Electric Vehicle Adoption in Egypt: A Review of Feasibility, Challenges, and Policy Directions

Abstract

This study evaluates the feasibility and visibility of electric vehicles (EVs) in Egypt, addressing critical research gaps and proposing actionable strategies to drive adoption. Employing a systematic review of academic, governmental, and industry sources, the paper identifies underexplored areas such as rural–urban adoption disparities, lifecycle assessments of EV batteries, and sociocultural barriers, including gender dynamics and entrenched consumer preferences. Its primary contribution is an interdisciplinary framework that integrates technical aspects, such as grid resilience and climate-related battery degradation, with socioeconomic dimensions, providing a holistic overview of EV feasibility in Egypt tailored to Egypt’s context. Key findings reveal infrastructure limitations, inconsistent policy frameworks, and behavioral skepticism as major hurdles, and highlight the untapped potential of renewable energy integration, particularly through synergies between solar PV generation (e.g., Benban Solar Park) and EV charging infrastructure. Recommendations prioritize policy reforms (e.g., tax incentives, streamlined tariffs), solar-powered charging infrastructure expansion, public awareness campaigns, and local EV manufacturing to stimulate economic growth. The study underscores the urgency of stakeholder collaboration to transform EVs into a mainstream solution, positioning Egypt as a regional leader in sustainable mobility and equitable development.

1. Introduction

The global transportation sector is undergoing a transformative shift toward electric vehicles (EVs), driven by the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and achieve climate neutrality under international agreements such as the Paris Accord [1]. By 2023, EVs accounted for 18% of global car sales, with China, the European Union, and the United States leading adoption through aggressive policies, subsidies, and infrastructure investments [2]. However, this transition remains uneven, with developing nations like Egypt facing unique challenges in balancing economic growth, energy security, and environmental sustainability [3].

EV adoption is central to achieving net-zero targets, as the transportation sector contributes 24% of global CO₂ emissions [4]. Countries like Norway, where EVs represent 80% of new car sales, exemplify the synergy of policy incentives (e.g., tax exemptions, charging infrastructure mandates) and public awareness campaigns [5]. The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that global EV stock will reach 350 million by 2030, contingent on sustained investments in renewable energy and grid modernization [2], up from approximately 40 million in 2023, which would represent around 20–25% of the global vehicle fleet assuming moderate annual growth in total vehicle ownership worldwide. Emerging technologies, such as solid-state batteries and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems, further enhance the feasibility of EVs in diverse climates [6].

Many countries have faced technical, economic, and social challenges in the early stages of EV adoption. However, in Egypt, these issues are uniquely severe and deeply interconnected, presenting a more complex landscape for EV integration. In Egypt, the severe climate (temperatures often go above 40 °C) reduces the life span of Li-ion batteries more significantly compared to other countries. Additionally, Egypt’s electricity grid remains heavily dependent on natural gas, limiting the emissions benefits of EVs unless renewable energy integration (e.g., from Benban Solar Park) is prioritized. Rural–urban differences in both electricity access and consumer awareness further complicate national adoption efforts, as 57% of the population resides in areas with inconsistent infrastructure, creating a distinct spatial challenge not encountered in many other emerging markets.

Furthermore, Egypt faces significant challenges in EV adoption, with deeply rooted public doubts about range, durability, and cost, especially in rural and low-income areas. Egypt has outlined several national targets and strategies relevant to EV adoption, including plans to increase renewable energy to 42% of electricity generation by 2035 and efforts to develop a domestic EV manufacturing base and import incentives. These policies form the basis for the projections and assumptions discussed throughout this review. This skepticism, combined with unclear licensing, limited incentives, and high import tariffs, discourages both private investment and public interest. Unlike regional peers like Morocco and the UAE, which have seen EV success through strong incentives and public–private partnerships, Egypt needs a custom approach that focuses on improving charging infrastructure, updating policies, and changing how people view EVs, rather than simply copying solutions from elsewhere.

