2.1. Framing the Desirability of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Intention
Many studies on entrepreneurship acknowledge that entrepreneurial activity is the driving engine of sustainable development and economic progress. There are also studies that associate entrepreneurial activity with an insecure career path framed by a high level of risk and uncertainty. In this matter, a recent study by Kaiser and Moller (2011) of young Danish entrepreneurs proves that only 35.6% continued the entrepreneurship path after five years, others preferring to go back to working for a wage [
24].
The concept of entrepreneurial intention is defined in the literature as a state of mind and a desire to create a new business or take up an activity [
25,
26]. Thompson (2009) defined entrepreneurial intentions as “self-acknowledged convictions by individuals that they intend to set up new business ventures and consciously plan to do so at some point in the future” [
27] (p. 676). According to Ajzen (1991), the intentions of developing certain actions endorse any business or entrepreneurship decisions [
16]. Referring to the Theory of Planned Behavior, the intention includes three important characteristics: a positive or negative attitude toward the matter; subjective norms or the social pressure to follow or not follow a certain behavior; and the individuals’ self-control or self-efficacy, i.e., personal perception of their abilities to perform successfully [
28]. The perceived entrepreneurial intention is expressed as readiness and determination to make every effort to start one’s own business and carry out entrepreneurial behavior [
14,
29,
30]. Wu and Wu (2008) argued that entrepreneurial intention is a determinant factor in predicting the effective business creation that requires both entrepreneurial feasibility perception and desirability [
26].
The concept of perceived desirability to creating a new business has been examined in depth in the prevailing literature and used in entrepreneurial intention model formulations (e.g., [
14,
15,
31]). Perceived desirability is the value associated with alternative wants and wishes at a pre-decisional phase [
32]. The extant literature in the field of entrepreneurial path development [
14,
15,
30,
33] defines the perceived desirability of entrepreneurship as willingness, anxiety and enthusiasm to start one’s own business. According to Krueger (1993), desirability reflects the degree to which individuals value entrepreneurial behavior and find the prospect of becoming an entrepreneur to be attractive [
14]. Entrepreneurial desirability is also regarded as the attitude of the individual toward a new venture creation [
16] or attitudes toward action and social norms [
34]. These studies use interchangeably the concepts of entrepreneurial desire and desirability of entrepreneurship.
Shapero and Sokol (1982) defined the perceived desirability of entrepreneurship as the extent to which one finds attractive the possibility of starting a business, and thus individuals display a positive entrepreneurial attitude [
17]. They suggested that desirability is connected to personal values and career options, individuals with a high level of desirability displaying more enthusiasm about the creation of a new venture. The perception of desirability of entrepreneurship could be the reflection of one’s internal standards of career options attractiveness as well as of external social pressures, market conditions, laws, etc. [
35]. Following this idea, Vuorio et al. (2018) confirmed that the perceived entrepreneurial desirability is driven by intrinsic and extrinsic rewards [
36]. Different individuals will have different perceptions of what they find desirable and feasible to accomplish. Fitzsimmons and Douglas (2011) defined the desirability of entrepreneurship as the degree of attractiveness that a person feels toward business creation and toward being an owner in an entrepreneurial company [
37]. The authors emphasized that the entrepreneurial desirability is the individuals’ perception of the net benefit they will gain from successfully running the business. Other research claims that the perceived desirability is concerned with the individual’s beliefs about how likely is to have benefits through the successful creation of a new venture [
38].
According to Barton et al. (2018), the term “perceived desirability” relates to how appealing it is to an individual to generate an entrepreneurial event such as starting a venture [
39]. The level of perceived desirability varies based on individual characteristics and is affected by person’s values, needs, skills and abilities. Riquelme and Al Lanqawi (2016) argued that the perceived desirability is a specific attitude that reflects “the valence (positive or negative) of an action’s end state […] and does not have the connotation of a personal motivation to achieve an end state” [
13] (p. 129). The authors framed the concept of perceived desire for entrepreneurship as internalized motivation or emotional response to the idea of self-employment, in criticism of Theory of Planned Behavior which emphasizes the importance of perceived desirability as the level of attractiveness and attitude toward entrepreneurship. In fact, the concept of “desire” defined by Bagozzi (1992) [
40] equalizes the Gollwitzer’s (1996) [
32] construct of wishes or “volitional desires” as the driving engines of transforming certain attitudes and perceived desirability into intentions. The literature emphasizes that individuals who experience a high desirability of entrepreneurship tend to develop a high entrepreneurial intention and later behavior [
39,
41,
42], desirability being a determinant predictor of entrepreneurial intention. Other research confirms the predictive power of perceived desirability and perceived feasibility on entrepreneurial intent formation [
43,
44]. The stronger id the desirability of entrepreneurship, the stronger is the intention toward that end objective.
