28 | 6 | 1 |
Military Unit | 32 | 5 | 3 | ||
Weighted total value of Institutions (I) | 0.3 | 0.6 | 21.4 | 11.4 | 6.3 |
FG-1 | 19 | ||||
FG-2 | 19 | ||||
FG-3 | 18 | ||||
FG-4 | 19 | ||||
Weighted total value (I+FG) | 0.3 | 0.6 | 77.4 | 30.4 | 6.3 |
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Milanes, C.B.; Martínez-González, M.B.; Moreno-Gómez, J.; Saltarín J., A.; Suarez, A.; Padilla-Llano, S.E.; Vasquez, A.; Lavell, A.; Zielinski, S. Multiple Hazards and Governance Model in the Barranquilla Metropolitan Area, Colombia. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2669. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052669
Milanes CB, Martínez-González MB, Moreno-Gómez J, Saltarín J. A, Suarez A, Padilla-Llano SE, Vasquez A, Lavell A, Zielinski S. Multiple Hazards and Governance Model in the Barranquilla Metropolitan Area, Colombia. Sustainability. 2021; 13(5):2669. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052669
Chicago/Turabian StyleMilanes, Celene B., Marina B. Martínez-González, Jorge Moreno-Gómez, Ana Saltarín J., Andres Suarez, Samuel E. Padilla-Llano, Alex Vasquez, Allan Lavell, and Seweryn Zielinski. 2021. "Multiple Hazards and Governance Model in the Barranquilla Metropolitan Area, Colombia" Sustainability 13, no. 5: 2669. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052669