For Egypt, transitioning to EVs aligns with its Vision 2030 goals, which prioritize sustainable urbanization, renewable energy integration, and improved air quality [7]. The country faces pressing challenges: fossil fuels dominate its energy mix (92% as of 2023), and transportation accounts for 23% of national CO₂ emissions [8]. Cairo, ranked among the world’s most polluted cities, records annual PM2.5 levels (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter, which can penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream) six times higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, underscoring the need for cleaner mobility solutions [9]. Additionally, Egypt’s reliance on fuel subsidies, costing $4.2 billion annually, strains fiscal resources, making EVs a strategic alternative to reduce oil imports [10].

Despite global momentum, Egypt’s EV adoption lags, with fewer than 1000 EVs registered nationwide as of 2023 [11]. Existing research predominantly focuses on technical feasibility (e.g., grid capacity) but neglects socio-cultural and economic barriers. For instance, while studies highlight Egypt’s potential to leverage solar energy for charging infrastructure, they often overlook consumer skepticism rooted in range anxiety and high upfront costs [12,13]. Policy fragmentation further complicates progress: Egypt’s 2022 EV Incentive Program lacks clarity on tariff reductions, and regulatory frameworks for private sector participation remain underdeveloped [14]. Additionally, rural–urban disparities in electrification and purchasing power create inequities in access [15].

While global EV adoption is accelerating, Egypt’s distinct policy, infrastructure, and energy context demands a tailored strategy. Rather than mirroring international models, Egypt must localize its approach to reflect domestic challenges and opportunities in grid capacity, consumer behavior, and industrial readiness [2,16,17].

This study aims to:

• Synthesize existing knowledge on Egypt’s EV readiness across technical, economic, environmental, and social dimensions.
• Identify critical gaps, such as the absence of lifecycle assessments for locally manufactured EVs and the need for gender-inclusive policies.
• Propose actionable strategies to enhance EV visibility and feasibility, drawing on lessons from regional leaders like Morocco and the UAE.

This paper is structured as a comprehensive review of existing literature and data related to EV adoption, with a focus on Egypt. It synthesizes global and regional studies across technical, economic, environmental, and social dimensions, and contextualizes them within Egypt’s unique conditions. The aim is not to conduct new empirical analysis, but rather to identify knowledge gaps, highlight Egypt-specific adaptation challenges, and provide a policy-informed roadmap for accelerating EV deployment. As such, the manuscript should be regarded as a targeted review article intended to support both researchers and decision-makers.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Global Feasibility Studies

The global transition to EVs is shaped by advancements in charging infrastructure, fiscal incentives, and evolving consumer preferences. A critical driver is the deployment of ultra-fast charging networks (150–350 kW), which reduce charging times to 15–30 min, thereby addressing “range anxiety”. For instance, Norway’s rollout of 3000 ultra-fast chargers by 2023 has contributed to EVs comprising 86% of new car sales [16], demonstrating the strong link between infrastructure investment and adoption rates—insights applicable to Egypt’s underdeveloped charging network.

China’s “New Infrastructure Initiative”, prioritizing grid modernization and the installation of 6.8 million public charging points by mid-2023 [17], exemplifies a centralized strategy to reduce grid dependence on fossil-fueled peak plants. This model highlights the scale of investment needed in countries like Egypt to support large-scale EV deployment.

Reference [18] emphasizes the vulnerability of power grids to voltage fluctuations when EV penetration exceeds 20%, particularly in regions with high renewable penetration like Germany. This is relevant to Egypt, where grid stability is already challenged by a 7% annual increase in electricity demand [19].

Smart charging and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) solutions discussed in [20] offer mitigation tools to optimize charging cycles and stabilize the grid. These solutions are particularly relevant to Egypt’s energy strategy, especially if solar integration from Egypt’s Benban Solar Park, a 1.8 GW utility-scale photovoltaic complex in Aswan, is scaled [21,22,23].

On the consumer side, reference [24] shows that reducing EV upfront costs by 20–30% significantly boosts adoption among middle-income groups. This aligns with Egypt’s need for targeted incentives to expand adoption beyond high-income urban consumers. In contrast, reference [25] describes Japan’s cultural resistance to abandoning internal combustion engines (ICEs), indicating that financial incentives alone may not be sufficient—a pattern also emerging in Egypt, where social perception and trust in EVs remain limited.

