Changes in Walkable Streets during the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Suburban City in the Osaka Metropolitan Area
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background: Walkable Neighborhoods during the COVID-19 Pandemic
1.2. Purpose: Walkable Streets Where Traffic Behavior Has Changed
1.3. Novelty: Traffic Behavior Change during the COVID-19 Pandemic
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. GPS Location History Data
2.2. Empirical Bayesian Kriging
2.3. Urban Ecological Analysis
3. Results
3.1. EBK-Speed Map
3.2. EBK-Speed-Change of Each Residential Cluster
3.3. Mobility Change of Each Residential Cluster
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Heading | Inner-City Cluster | Business Center Cluster | Mining Industry Cluster | Dense Cluster | Public Housing Cluster | Non-Residential Cluster | Agriculture Cluster | Sprawl Cluster | High-Rise Residential Cluster | Mountain Cluster | Old New-Town Cluster | Suburban Agriculture Cluster | Rural Cluster |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of residential areas in the cluster (N) | 1937 | 5472 | 728 | 672 | 889 | 7403 | 297 | 4998 | 628 | 7251 | 2546 | 2914 | 1033 |
Urbanized area ratio (%) | 84.5 | 86.2 | 45.1 | 77.1 | 72.4 | 55.2 | 23.6 | 66.2 | 61.8 | 40.7 | 59.1 | 21.3 | 24.9 |
Average distance from the center (km) | 19.3 | 34.5 | 59.9 | 31.2 | 26.7 | 43.9 | 71.6 | 38.2 | 25.9 | 56.1 | 26.7 | 63.1 | 52.1 |
Population under 15 years old (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.10 |
Population between 16 and 64 years old (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Population over 65 years old (%) | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.15 |
Population of foreigners (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
Population who live in their own houses (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.15 |
Population who live in public housing (%) | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
Population who live in private rented houses (%) | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.07 |
Population who live in houses for employees (%) | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
Population who live in shared houses (%) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.09 |
Households who live outside of houses (%) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
Households who live in detached houses (%) | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.19 |
Households who live in traditional nagaya houses (%) | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.07 |
Households who live in apartments (%) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
Households who live in 1- or 2-storey buildings (%) | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.16 |
Households who live in 3- to 5-storey buildings (%) | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.11 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
Households who live in 6- to 10-storey buildings (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
Households who live in 11(or more)-storey buildings (%) | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Population who work in agriculture and forestry (%) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.03 |
Population who work in a fishery (%) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Population who work in the mining industry (%) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
Population who work in the construction industry (%) | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.15 |
Population who work in the manufacturing industry (%) | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.12 |
Population who work in the electricity, gas, and water supply industries (%) | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
Population who work in the information industry (%) | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.06 |
Population who work in the transport industry (%) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Population who work in the retail industry (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.13 |
Population who work in the financial industry (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.08 |
Population who work in the real estate business (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.08 |
Population who work as researchers or professionals (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
Population who work in the service industry (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.12 |
Population who work in the entertainment industry (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.09 |
Population who work in education (%) | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.10 |
Population who work in the medical/welfare industry (%) | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.13 |
Population who work in a joint service industry (%) | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.18 |
Population who work in another service industry (%) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Population who work as civil servants (%) | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 |
Population who work at home (%) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.13 |
Population who work in their own city (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.14 |
Population who work in other cities (%) | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.10 |
