Desirable Effects from Disturbance Ecology—A Paradox within Conservation Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction—Natural Disturbances and Conservation Strategies
1.1. Obstacles to Allow or Introduce Natural Disturbances into Protected Areas
1.2. Aim and the Swedish Context
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Document Study
2.1.1. Document Analysis
2.2. Interviews
3. Results—Historic Perspective on Natural Disturbances within Swedish National Parks from a Conservation Management Perspective
3.1. Benefits around Occurred Historic Natural Disturbance (Category I)
3.2. Not Occurred Historic Natural Disturbances (Category II)
Obstacles around Historic Natural Disturbances-Human Interference
4. Results—Future Perspective on Natural Disturbances within Swedish National Parks from a Conservation Management Perspective
4.1. Possible Benefits around Future Natural Disturbances (Category III)
4.1.1. Obstacles around Future Natural Disturbances—The Park Itself Is Too “Valuable” (Category IV)
4.1.2. Obstacles around Future Natural Disturbances—The Surroundings Would Be at Risk (Category IV)
4.2. Possible Benefits around the Mimic of Natural Disturbances by Using Conservation Burning
Obstacles around the Mimic of Natural Disturbances by Using Conservation Burning—The Park Itself Is Too “Valuable”
4.3. Free Development
5. Discussion
Method Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Interview Guide
- Has there been known natural hazards within the National Park area?
- ○
- What type?
- ○
- How was the area affected?
- ○
- Was this before the National Park was established?
- ○
- Has there been a hazard after the National Park was established?
- ○
- Was it managed? If so, how (clearance, fire extinguishing etc.)?
- ○
- What was the reason for the chosen management?
- Which natural hazards are possible to occur within the park area? What are the possible consequences?
- Has there been a risk assessment made? Is it possible to take part of?
- ○
- When making a risk assessment, is the local population taken into account? How? Why?
- ○
- What is the risk/what can be lost due to natural hazard?
- ○
- Is the risk considered a problem? Why?
- Has there been preparedness made in case of a hazard? Examples?
- ○
- Why has there been preparedness made? What is it that you want to protect?
- ○
- Are there contingency plans? Other types of preparing work in case of natural hazard?
- Ask about fire, flood, storm, pests, snow damage and drought.
- If there is no risk assessment made, might there be a worry about natural hazards?
- ○
- What is the worry about/what might be lost?
- ○
- Has there been measurements in case of a hazard? Examples?
- ▪
- Why has there been preparedness made? What is it that you want to protect?
- ▪
- Are there contingency plans? Other types of preparing work in case of natural hazard?
- Are there local extinguishing plans?
- Is conservation burning used?
- ○
- Is it used differently within the park area?
- ○
- Compared to a spontaneous fire, is there a difference? Examples?
- ○
- What is the reason for using conservation burning?
- Why is conservation burning not used?
- When making a conservation burning, is the local population taken into account?
- ○
- How?
- ○
- Why?
- Are there environmental values that could benefit from a natural hazard? Examples?
- Are there environmental values that could be lost due to lost natural hazards?