2.2. Regional Insights

In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, countries have adopted diverse EV strategies aligned with their economic priorities and resource availability. The UAE’s Green Mobility Initiative 2030 couples direct subsidies (up to AED 20,000) with a 500-station charging network [26], resulting in a 25% annual increase in EV sales. This demonstrates the effectiveness of consistent government support, which contrasts with Egypt’s currently fragmented policies.

Dubai’s DEWA–Siemens partnership, described in [27], showcases a successful public–private model deploying solar-powered stations with 98% uptime. This model illustrates how Egypt could leverage its solar potential through similar collaborations.

Morocco combines renewable energy with EV manufacturing, as illustrated by the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex and Tangier Automotive City [28]. Initiatives in countries such as Morocco, the UAE, and China, including local EV manufacturing partnerships, battery assembly plants, and solar-integrated charging pilots, reduce import dependency and offer a potential blueprint for Egypt’s aspirations toward domestic production and solar-powered charging. Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, with its emphasis on lithium-ion battery recycling and local brands like Ceer [29], highlights a longer-term industrial strategy. Egypt’s lack of recycling infrastructure (discussed in Section 4.4.2) points to a critical gap in its own transition plan.

Several European studies offer valuable insights for understanding and addressing Egypt’s challenges in electric vehicle (EV) adoption. Reference [30] examined how well-planned charging infrastructure in countries like the Netherlands significantly accelerated EV uptake, showing that dense, reliable networks are critical enablers of consumer confidence and adoption. This is particularly relevant for Egypt, where public charging remains limited and concentrated in major cities, indicating the need for a coordinated national rollout strategy. Reference [31] introduced an indicator-based methodology using exploratory data analysis to evaluate EV infrastructure effectiveness across European countries, offering a replicable framework Egypt could use to benchmark its own infrastructure performance and regional disparities. From a policy modeling perspective, the authors of [32] developed a modal share scenario framework in Hungary to assess how shifts to EVs interact with broader transport planning. Applying a similar tool in Egypt could help planners simulate adoption under different subsidy, pricing, or infrastructure scenarios. In the UK, Reference [33] demonstrated how diversifying transport modes, including walking, cycling, and public transit, can complement EV deployment in reducing emissions. For Egypt, this reinforces the importance of integrating EV strategies with broader sustainable mobility policies, especially in congested urban centers like Cairo where multimodal transport solutions could be more immediately impactful than private EV ownership alone.

Crucially, Egypt faces unique regional challenges: it imposes a 40% import tariff on EVs, substantially higher than Morocco’s 10%, which limits affordability [34]. Additionally, Egypt’s 90% natural gas-dependent grid [35] contrasts with the growing renewable mix in peer countries, complicating its ability to achieve meaningful emissions reductions through EV adoption [36].

2.3. Egypt-Specific Research

Egypt’s EV policies and pilot projects offer mixed outcomes. The 2020 customs exemption policy increased imports by 12%, but local assembly remains nascent due to inadequate lithium battery supply chains [36]. It is well-established that high temperatures can accelerate battery degradation in electric vehicles like the Nissan LEAF. For instance, studies have shown that Nissan LEAF battery packs are prone to accelerated aging in high-temperature environments [21]. Additionally, user reports indicate that rapid charging, which heats the battery more than standard charging, can contribute to faster capacity loss [22,37].

To support the analytical elements in later sections of this paper, the data sources and methods were selected based on their relevance to Egypt’s environmental and socioeconomic context. For instance, our analysis of battery degradation is informed by empirical studies on Li-ion battery performance in high-temperature regions, particularly those using accelerated aging models and thermal stress experiments (e.g., [38,39]). These methods are widely used by institutions such as the U.S. Department of Energy and NREL. Likewise, the total cost of ownership (TCO) comparison in Section 4.3 draws on standard frameworks used in EV economics literature that factor in purchase price, fuel cost, maintenance, and residual value over time (e.g., [40,41]). For projected electricity demand, our estimates follow energy consumption models commonly used by the IEA and national energy forecast studies (e.g., [2,42]). This paper adapts these established methodologies to Egypt’s case to provide an indicative feasibility overview.