Population who work in other wards of their own cities (%) | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Population who work in other cities of their own prefectures (%) | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.12 |
Population who work in other prefectures (%) | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.05 |
Population who go to school in their own city (%) | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.09 |
Population who go to school in other cities (%) | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
Population who go to school in other wards of their own cities (%) | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Population who go to school in other cities of their own prefectures (%) | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.13 |
Population who go to school in other prefectures (%) | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.16 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.08 |
Population who have lived in the area since birth (%) | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.17 |
Population who have lived in the area for 1 year (%) | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.08 |
Population who have lived in the area for the past 5 years (%) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.09 |
Population who have lived in the area for the past 10 years (%) | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.11 |
Population who have lived in the area for the past 20 years (%) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.13 |
Population who have lived in the area for over 20 years (%) | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.15 |
Heading | Inner-City Cluster | Business Center Cluster | Mining Industry Cluster | Dense Cluster | Public Housing Cluster | Non-Residential Cluster | Agriculture Cluster | Sprawl Cluster | High-Rise Residential Cluster | Mountain Cluster | Old New-Town Cluster | Suburban Agriculture Cluster | Rural Cluster |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public facilities land (m2) | 39,637 | 18,936 | 24,393 | 65,205 | 32,639 | 40,830 | 32,143 | 33,208 | 41,080 | 17,951 | 23,897 | 19,784 | 34,391 |
Low-rise residential land (m2) | 32,789 | 13,485 | 35,363 | 28,848 | 19,301 | 3504 | 111,001 | 26,419 | 48,553 | 17,373 | 39,973 | 41,492 | 72,239 |
High-rise residential land (m2) | 9053 | 1632 | 4380 | 14,971 | 39,734 | 583 | 525 | 3654 | 21,313 | 807 | 4928 | 701 | 6887 |
Park green land (m2) | 11,649 | 5947 | 9426 | 10,631 | 14,580 | 13,580 | 41,421 | 7421 | 14,513 | 7716 | 7405 | 15,447 | 17,434 |
Commercial facilities land (m2) | 17,635 | 7810 | 10,736 | 20,405 | 10,950 | 11,914 | 31,938 | 11,282 | 13,067 | 6388 | 7436 | 14571 | 24,132 |
Dense residential land (m2) | 5531 | 1619 | 5025 | 3073 | 2458 | 265 | 4379 | 4163 | 2633 | 1325 | 3540 | 933 | 11,780 |
Mountain forest land (m2) | 109,634 | 205,136 | 419,545 | 196,341 | 56,359 | 652,836 | 2,742,099 | 66,609 | 216,845 | 676,535 | 272,460 | 2120,660 | 628,045 |
Industrial land (m2) | 6192 | 3303 | 7430 | 8553 | 5245 | 18,729 | 34,147 | 7846 | 5047 | 5513 | 3327 | 12,189 | 15,315 |
Rice field (m2) | 4655 | 3102 | 11,091 | 5342 | 3631 | 10,420 | 248,038 | 5034 | 3573 | 14,977 | 3650 | 107,506 | 46,223 |
Farm land (m2) | 3541 | 1619 | 7553 | 2688 | 3490 | 3963 | 175,850 | 4020 | 3076 | 9034 | 2929 | 73,126 | 35,252 |
Vacant land (m2) | 7493 | 3565 | 9145 | 11,319 | 7761 | 7413 | 60,975 | 6932 | 12,634 | 6345 | 9059 | 23,757 | 23,063 |
developing land (m2) | 275 | 745 | 3244 | 283 | 64 | 5920 | 3203 | 1890 | 355 | 1699 | 2028 | 5318 | 2704 |
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Cluster | Speed Change (Figure 7) | Streets (Figure 8) | Transportation Means (Figure 9) |
---|---|---|---|
Inner-city cluster | Decreased | Narrow streets (decrease in speed) Neighborhood streets (decrease in speed) Main neighborhood streets (decrease in speed) | |
Dense cluster | Increased | Narrow streets (increase in speed) Neighborhood streets (increase in speed) | Walking (decrease in logs) Cycling (increase in logs) |
Sprawl cluster | Increased | Narrow streets (increase in speed) Neighborhood streets (increase in speed) Main neighborhood streets (increase in speed) | Walking (decrease in logs) Cycling (increase in logs) Car (decrease in logs) |
Mountain cluster | Increased | Narrow streets (increase in speed) Neighborhood streets (increase in speed) Main neighborhood streets (increase in speed) | Cycling (increase in logs) Car (decrease in logs) |
Old NT cluster | Increased | Narrow streets (increase in speed) Neighborhood streets (increase in speed) Main neighborhood streets (increase in speed) | Walking (decrease in logs) Cycling (increase in logs) |
Rural cluster | Decreased | Narrow streets (decrease in speed) |
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Kato, H.; Matsushita, D. Changes in Walkable Streets during the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Suburban City in the Osaka Metropolitan Area. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7442. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137442
Kato H, Matsushita D. Changes in Walkable Streets during the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Suburban City in the Osaka Metropolitan Area. Sustainability. 2021; 13(13):7442. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137442
Chicago/Turabian StyleKato, Haruka, and Daisuke Matsushita. 2021. "Changes in Walkable Streets during the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Suburban City in the Osaka Metropolitan Area" Sustainability 13, no. 13: 7442. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137442