References
- Franklin, J.F.; Spies, T.A.; Pelt, R.V.; Carey, A.B.; Thornburgh, D.A.; Berg, D.R.; Lindenmayer, D.B.; Harmon, M.E.; Keeton, W.S.; Shaw, D.C.; et al. Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglas-fir forests as an example. For. Ecol. Manag. 2002, 155, 399–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner, M.G. Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology 2010, 91, 2833–2849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Perry, D.A.; Hessburg, P.F.; Skinner, C.N.; Spies, T.A.; Stephens, S.L.; Taylor, A.H.; Franklin, J.F.; McComb, B.; Riegel, G. The ecology of mixed severity fire regimes in Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. For. Ecol. Manag. 2011, 262, 703–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buma, B.; Schultz, C.; Leverkus, A.B. Disturbances as opportunities: Learning from disturbance-response parallels in social and ecological systems to better adapt to climate change. J. Appl. Ecol. 2020, 57, 1113–1124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Engelmark, O. Boreal forest disturbances. In Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground; Walker, L.R., Ed.; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 1999; Volume 1, pp. 161–186. [Google Scholar]
- Lake, P.S. Disturbance, patchiness, and diversity in streams. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 2000, 19, 573–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Mori, A.S. Ecosystem management based on natural disturbances: Hierarchical context and non-equilibrium paradigm. J. Appl. Ecol. 2011, 48, 280–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bourg, N.A.; Gill, D.E.; McShea, W.J. Fire and Canopy Removal Effects on Demography and Reproduction in Turkeybeard (Xerophyllum asphodeloides), a Fire-Dependent Temperate Forest Herb. J. Sustain. For. 2015, 34, 71–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parisien, M.A.; Moritz, M.A. Environmental controls on the distribution of wildfire at multiple spatial scales. Ecol. Monogr. 2009, 79, 127–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lybrand, R.A.; Gallery, R.E.; Trahan, N.A.; Moore, D.J.P. Disturbance Alters the Relative Importance of Topographic and Biogeochemical Controls on Microbial Activity in Temperate Montane Forests. Forests 2018, 9, 97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Long, J.N. Emulating natural disturbance regimes as a basis for forest management: A North American view. For. Ecol. Manag. 2009, 257, 1868–1873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cardoso, J.C.; Burton, P.J.; Elkin, C.M. A disturbance ecology perspective on silvicultural site preparation. Forests 2020, 11, 1278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kleinman, J.S.; Goode, J.D.; Fries, A.C.; Hart, J.L. Ecological consequences of compound disturbances in forest ecosystems: A systematic review. Ecosphere 2019, 10, e02962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Rood, S.B.; Goater, L.A.; Mahoney, J.M.; Pearce, C.M.; Smith, D.G. Floods, fire, and ice: Disturbance ecology of riparian cottonwoods. Can. J. Bot. 2007, 85, 1019–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brawn, J.D.; Robinson, S.K.; Thompson, F.R. The role of disturbance in the ecology and conservation of birds. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2001, 32, 251–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Looney, C.E.; Waring, K.M. Pinus strobiformis (southwestern white pine) stand dynamics, regeneration, and disturbance ecology: A review. For. Ecol. Manag. 2013, 287, 90–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonnicksen, T.M.; Stone, E.C. Restoring naturalness to national parks. Environ. Manag. 1985, 9, 479–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobbs, R.J.; Cole, D.N.; Yung, L.; Zavaleta, E.S.; Aplet, G.H.; Chapin Iii, F.S.; Landres, P.B.; Parsons, D.J.; Stephenson, N.L.; White, P.S.; et al. Guiding concepts for park and wilderness stewardship in an era of global environmental change. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2010, 8, 483–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seastedt, T.R.; Hobbs, R.J.; Suding, K.N. Management of novel ecosystems: Are novel approaches required? Front. Ecol. Environ. 2008, 6, 547–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Silva Pedro, M.; Rammer, W.; Seidl, R. A disturbance-induced increase in tree species diversity facilitates forest productivity. Landsc. Ecol. 2016, 31, 989–1004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNEP-WCMC, IUCN and NGS. Protected Planet Report 2018; UNEP-WCMC, IUCN and NGS: Cambridge UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Convention on Biological Diversity. Updated Zero Draft of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. Available online: https://www.cbd.int/article/zero-draft-update-august-2020 (accessed on 24 November 2020).
