RETRACTED: Urban Water Management Paradigms in Chinese Cities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Section: Different Paradigms for Urban Water Management
3. History of the Urban Water Paradigms in China
- The China Environmental Model City Program (EMCP)
- China Low-Carbon Eco-City Program (LCCEP)
- China Low-Carbon City Program (LCCP)
3.1. The China Environmental Model City Program (EMCP)
3.2. China Low-Carbon Eco-City Program (LCCEP)
3.3. China Low-Carbon City Program (LCCP)
4. Methodological Approach
- What steps have been undertaken by the government to make the city resilient, to create eco- or sponge cities?
- Which policies have been developed to plan for a resilient, eco- or resilient city?
- What policies have been used to involve citizens and other stakeholders in the development process?
4.1. Different Paradigms in Urban Water Management
4.1.1. Resilient Cities Paradigm
- A diverse number of industries
- A dynamic economy to generate growth
- Conditions allow innovation to take place
- People have access to employment, education, services, and skills training.
- Clear leadership and management
- Strategic and integrated approaches are taken by leaders
- Public sector has the right skills
- Government is open and transparent
- Society is inclusive and cohesive
- Citizens’ networks in communities are active
- Neighbourhoods are safe
- Citizens enjoy healthy lives
- Ecosystem is sound and diverse
- Infrastructure can meet basic needs
- Adequate natural resources are available
- Coherent policy towards land use”
4.1.2. Eco-Cities Paradigm
4.1.3. Sponge Cities Paradigm
- Building an underground reservoir of 300 m3
- Improving drainage in different ways
- Natural waste water treatment
- Promotion of water penetration in the soil in different ways
- Building a wetland
- Allowing waste water reuse by separating brown water and reserving one pipe in the road for that purpose (next to a drinking water, a sewer and a drainage pipe)
- Permeable concrete and asphalt
- Permeable parking places using plastic to reinforce the ground
- Planting grass around the houses
- Building roof gardens
- Collect rain water from the roof, etc.
4.2. Smart Eco-Cities
- Stressing the role of technology, using the internet of things for all kinds of urban and household problems
- Focusing on the transition and adaptation to rapid changes, this is possible by sharing knowledge, learning from best practices and evaluating different initiatives to tackle the issue at stake (Table 2)
- Pointing to different way of managing cities, focusing on managing the flows and doing it in an integrated way by using ICT and GIS
5. Discussion: The Comparison between the Three Paradigms
- At the national level general policies can be formulated to promote water conservation and to avoid flooding.
- Policies at the city level may improve urban drainage, water storage and infiltration
- Subsidies, are possible at the local and the national level. They may raise awareness for particular issues, subsidize the adaptation of buildings and help in introducing the innovations mentioned at the neighbourhood level (separating grey and brown water and rain water harvesting), or at the city level (decentralized treatment of grey water and water storage ponds).
- Planning requirements are usually formulated at the national level. They can force cities to close the water cycle, or make clear that building permits will not be given for construction in lower lying areas of the city.
- Demand management policies can be developed at the national level. These policies are necessary for reducing the consumption of water and energy and local authorities can help to make available the necessary information and devices.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Question | Resilient Cities | Eco-Cities | Sponge Cities |
---|---|---|---|
What is the definition? | A city able to react to important challenges, like climate change | Eco-cities focus on the social and living environment | A city able to slow, spread, sink, and store water runoff |
What are the objectives to be achieved? | Becoming a resilient city and preparing resilience plans | Building an eco-city with water-scaping, as a pleasant place to live | Manage the quantity and quality of water to improve the water environment |
What is the role of different stakeholders? | Community involvement is promoted | Role for motivated individuals and project developers | Mainly local government, possibly the private sector |
Environmental ambition? | Prepare for environmental hazards | More green, less polluted and an integrated approach | Cleaner water, using natural water treatment processes |
Possible solutions? | Adaptation, prepare for challenges | A different type of planning is suggested | Technical options and private participation |
A relevant reference | OECD (2018) and Rockefeller Foundation (2014) | Bhatnagar (ed., 2010) and Wong and Yuen (eds, 2011) | Li et al. (2017) and Liang (2018) |
Issue | Smart Solution | Reference |
---|---|---|
Dealing with waste water | Separating grey and brown water and treat them differently | Liang and Van Dijk (2009) [7] |
Water shortages | Rain water harvesting and aquifer infiltration techniques | Liang and Van Dijk (2011) [35] |
Too much water | Improved water management using electronic sensors | Switch project (Butterworth et al., 2011). [5] |
Improve drainage | Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD in Australia), Low-Impact Development (LID in North America) or Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS in Europe) | Switch project (Butterworth et al., 2011). [5] |
Governance of urban water issues | Urban management using information technology | Liang and Van Dijk (2012) [36] Qiu Lei and Van Dijk (2014) [37] |
Criterion | Resilient Cities | Eco-Cities | Sponge Cities |
---|---|---|---|
Achieving the objectives | Objectives like better water storage achieved | Broad-based approach, more or less successful | Successful in its technical achievements |
Governance, stakeholder participation | Still very (local) government centered | More space for local and non-governmental initiatives | Still major role for local government, no time for other partners |
The approach to water issues | Based on the challenges | Eco adaptive water management and water an asset in landscape | The focus is on traditional integrated water management |
Policy support | Emphasis is on measurement and, policies preventing disaster | Policies can provide incentives to isolate, to use solar energy, etc. | Emphasis is on spending the available budgets in time |
Evaluations | Wang Yan et al. (2009) [45] De Jong (2018) [18] | Bhatnagar (ed., 2010) [15], Juke Liu et al. (2016) [31] | Li, et al. (2017) [16], Liang (2018) [44] |
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van Dijk, M.P.; Zhang, M. RETRACTED: Urban Water Management Paradigms in Chinese Cities. Sustainability 2019, 11, 3001. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113001
van Dijk MP, Zhang M. RETRACTED: Urban Water Management Paradigms in Chinese Cities. Sustainability. 2019; 11(11):3001. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113001
Chicago/Turabian Stylevan Dijk, Meine Pieter, and Mingshun Zhang. 2019. "RETRACTED: Urban Water Management Paradigms in Chinese Cities" Sustainability 11, no. 11: 3001. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113001