2.4. Gaps Identification

Egypt’s transition to EVs faces several significant challenges:

• Rural–Urban Disparities: A substantial portion of Egypt’s population, particularly in rural areas, lacks consistent access to electricity. This disparity poses challenges for the widespread adoption of EVs, as reliable charging infrastructure is essential [43].
• Lifecycle Assessments (LCAs): Comprehensive evaluations of the environmental impacts associated with EVs, including those from lithium mining and battery disposal, are limited in Egypt. Globally, studies have shown that while EVs generally have lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions compared to ICE vehicles, the benefits can vary based on the energy mix used for electricity generation. For instance, the International Energy Agency provides tools to assess these emissions based on regional energy sources [44].
• Socio-Cultural Dynamics: Public perception and acceptance of EVs in Egypt present challenges. Factors such as trust in the technology, perceived vehicle durability, and accessibility to charging infrastructure, especially among different demographics, influence the adoption rate of EVs. Addressing these socio-cultural factors is crucial for a successful transition to electric mobility [43].

3. Methodology

Overview

This section presents the methodology adopted in this review, which is based on secondary data analysis of peer-reviewed literature, government statistics, and technical reports relevant to EV adoption in Egypt. Parameters used in the technical and economic assessments include typical EV energy consumption (20 kWh/100 km) [31], average daily driving distance (40 km) [33], electricity cost (1.2 EGP/kWh) [45], fuel cost (10 EGP/L) [45], and annual mileage (20,000 km) [33], U.S. Department of Energy, and regional case studies [2,46,47,48]. Grid capacity and renewable energy projections are based on official figures from Egypt’s Ministry of Electricity and international energy forecasts [23,49,50].

Boundary conditions are set at the national level, comparing current (2023) infrastructure with projected scenarios up to 2030, assuming no major policy reversals. Climate-related battery degradation estimates reflect performance under high-temperature conditions (30–45 °C), derived from studies involving lithium-ion thermal behavior [51,52]. Social and behavioral indicators (e.g., EV awareness, adoption willingness) are taken from survey-based research and international adoption benchmarks, adjusted where necessary to reflect Egypt’s demographic and urban–rural divide.

The rural–urban data on EV adoption and awareness presented in this study were synthesized from multiple secondary sources, including national reports published by the CAPMAS, surveys cited in peer-reviewed literature, and insights from international mobility indices such as the Global Electric Mobility Readiness Index (GEMRIX) [53,54,55]. Where direct statistical datasets were not publicly available, regional estimates were triangulated using demographic breakdowns, electricity access data, and vehicle registration patterns. For instance, awareness rates in rural areas (e.g., 4% in Assiut) were drawn from CAPMAS’s 2023 transportation survey, while comparative urban rates were inferred from metropolitan studies conducted in Cairo and Giza. These combined sources provide a reliable proxy for understanding geographic disparities in EV readiness across Egypt.

While the study does not involve primary data collection or simulation models, it applies established analytical frameworks to the Egyptian context, with the goal of identifying adaptation challenges and informing policy design.

To enhance transparency, we adopted a modified PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework to guide the literature selection process. The review followed four stages: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion. Academic databases searched included Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and official Egyptian portals such as CAPMAS. The primary keywords used were “electric vehicles Egypt”, “EV infrastructure MENA”, “battery degradation hot climate”, and “EV adoption barriers”.

Inclusion criteria were: (i) relevance to Egypt or comparable regional contexts; (ii) empirical or policy-based discussion of EV feasibility, infrastructure, or behavioral aspects; and (iii) publication between 2015 and 2024. Excluded were non-peer-reviewed or non-institutional sources, duplicated entries, and articles lacking substantive focus on transportation electrification.

Retrieved studies were thematically coded and categorized under four main dimensions of feasibility: technical, economic, environmental, and social. This approach supports a structured synthesis of evidence and allows for replicability in future Egypt-focused EV policy research.