- Hobbs, R.J.; Higgs, E.S.; Hall, C.M. Expanding the Portfolio: Conserving Nature’s Masterpieces in a Changing World. Bioscience 2017, 67, 568–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poff, N.L.; Allan, J.D.; Bain, M.B.; Karr, J.R.; Prestegaard, K.L.; Richter, B.D.; Sparks, R.E.; Stromberg, J.C. The Natural Flow Regime: A paradigm for riverine conservation and restoration. Bioscience 1997, 47, 769–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parsons, D.J.; Graber, D.M.; Agee, J.K.; Van Wagtendonk, J.W. Natural fire management in National Parks. Environ. Manag. 1986, 10, 21–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schwartz, M.W.; Butt, N.; Dolanc, C.R.; Holguin, A.; Moritz, M.A.; North, M.P.; Safford, H.D.; Stephenson, N.L.; Thorne, J.H.; van Mantgem, P.J. Increasing elevation of fire in the Sierra Nevada and implications for forest change. ECOSPHERE 2015, 6, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raiesi, F.; Pejman, M. Assessment of post-wildfire soil quality and its recovery in semi-arid upland rangelands in Central Iran through selecting the minimum data set and quantitative soil quality index. Catena 2021, 201, 105202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sommerfeld, A.; Senf, C.; Buma, B.; D’Amato, A.W.; Després, T.; Díaz-Hormazábal, I.; Fraver, S.; Frelich, L.E.; Gutiérrez, Á.G.; Hart, S.J.; et al. Patterns and drivers of recent disturbances across the temperate forest biome. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 4355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez, P.; Ruiz-Herrera, A.; San Luis, A.M. Management guidelines in disturbance-Prone populations: The importance of the intervention time. J. Theor. Biol. 2020, 486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watson, S.J.; Taylor, R.S.; Nimmo, D.G.; Kelly, L.T.; Haslem, A.; Clarke, M.F.; Bennett, A.F. Effects of time since fire on birds: How informative are generalized fire response curves for conservation management? Ecol. Appl. 2012, 22, 685–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Kreutzweiser, D.P.; Sibley, P.K.; Richardson, J.S.; Gordon, A.M. Introduction and a theoretical basis for using disturbance by forest management activities to sustain aquatic ecosystems. Freshw. Sci. 2012, 31, 224–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Hobbs, R.J.; Huenneke, L.F. Disturbance, diversity, and invasion—Implications for conservations. Conserv. Biol. 1992, 6, 324–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Mönkkönen, M. Managing Nordic boreal forest landscapes for biodiversity: Ecological and economic perspectives. Biodivers. Conserv. 1999, 8, 85–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lindbladh, M.; Brunet, J.; Hannon, G.; Niklasson, M.; Eliasson, P.; Eriksson, G.; Ekstrand, A. Forest history as a basis for ecosystem restoration—A multidisciplinary case study in a South Swedish temperate landscape. Restoration Ecology 2007, 15, 284–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Franc, N.; Götmark, F. Openness in management: Hands-off vs. partial cutting in conservation forests, and the response of beetles. Biol. Conserv. 2008, 141, 2310–2321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Österlin, C.; Schlyter, P.; Stjernquist, I. Different Worldviews as Impediments to Integrated Nature and Cultural Heritage Conservation Management: Experiences from Protected Areas in Northern Sweden. Sustainability 2020, 12, 3533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bradshaw, R.H.W.; Jones, C.S.; Edwards, S.J.; Hannon, G.E. Forest continuity and conservation value in Western Europe. Holocene 2015, 25, 194–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Ohlson, M.; Söderström, L.; Hörnberg, G.; Zackrisson, O.; Hermansson, J. Habitat qualities versus long-term continuity as determinants of biodiversity in boreal old-growth swamp forests. Biol. Conserv. 1997, 81, 221–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zackrisson, O. Influence of Forest Fires on the North Swedish Boreal Forest. Oikos 1977, 29, 22–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lindbladh, M.; Niklasson, M.; Nilsson, S.G. Long-time record of fire and open canopy in a high biodiversity forest in southeast Sweden. Biol. Conserv. 2003, 114, 231–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuuluvainen, T.; Hofgaard, A.; Aakala, T.; Jonsson, B.G. Reprint of: North Fennoscandian mountain forests: History, composition, disturbance dynamics and the unpredictable future. For. Ecol. Manag. 2017, 388, 90–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lazdinis, M.; Angelstam, P. Functionality of riparian forest ecotones in the context of former Soviet Union and Swedish forest management histories. For. Policy Econ. 2005, 7, 321–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lännenpää, A.; Aakala, T.; Kauhanen, H.; Kuuluvainen, T. Tree mortality agents in pristine Norway spruce forests in northern Fennoscandia. Silva Fenn. 2008, 42, 151–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Aakala, T.; Kuuluvainen, T.; Wallenius, T.; Kauhanen, H. Contrasting Patterns of Tree Mortality in Late-Successional Picea abies Stands in Two Areas in Northern Fennoscandia. J. Veg. Sci. 2009, 20, 1016–1026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- SFS 1998:808 Miljöbalken [the Environmental Code]. Miljöbalken. SFS 1998:808 1998, 7, 2–3. Available online: https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/miljobalk-1998808_sfs-1998-808 (accessed on 12 January 2021).