Measuring the attitude toward entrepreneurship possibilities seems to be the best way to predict the value of the entrepreneurial intention [
45]. In this regard, Dewberry and Duncan (2018) conducted a study of students’ intention to drop out of college, using the Theory of Planned Behavior to predict the level of retention [
6]. The main criteria were: attractiveness of course being studied (attitude toward object), perceived ability (self-efficacy), and other people’s perspectives concerning course completion (subjective norms). The results were quite significant; the students’ decision whether to give up college was determined by their attitude to the course, their self-efficacy, and their perception of important social norms. A similar mechanism can be seen functioning in the behavior of college graduates when it comes to entrepreneurial attitude and intention [
46]. The results of research by Bo (2017) reveal that the attitude toward entrepreneurship is defined by business achievement expectations, a clear evaluation of the associated risk with the entrepreneurial actions, and the individual’s personal qualities and abilities to succeed [
47]. Moreover, research conducted by Ding and Choi (2011) in the academic field demonstrates that students or graduates who had a previous connection with the business environment in terms of common projects or patents have a positive attitude toward and perceived control of entrepreneurship intention [
48]. In addition, entrepreneurship information and training support from the business environment tend to create a positive attitude toward entrepreneurship intention. Erikson (2003) argued that individuals form intentions toward something if they have a desire for the phenomenon and this phenomenon is perceived as being feasible, otherwise they are not likely to create it [
49]. Having a desire for entrepreneurship, individuals have the opportunity to develop relevant abilities and skills and, therefore, their perception of entrepreneurial competence is a key determinant in manifesting their attitude to entrepreneurship. Therefore, it can be said in regard to entrepreneurship that there is a significant dialectical relationship between attitude (desirability) and intention [
50].
The entrepreneurship literature identifies differences between individuals’ abilities in recognizing innovative business opportunities, which translates into a positive attitude toward entrepreneurship and desirability of entrepreneurship [
51]. Many academics do not have the necessary skills to pursue entrepreneurship behavior, since the skills acquired during college are very different from entrepreneurial skills [
52]. There is a clear difference between experienced entrepreneurs and beginners when it comes to discovering entrepreneurial ideas, the latter lacking in scientific research and information-gathering abilities. On the contrary, people with a prior business environment connection have a confident attitude toward their prospects when starting a new venture, proving their positive attitude toward entrepreneurship intention and self-efficacy [
50].
In their study, Saeed et al. (2015) explained the positive attitude toward entrepreneurship by referring to several psychological variables [
53]. They analyzed important personal factors—such as creativity, perceived utility, self-efficacy and perceived control behavior, self-confidence, business experience, and the perception of a proper economic environment—to explain how these factors contribute to constructing a certain attitude to entrepreneurship. The study was a corollary to previous research by Fayolle and Linan (2014) [
54], who identified two variables in the formation of the desire for entrepreneurship: individual variables referring to motivations, experience and personality traits; and contextual variables, such as market, economic and social context [
55,
56]. Moreover, the idea of contextual variables in defining entrepreneurship intentions appears in several studies [
57,
58], which have emphasized the importance of young entrepreneurs acknowledging the latest government policies, logistic infrastructure, and financial support instruments as relevant factors in creating positive attitudes and behavior. Therefore, the desirability of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial desire and intention are key factors in understanding the entrepreneurial process; however, without a positive attitude, people will avoid going forward with transforming the intention into action, even when there is significant personal potential [
15].
Thus, the desirability of entrepreneurship comes as a result of the influence of several factors, which will be further investigated in the paper.
2.2. Factors Affecting Desirability of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Intention
Many entrepreneurship researchers have offered expectancy type and subjective-utility type models to describe the factors that influence people’s desire and choice to follow an entrepreneurial path [
55,
59]. The models describe the individuals’ perceptions about income prospects, the effort associated with achieving the necessary performance to reach the monetary benefits predicted, the amount of risk implied, and the craving for independence. Recent studies reveal a huge gap between desire and intention, on the one hand, and actions to reach the framed objectives, on the other hand [
60]. For psychologists Gollwitzer and Heckhausen (1987), the difficulties in pursuing an entrepreneurship career even when strongly motivated are due to a lack of individual characteristics—precisely, the element of volition [
61]. According to Broonen (2010), volition is the process that determines the transition from intention to action [
62].
The transition of entrepreneurship from desirability to desire and intention and successfully to action requires resistance to uncertainty, defined as the ability to successfully overcome the tension created by external factors that sometimes can delay or change the entrepreneurship pace [
63]. People who have already framed their desirability of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial desire and intention (proving self-motivation) would have higher chances of succeeding compared with those who have not.