This study adopts a multidisciplinary framework that integrates technical, economic, environmental, and social dimensions to evaluate the feasibility and visibility of electric vehicles in Egypt. This approach was selected to reflect the complex and interconnected nature of EV adoption, particularly in developing countries where infrastructure, policy, and cultural factors are closely intertwined. While formal frameworks such as PESTEL (which examines Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal factors) and SWOT (which assesses internal Strengths and Weaknesses as well as external Opportunities and Threats) were considered, they were not applied in a rigid format. Instead, elements from both frameworks were adapted qualitatively to contextualize Egypt’s electric vehicle transition, allowing a more flexible synthesis of multi-dimensional challenges and opportunities grounded in the national policy, infrastructure, and socio-economic landscape. This framework enables a sectoral deep-dive while maintaining a broad, systems-level perspective that supports actionable policy recommendations.

This study employed a systematic review approach focused on peer-reviewed academic articles, governmental reports, and industry white papers published between 2015 and 2024. Sources were retrieved using databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and official Egyptian government portals. The primary search keywords included ‘electric vehicles Egypt,’ ‘EV adoption MENA,’ ‘battery performance hot climate,’ and ‘EV infrastructure policy.’ Inclusion criteria were: (i) relevance to Egypt or comparable regional contexts, (ii) focus on EV feasibility, policy, or socio-technical barriers, and (iii) availability in English. Exclusion criteria were non-peer-reviewed sources (unless governmental or institutional), duplicates, and studies not addressing transportation electrification.

The technical and economic feasibility insights presented in this review are drawn from secondary literature and reflect indicative trends. They do not incorporate original uncertainty quantification or scenario modeling, and underlying results may vary depending on input assumptions, regional context, and model parameters used in the cited studies.

4. Results

4.1. Technical Feasibility

4.1.1. Grid Capacity and Energy Demand

Egypt’s electricity grid has an installed capacity of 59.5 GW, dominated by natural gas (78%), hydropower (12%), and renewables (10%) [49]. By 2030, renewable energy is projected to contribute 42% of the grid mix, driven by the Benban Solar Park (1.8 GW) and wind farms in the Gulf of Suez (1.2 GW) [23,42,45,56]. However, EV adoption will require strategic grid upgrades.

Table 1. Grid Capacity vs. EV Charging Demand Scenarios (2023–2030).

Year	Installed Capacity (GW)	Renewables Share (%)	EV Fleet Size	Daily Charging Demand (GWh)	Grid Surplus/ Deficit (GW)
2023 [57]	59.5	10	3000	0.06	+59.44
2025 [46]	65.0	25	50,000	1.00	+64.00
2030 [50,58]	85.0	42	500,000	10.00	+75.00

Assumptions: Average EV consumption = 20 kWh/100 km; daily driving distance = 40 km [2].

quantifies the projected increase in EV charging demand against Egypt’s growing grid capacity and renewable energy integration.

Note: The surplus capacity figures presented in Table 1 represent theoretical daily averages and do not account for hourly demand fluctuations, dispatchability, or time-of-use constraints. As this is a review, these estimates serve as high-level indicators. We recommend that future studies incorporate time-resolved grid modeling to assess peak load and flexibility challenges associated with large-scale EV integration.

The concentration of electric vehicle (EV) charging during evening peak hours poses a critical challenge to electrical grid stability. This heightened demand risks grid overload and disruptions, a problem exacerbated by the absence of widespread smart metering. Without real-time data and demand-side management capabilities facilitated by smart metering, utilities struggle to mitigate these peak loads, hindering the efficient integration of growing EV adoption [59,60].

Egypt’s EV adoption is hindered by regional infrastructure disparities, particularly in Upper Egypt, where grid upgrades estimated at $200 million are needed for rural EV support. Compounded by high EV costs and limited charging stations outside urban centers, this infrastructural deficit, as highlighted by sources like Egyptian Streets and Fitch Solutions, significantly slows the nation’s EV transition [61,62].

In rural areas, decentralized solar microgrid pilots, leveraging Egypt’s high solar irradiance and drawing on models from Benban Solar Park, could support Level 2 charging stations in off-grid communities. These systems, integrated with battery storage and supported by targeted public–private partnerships, can ensure energy access while minimizing grid upgrade costs [23,63,64].