- SCB. Protected Nature 2018; MI 41 SM 1901 2018-12-31 Corrected 2020-05-14; Statistiska Centralbyrån: Stockholm, Sweden, 2018; pp. 1–73. Available online: https://www.scb.se/contentassets/0581e8801be54a20983ef7afd0281214/mi0603_2018a01_sm_mi41sm1901.pdf (accessed on 24 November 2020).
- The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Nationalparksplan för Sverige Långsiktig Plan; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 2008; ISBN 978-91-620-1269-4.
- SFS 1987:938. Nationalparksförordning (1987:938) [National Park Regulation]; Sveriges Riksdag: Stockholm, Sweden, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Bryman, A.; Nilsson, B. Samhällsvetenskapliga Metoder, 3rd ed.; Liber: Stockholm Sweden, 2018; ISBN 978-91-47-11206-7. [Google Scholar]
- The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Sweden’s Environment Problems and Protection 1960–2010; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2011.
- Kvale, S.; Brinkmann, S. Den Kvalitativa Forskningsintervjun; Studentlitteratur: Lund, Sweden, 2017; ISBN 9789144101675. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Djurö. Djurö Nationalpark Skötselplan och Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 1991; p. 35. ISBN 91-620-0060-8.
- Proposition 1990/91:31. Regeringens Proposition 1990/91:31 om två nya Nationalparker: Björnlandet och Djurö; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1990; p. 9. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Kosterhavet. Skötselplan för Kosterhavets Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2009; p. 234. ISBN 978-91-620-8471-4.
- Proposition 2008/09:98. Regeringens Proposition 2008/09:98 Kosterhavet Nationalpark m.m.; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 2008; p. 20. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Padjelanta. Padjelanta Nationalpark Skötselplan med Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 1993; p. 46. ISBN 91-620-0081-0.
- Proposition 1962:126. Proposition 1962:126 om att Avsätta Området Padjelanta i Norrbottens län till Nationalpark, m. m.; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1962; p. 35. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Stenshuvud. Stenshuvud Nationalpark Skötselplan; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 1986; p. 105. ISBN 91-620-0018-7.
- Management plan Stenshuvud. Skötselplan för Stenshuvud Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2004; p. 58. ISBN 620-0133-7.
- Proposition 1983/84:100. Proposition 1983/84:100 Bilaga 11 Jordbruksdepartementet. In Regeringens Proposition 1983/84:100 med Förslag Till Statsbudget för Budgetåret 1984/85; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1983; pp. 1–136. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Söderåsen. Söderåsens Nationalpark Skötselplan; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2001; p. 57. ISBN 91-620-5152-0.
- Proposition 2000/01:82. Regeringens Proposition 2000/01:82 Söderåsens Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 2001; p. 8. [Google Scholar]
- Proposition 2016/17:97. Regeringens Proposition 2016/17:97 Utvidgning av Björnlandets Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 2016; p. 32. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Björnlandet. Björnlandet Nationalpark Skötselplan med Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Solna, Sweden, 1991; p. 28. ISBN 91-620-0063-2.
- Management plan Björnlandet. Skötselplan för Björnlandets Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2017; ISBN 978-91-620-8788-3.
- Proposition 2001/02:116. Regeringens Proposition 2001/02:116 Fulufjällets Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 2001; p. 10. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Fulufjället. Skötselpan Fulufjällets Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2002; ISBN 91-620-5246-6.
- Proposition 1997/98:91. Regeringens Proposition 1997/98:91; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1998; p. 9. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Färnebofjärden. Färnebofjärdens Nationalpark Skötselplan med Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 1998; p. 51. ISBN 91-620-0107-8.
- Management plan Färnebofjärden. Skötselplan för Färnebofjärdens Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2018; p. 150. ISBN 978-91-620-8806-4.
- Proposition 1993/94:254. Regeringens Proposition 1993/94:254; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1994; p. 8. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Haparanda Archipelago. Haparanda Skärgårds Skötselplan med Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 1995; p. 38. ISBN 91-620-0087-X.
- Proposition 1978/79:217. Regeringens Proposition 1978/79:217 om Bildande av Nationalparker i Skuleskogen och Tiveden; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1978; p. 16. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Skuleskogen. Skötselplan för Skuleskogens Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Solna, Sweden, 1990; p. 35. ISBN 221-1610-89.
- Management plan Skuleskogen. Skötselplan för Skuleskogens Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm, Sweden, 2009; ISBN 978-91-620-8410-3.