Various studies in the literature examine different factors that influence people’s perception of their entrepreneurial intention and their proclivity to start their own business. A study developed by Failla et al. (2017) demonstrates that entrepreneurship is an important factor in obtaining job stability [
64]. The research is based on the analysis of three mechanisms that influence individuals’ employment turnover rate: job matching, labor market value, and personal commitment. The job- matching model indicates a high tendency towards independence, desire for extra income, and a taste for challenge and variety. The evidence shows a negative effect on entrepreneurs returning to salaried work—first, by receiving fewer job offers and, second, by having their entrepreneurship experience and skills undervalued [
65]. The study also reveals the entrepreneurs’ personal commitment to their company even when faced with poor business performance. The psychological reasons for delaying the moment of leaving the entrepreneurial activities refer to attachment to the values of the company or the entrepreneur’s perception of indispensability [
66].
Referring to the academic environment, Goethner et al. (2012) concluded clear influence of family, friends, or co-workers as subjective norm factors in defining the entrepreneurial intention of individuals who activate within universities [
51]. According to their study, people adopt positive attitudes toward entrepreneurial ideas and perceive entrepreneurship as being desirable as long as the prospects perceived are professionally stimulating, along with financially rewarding. In addition, other research identifies academic promotion as key to framing the desirability of entrepreneurship in the academic field, endorsed by psychological variables such as scientific productivity and entrepreneurship self-identity [
55].
The process of increasing the perception of attractiveness toward the idea of investing in a new venture has a direct impact on entrepreneurial intentions [
67]. According to Van Kleef (2009), emotional expressions have important social functions, influencing attitudes towards certain perspectives or issues [
68]. In contrast, the fear of failure represents an inhibitory factor in entrepreneurship, acting like a barrier to transforming intention into action [
69]. However, research evidence shows the possibility of motivating and driving entrepreneurship behavior [
70]. The entrepreneurial motivating factors such as dedication, confidence, social-recognition, or self-efficacy have proved their positive-oriented behavior. Conversely, lack of confidence and risk aversion work as inhibitors on entrepreneurial behavior [
71]. According to Cacciotti et al. (2016), individuals tend to put more effort and commitment into entrepreneurship projects to avoid unsuccessful and shameful outcomes [
72].
A considerable part of the literature offers results that refer to the importance of entrepreneurship education and the positive relationship between the desire to pursue an entrepreneurship path and the level of education [
73]. The research emphasizes the responsibility of educational institutions to provide the necessary courses as baselines for developing problem-solving skills and self-confidence. The study by Mamabolo et al. (2017) on entrepreneurship skills required in emergent-economy countries proves that, with continuous preparation and entrepreneurship training, even in a poor educational system, the desirability of entrepreneurship and feasibility increase [
74]. The research shows also the significance of knowledge and skills in domains such as financial management, leadership, marketing, technical skills, and business management.
Recently, the Program for the International Assessment of Adults Competencies (
https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/) published the results of a study referring to entrepreneurship feasibility. The program revealed that 20% of European students were overqualified to work for other companies, but were lacking in leadership, negotiation, and communications skills, which are necessary skills for launching a new venture. Therefore, the European Union Horizon 2020 developed entrepreneurship programs designed to expand the entrepreneurial abilities to specific population groups, based on educational strategies such as active learning, simulations, and social learning, to narrow the gap between theoretical knowledge and real-life experience [
2].
Entrepreneurship activity, whether social or regular business activity, requires a well-determined set of competencies and skills for reaching a sustainable level of performance [
75,
76]. There are different debates related to defining skills and competencies necessary for the entrepreneurial activity. Using a broader approach, many scholars agree that competencies are defined as the integration of the individual’s skills, abilities, knowledge, and motivation to pursue and run a stable and continuous business venture [
77]. Competencies include different skills in performing all types of tasks. Therefore, in entrepreneurship, defining the necessary skills and competencies is challenging [
78]. Studies refer to four skill dimensions, including both meta-level skills or abstract skills and those referring to the functional aspects of a business: entrepreneurial skills, managerial abilities, technical skills, and personal maturity skills [
74,
79]. Other studies bring to attention the marketing and management abilities and skills as being essential in the entrepreneurial activity and financial skills particularly necessary in the maturity stage of the business venture [
80]. This is highly important if we consider that entrepreneurs as self-employed are paid by their customers and, therefore, they should have the ability to acquire and retain their own customers. For other scholars [
81], a high level of adaptation to uncertain situations, leadership, data gathering and information represent high-level skills, whereas for others active listening, negotiation techniques, risk taking, and innovation are the most important “traits” for a meta-skilled entrepreneur [
82]. Recent research includes as important determinants of a future entrepreneur the ability to recognize opportunities, strategic planning skills, and teamwork skills, along with creative thinking and interpersonal skills [
83,
84].