4.1.2. Charging Infrastructure

Egypt’s public EV charging infrastructure remains limited and primarily concentrated in major cities, highlighting the urgent need for nationwide expansion. To address this, strategic partnerships, like those leveraging existing fuel stations, are crucial for a phased rollout. This approach aims to overcome current disparities, ensure equitable access, and integrate smart technologies, ultimately bridging the gap with regional EV infrastructure leaders [63,64]. In Table 2, the charging infrastructure development roadmap (2023–2030) is illustrated.

A balanced charging network should include various charger types to meet EV users’ needs. Level 1 chargers are cost-effective for overnight home charging but too slow for public use. Level 2 chargers, common in commercial areas, offer faster charging for urban settings. DC fast chargers (Level 3) are crucial for long-distance travel, cutting charging times significantly. Solar-powered chargers leverage Egypt’s abundant sunlight, reducing grid dependency and costs. A diverse mix of these chargers will ensure a flexible, accessible, and sustainable EV infrastructure [65,66].

Table 2. Charging Infrastructure Development Roadmap (2023–2030) [67,68,69].

Year	Installed Capacity (GW)	Renewables Share (%)	EV Fleet Size	Daily Charging Demand (GWh)	Grid Surplus/ Deficit (GW)
2023 [57]	59.5	10	3000	0.06	+59.44
2025 [46]	65.0	25	50,000	1.00	+64.00
2030 [50,58]	85.0	42	500,000	10.00	+75.00

Assumptions: Average EV consumption = 20 kWh/100 km; daily driving distance = 40 km [2].

Table 2. Charging Infrastructure Development Roadmap (2023–2030) [67,68,69].

Year	Installed Capacity (GW)	Renewables Share (%)	EV Fleet Size	Daily Charging Demand (GWh)	Grid Surplus/ Deficit (GW)
2023 [57]	59.5	10	3000	0.06	+59.44
2025 [46]	65.0	25	50,000	1.00	+64.00
2030 [50,58]	85.0	42	500,000	10.00	+75.00

Assumptions: Average EV consumption = 20 kWh/100 km; daily driving distance = 40 km [2].

Assuming an average cost of $10,000–$15,000 per charger, deploying 3000 public chargers would require an estimated $30–45 million investments. A phased implementation model, starting with urban hubs and highways, can be pursued through public–private partnerships and leveraging existing fuel station infrastructure to align with Egypt’s fiscal capacity.

4.2. Comparative Analysis

Table 3. Charger Density in MENA Countries (2023).

Country	EVs per Charger (2023)	Chargers per 10,000 km2 (2023)	Investment per Charger (USD, 2023)	Reference
Egypt	20	0.5	15,000	[38,70]
UAE	15	8.2	25,000	[71]
Morocco	25	3.5	12,000	[72]
Saudi Arabia	18	2.1	20,000	[39]

compares the 2023 EV charger density and investment across the MENA countries, showing EVs per charger, chargers per area, and investment per unit, highlighting Egypt’s position relative to regional peers

Table 3 reveals significant disparities in EV charger infrastructure across MENA countries in 2023. While Egypt shows a relatively moderate EV-to-charger ratio, its charger density per area is notably low, indicating a geographically sparse network. Conversely, the UAE exhibits the highest charger density, reflecting substantial infrastructure investment, though at a higher cost per charger. Saudi Arabia and Morocco fall in between, demonstrating varying levels of infrastructure development and investment, highlighting the diverse approaches to EV adoption across the region. Because the battery is the heart of an EV, determining its range, efficiency, and lifespan, but extreme temperatures, especially heat accelerate degradation, reducing performance and long-term reliability.

4.2.1. Battery Performance in Extreme Climates

High temperatures (30–45 °C) reduce lithium-ion battery lifespan by 25–30% compared to temperate regions [51,73]. This poses a significant challenge for EV adoption in Egypt, where prolonged periods of intense heat are common. The impact of these high temperatures on battery degradation is clearly illustrated in

Table 4. Battery Degradation Rates in Egyptian Cities.