- Proposition 1980/81:100. Prop. 1980/81:100 Bilaga 13 Jordbruksdepartementet. In Regeringens Proposition 1980/81:100 med Förslag till Statsbudget för Budgetåret 1981/82; Regeringen: Stockholm, Sweden, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Store Mosse. Store Mosse Nationalpark Preliminär Skötselplan; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 1982; p. 36.
- Management plan Store Mosse. Skötselplan för Store Mosse Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 2002; p. 43.
- Management plan Store Mosse. Skötselplan för Store Mosse Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 2015; p. 84. ISBN 978-91-620-8741-8.
- Proposition 2016/17:96. Regeringens Proposition 2016/17:96 Utvidgning av Tivedens Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm Sweden, 2016; p. 28. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Tiveden. Skötselplan för Tivedens Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 1986; p. 40. ISBN 91-620-0011-X.
- Management plan Tiveden. Skötselplan för Tivedens Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 2017; p. 88. ISBN 978-91-620-8786-9.
- Proposition 1994/95:162. Regeringens Proposition 1994/95:162 Trestickla Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm Sweden, 1995; p. 8. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Tresticklan. Tresticklans Nationalpark Skötselplan med Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 1996; p. 61. ISBN 91-620-0095-0.
- Proposition 1992/93:205. Regeringens Proposition 1992/93:205 om Inrättande av Tyresta Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm Sweden, 1992; p. 8. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Tyresta. Tyresta Nationalparl Skötselplan Med Föreskrifter; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 1993; p. 58. ISBN 91-620-0078-0.
- Proposition 2017/18:87. Regeringens Proposition 2017/18:87 Åsnens Nationalpark; Regeringen: Stockholm Sweden, 2018; p. 32. [Google Scholar]
- Management plan Åsnen. Skötselplan för Åsnens Nationalpark; The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Stockholm Sweden, 2018; p. 85. ISBN 978-91-620-8817-0.
- Arts, K.; Fischer, A.; Van der Wal, R. The promise of wilderness between paradise and hell: A cultural-historical exploration of a Dutch national park. Landsc. Res. 2012, 37, 239–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wästfelt, A.; Saltzman, K.; Berg, E.G.; Dahlberg, A. Landscape care paradoxes: Swedish landscape care arrangements in a European context. Geoforum 2012, 43, 1171–1181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shultis, J.D.; Way, P.A. Changing Conceptions of Protected Areas and Conservation: Linking Conservation, Ecological Integrity and Tourism Management. J. Sustain. Tour. 2006, 14, 223–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buckley, R.; Brough, P.; Hague, L.; Chauvenet, A.; Fleming, C.; Roche, E.; Sofija, E.; Harris, N. Economic value of protected areas via visitor mental health. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Drobyshev, I.; Widerberg, M.K.; Andersson, M.; Wang, X.M.; Lindbladh, M. Thinning around old oaks in spruce production forests: Current practices show no positive effect on oak growth rates and need fine tuning. Scand. J. For. Res. 2019, 34, 126–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Paltto, H.; Nordén, B.; Götmark, F. Partial cutting as a conservation alternative for oak (Quercus spp.) forest-Response of bryophytes and lichens on dead wood. For. Ecol. Manag. 2008, 256, 536–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Positive | Negative | |
---|---|---|
Historic Natural Disturbance | I. Occurred historic natural disturbances which have contributed to the national park area. Interviewed National Park: Haparanda Archipelago | II. Not occurred historic natural disturbance which have been negative for the national park area. Interviewed National Park: Färnebofjärden. |
Possible Future Natural Disturbance | III. Possible future natural disturbances expected to contribute to the national park area. Interviewed National Park: Skuleskogen. | IV. Possible future natural disturbances should be avoided. Interviewed National Park: Stenshuvud. |
National Park Established (Extended) | Proposition Management Plan | Fire | Flood | Storm | Cloudburst | Snow Damage | Drought | Pests | Category (Table 1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Björnlandet 1991 (2017) | Proposition 1990/91:31 [53] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Proposition 2016/17:97 [63] | P, N | P | - | - | - | - | - | I, II | |
Management plan Björnlandet [64] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | I | |
Management plan Björnlandet [65] | P, N | P | - | - | - | - | - | I, II | |