A considerable part of the research associates entrepreneurial activity with sustainable development and corporate social responsibility, identifying common competencies and skills required to act as a change agent of the society in general [
85]. Different frameworks of skills and competencies were developed and tested in the work environment based on four dimensions of sustainability competence: knowledge, critical thinking, innovation or change dimension, and ethical criteria [
86]. According to Lans et al. (2014), the entrepreneurial competence framework includes seven key competencies and skills—namely, interdisciplinary competences, system-thinking abilities, “outside of the box” thinking, normative competences, action and decision-making abilities, interpersonal skills, and strategic management competences [
87]. Although these competencies have been tested and operationalized in the working environment, many scholars consider them too general, the research being at the exploratory level only [
88].
There is no united “voice” that states education is a mandatory determinant of entrepreneurship. Several studies have concluded a positive relationship between education and the probability of entrepreneurship [
89]. However, several studies in developing countries reveal that education has no influence on the entrepreneurial decision [
90]. Although a superior level of managerial skills and education may impart the ability to find opportunities, forecast trends, and lead others, many individuals from developed countries select regular employment as their first choice, instead of the entrepreneurial path [
91].
The research by Stefanović and Stošić (2012), referring to a self-employed population from the Republic of Serbia, reveals that 48.4% of Serbian entrepreneurs were high-school graduates, 25.3% of the self-employed population barely completed primary school, while only 10.8% of the total number of entrepreneurs had college or university degrees [
92]. This phenomenon is explained by the theory that people choose entrepreneurship because they are unemployed or are working in unsatisfactory conditions. Recent research indicates that people with a lower level of competencies become entrepreneurs out of necessity, whereas highly skilled individuals choose self-employment out of opportunity [
93]. Studies referring to the importance of education on the probability of entrepreneurship bring to attention the diversity of occupations and industries in which self-employed people are active. According to Bates (1995), education has a positive effect on entrepreneurial professional services, and a negative effect on the construction industry [
94]. Studies also reveal big differences in the impact of education on entrepreneurship between the USA and Europe—namely, that a high level of education translates into a positive impact on the choice of self-employment among Americans, while Europeans with the same level of education prefer paid employment, especially in developing countries [
92].
The dynamic of self-employment and entrepreneurship activity is influenced also by age. A strong body of literature has launched different theories and studies on the appropriate age for entrepreneurship. Studies show that financial and non-financial resources increase with age; therefore, individuals are more inclined to take the entrepreneurship path [
95]. People of a certain age have already created their networks of possible stakeholders, added to their professional and working experience, and created strong determinants for self-realization. However, it is proved that the ability to assume risk decreases with age, people being more cautious when giving-up their paid job for uncertain gains in the future [
95]. The research by Praagh and Ophem (1995) makes a clear difference between people who have the desire to take an entrepreneurial course of business action but lack the resources, and those who have the necessary skills, relations, and financial backing, but a low level of motivation due to age [
90]. Several studies found that the willingness for entrepreneurship increases with age but only to a certain point; after that, the desirability of entrepreneurship fades away, despite confirmed opportunities and resources [
96]. The age limit above which individuals become less interested in launching a new venture varies between countries and different economic and political systems. According to Moore and Mueller (2002), people reaching middle age are more inclined to follow an entrepreneurial idea and decision [
89].
Levels of education, age, income, skills, and employment status are referred to as strong determinants for entrepreneurship willingness and decision, which underscores the importance of a reliable and supportive institutional and governmental environment. In fact, a recent study reveals three important determinants that contribute to the entrepreneurship and self-employment decision: personal, institutional, and contextual [
97]. The personal factors agree with the positive impact of work experience and education in supporting business ventures. The institutional factors bring to attention the importance of existing non-governmental institutions that allow entrepreneurs to access financial and non-financial resources along with contextual factors such as business opportunities and favorable rules and regulations. According to Lee et al. (2011), the policies dedicated to entrepreneurial activities must be concentrated on rules concerning maximizing the opportunities of profit and community gains by, on the one hand, reducing entry barriers and antitrust regulations and, on the other hand, minimizing the possibility of failure by modifying the bankruptcy regulations for the entrepreneurs’ benefit [
98]. Consequently, there is a wide range of contextual and situational factors which can predict the entrepreneurship pace, in different stages, starting from manifesting desirability, creating desire and moving forward to developing entrepreneurial intention.