City	Avg. Summer Temp (°C)	Annual Capacity Loss (%)	Expected Lifespan (Years)
Cairo	35	18	8
Aswan	42	25	6
Alexandria	32	15	9

Assumptions: The data presented in this table are estimates based on general trends observed in battery performance relative to temperature variations.

, which details battery degradation rates in key Egyptian cities [74]. The table demonstrates a direct correlation between average summer temperatures and annual battery capacity loss. For instance, Aswan, with an average summer temperature of 42 °C, experiences a 25% annual capacity loss, resulting in an expected lifespan of only 6 years. This is significantly lower than Alexandria, which, with a milder average summer temperature of 32 °C, sees a 15% annual capacity loss and an expected lifespan of 9 years [51]. These figures are consistent with studies conducted by organizations like the U.S. Department of Energy and academic research from institutions like the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which have documented the accelerated degradation of lithium-ion batteries under elevated temperatures [52].

Furthermore, the ongoing research consistently highlights the detrimental effects of heat on battery performance and longevity. Consequently, effective thermal management strategies, such as advanced cooling systems and optimized charging schedules, are crucial for mitigating battery degradation and ensuring the long-term viability of EVs in Egypt’s hot climate [75,76].

4.2.2. Recommendations for Mitigating Battery Degradation of Electric Vehicles in Egypt

• Given the significant battery degradation rates observed in Egyptian cities, particularly in high-temperature regions like Aswan, a multi-faceted approach is crucial. The data clearly supports the necessity for enhanced battery technology. The 25% annual capacity loss in Aswan, with its 42 °C summer average, demonstrates the extreme vulnerability of current battery chemistries. Therefore, developing heat-resistant batteries with silicon-anode technology is paramount. Furthermore, prioritizing research into solid-state batteries, known for their superior thermal stability and energy density, is vital for the Egyptian climate. Investment in advanced thermal management materials, such as phase-change materials, should also be considered [77,78,79].
• Complementing advancements in battery technology, mandatory active cooling systems are essential. The varying degradation rates in Alexandria (15%) and Cairo (18%) illustrate that even slight temperature variations significantly impact battery lifespan. Cooling systems must be designed for extreme heat, potentially incorporating redundant mechanisms and intelligent thermal management algorithms. Importantly, optimizing cooling system energy consumption to minimize impact on vehicle range is crucial [80,81].
• However, technological advancements alone are insufficient. Infrastructure development and user education are equally critical. Public charging stations should be equipped with shaded areas and cooling mechanisms to mitigate heat exposure during charging. Public awareness campaigns should educate EV owners on optimal charging practices, such as avoiding rapid charging during peak heat hours. Furthermore, deploying charging stations in thermally protected areas, like underground parking, should be considered [40,82].
• Data-driven policies are vital for sustainable progress. Policy decisions must be informed by real-world data, necessitating continuous monitoring of EV battery performance across diverse Egyptian climates. This allows for refining policies and technologies and enables rapid implementation of solutions. Additionally, incentives for off-peak charging should be implemented to reduce grid strain and heat generated by fast charging, creating a holistic approach to managing battery degradation and promoting sustainable EV adoption [83,84].
• Egypt could benefit from a comprehensive analysis of the United Arab Emirates’ strategic deployment of advanced battery technologies, specifically Lithium-Titanate and solid-state chemistries, integrated with sophisticated thermal management and multi-level converter systems. This analysis should also encompass the UAE’s infrastructure adaptations and targeted policy and incentive frameworks, serving as a potential model for technology transfer and informed decision-making in Egypt’s own energy storage development [27,85].

4.3. Economic Feasibility

EVs present a financial trade-off: higher initial costs balanced by significant long-term savings. These savings are achieved through.

4.3.1. Reduced Fuel Costs

The cost of electricity per mile is generally substantially lower than the equivalent cost of gasoline, leading to significant fuel savings over the vehicle’s lifespan. This is supported by studies from organizations like the U.S. Department of Energy, which consistently demonstrate the economic advantages of electric vehicle operation [47,86,87]. In Egypt, the electricity price for residential users is approximately 1.2 EGP/kWh, while gasoline is priced at around 10 EGP/L (as of 2024). Assuming an EV consumption of 20 kWh per 100 km, the cost per kilometer is EGP 0.24 for electricity versus EGP 1.25 for gasoline-powered vehicles, reflecting more than 80% savings in energy costs per km driven.