Fulufjället 2002 | Proposition 2001/02:116 [66] | - | - | - | P | - | - | - | I |
Management plan Fulufjället [67] | P | - | - | P | - | - | - | I | |
Färnebofjärden 1998 | Proposition 1997/98:91 [68] | - | P | - | - | - | - | - | I |
Management plan Färnebofjärden [69] | P | P | P | - | - | - | - | I | |
Management plan Färnebofjärden [70] | P, N | P, N | P | - | - | - | - | I, II | |
Haparanda Archipelago 1994 | Proposition 1993/94:254 [71] | - | - | P | - | - | - | - | I |
Management plan Haparanda Archipelago [72] | - | - | P | - | - | - | - | I | |
Skuleskogen 1984 (2009) | Proposition 1978/79:217 [73] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Proposition 2008/09:98 [55] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Management plan Skuleskogen [74] | P, N | - | P | - | P | - | - | I, II | |
Management plan Skuleskogen [75] | P, N | - | - | - | - | - | - | I, II | |
Store Mosse 1982 | Proposition 1980/81:100 [76] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Management plan Store Mosse [77] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Management plan Store Mosse [78] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Management plan Store Mosse [79] | P, N | P, N | P | - | - | P | P | I, II | |
Tiveden 1983 (2017) | Proposition 1978/79:217 [73] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Proposition 2016/17:96 [80] | P, N | - | - | - | - | - | - | I, II | |
Management plan Tiveden [81] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | I | |
Management plan Tiveden [82] | P, N | - | P | - | - | - | - | I, II | |
Tresticklan 1996 | Proposition 1994/95:162 [83] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | I |
Management plan Tresticklan [84] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | I | |
Tyresta 1993 | Proposition 1992/93:205 [85] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | I |
Management plan Tyresta [86] | P | - | P | - | - | - | - | I | |
Åsnen 2018 | Proposition 2017/18:87 [87] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Management plan Åsnen [88] | P, N | P, N | P | - | - | P | P | I, II |
National Park Established (Extended) | Management Plan | Fire | Flood | Storm | Cloudburst | Snow Damage | Drought | Pests | Category (Table 1) | Conservation Burning |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Björnlandet 1991 (2017) | Management plan Björnlandet [64] | N | - | - | - | - | - | - | IV | - |
Management plan Björnlandet [65] | P | P | P | - | P | - | - | III | X | |
Fulufjället 2002 | Management plan Fulufjället [67] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | III | X |
Färnebofjärden 1998 | Management plan Färnebofjärden [69] | P | P | - | - | - | - | - | III | - |
Management plan Färnebofjärden [70] | P | P | P | - | P | - | - | III | X | |
Kosterhavet 2009 | Management plan Kosterhavet [54] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | X |
Skuleskogen 1984 (2009) | Management plan Skuleskogen [74] | N | - | - | - | - | - | - | IV | - |
Management plan Skuleskogen [75] | P | P | P | - | P | - | - | III | X | |
Stenshuvud 1986 | Management plan Stenshuvud [58] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Management plan Stenshuvud [59] | N | - | - | - | - | - | - | IV | - | |
Store Mosse 1982 | Management plan Store Mosse [77] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Management plan Store Mosse [78] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Management plan Store Mosse [79] | P | P | P | - | - | P | P | III | X | |
Tiveden 1983 (2017) | Management plan Tiveden [81] | N | - | - | - | - | - | - | IV | - |
Management plan Tiveden [82] | P | - | - | - | - | - | - | III | X | |
Tresticklan 1996 | Management plan Tresticklan [84] | N | - | - | - | - | - | - | IV | X |
Tyresta 1993 | Management plan Tyresta [86] | N | - | - | - | - | - | - | IV | - |
Åsnen 2018 | Management plan Åsnen [88] | P 1 | P | P | - | - | P | P | III | X |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Davidsson, Å.; Johansson, M.; Bonander, C. Desirable Effects from Disturbance Ecology—A Paradox within Conservation Management. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7049. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137049
Davidsson Å, Johansson M, Bonander C. Desirable Effects from Disturbance Ecology—A Paradox within Conservation Management. Sustainability. 2021; 13(13):7049. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137049
Chicago/Turabian StyleDavidsson, Åsa, Magnus Johansson, and Carl Bonander. 2021. "Desirable Effects from Disturbance Ecology—A Paradox within Conservation Management" Sustainability 13, no. 13: 7049. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137049