4.3.2. Lower Maintenance Expenses

EVs require less maintenance due to their simpler mechanical design, eliminating the need for oil changes, spark plug replacements, and other routine maintenance tasks associated with internal combustion engine vehicles. Reports from sources like the Electric Vehicle Council highlight these reduced maintenance expenses [87,88]. In Egypt, where many ICE vehicle owners pay significant out-of-pocket costs for routine services such as oil changes (estimated at EGP 1000–1500 per visit), EVs eliminate many of these recurring expenses. According to local repair estimates, EV maintenance costs are typically 30–50% lower due to the absence of internal combustion engine components.

4.3.3. Financial Incentives

Government-backed tax credits and rebates significantly reduce the financial burden of EV acquisition, directly offsetting the higher initial purchase price. Unlike countries offering consumer subsidies or tax rebates, Egypt currently provides minimal direct incentives for EV buyers. Import duties were reduced in 2022 for assembled EVs, and there is a five-year tax holiday for manufacturers, but no nationwide financial rebates or free charging policies exist for private consumers. These incentives aim to accelerate EV adoption by making them more economically accessible to consumers, thereby lowering the total cost of ownership [41,89].

4.3.4. Decreasing Purchase Prices

Rapid advancements in battery technology, coupled with the economies of scale achieved through increased EV production, are consistently lowering the initial purchase price of electric vehicles. This trend makes EVs increasingly competitive with traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, accelerating their market adoption [90,91].

Table 5. 10-Year TCO Comparison (EGP).

Vehicle Model	Purchase Price	Fuel/Electricity	Maintenance	Residual Value	Total Cost
Nissan Leaf (EV) [48]	600,000	60,000	40,000	150,000	550,000
Toyota Corolla (ICE) [93]	480,000	300,000	120,000	90,000	810,000
BYD Atto 3 (EV) [94]	650,000	70,000	50,000	180,000	590,000

provides the 10-Year TCO Comparison (EGP), based on the assumptions: Electricity cost = 1.2 EGP/kWh; gasoline = 10 EGP/L; annual mileage = 20,000 km [48,92,93,94]. Note that current prices will be higher than on the table due to inflation.

To contextualize the TCO analysis within Egypt’s socioeconomic landscape, behavioral elasticity modeling was incorporated using recent Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) mobility willingness indices. Results suggest that a 15% increase in upfront EV subsidies could raise adoption rates among middle-income households by up to 22%, based on regression analysis of purchasing behavior from 2019 to 2023 [95]. Unlike Morocco or the UAE, where higher income levels reduce price sensitivity, Egypt exhibits a stronger adoption response to modest fiscal incentives, particularly among urban households earning between EGP 8000 and 15,000 per month. These results underscore the importance of finely calibrated subsidy schemes aligned with household income distribution.

4.3.5. Policy Incentives and Local Manufacturing

Egypt’s EV policies fall short of regional standards, impeding its EV transition. Unlike regional leaders with robust incentives and infrastructure development, Egypt’s approach is slower and less comprehensive. Analyses, such as those from Fitch Solutions [96], highlight the lack of strong consumer incentives and slow charging infrastructure growth, creating a less favorable EV adoption environment [97,98].

To ensure the practical implementation of these policy recommendations, it is essential to consider Egypt’s current socio-economic context, characterized by fiscal constraints, administrative fragmentation, and varying institutional capacities. Effective execution would likely require a phased policy rollout, targeted pilot programs in urban centers, and enhanced coordination among energy, transport, and industrial authorities. Such an approach would help align long-term EV strategies with the realities of Egypt’s economic and institutional landscape.

To attract private investment and accelerate EV adoption, Egypt needs clearer, long-term policy signals. Regional benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of clear targets and regulatory certainty. Egypt must address issues like import tariffs, charging standardization, and grid integration to align with best practices and unlock its EV market potential [99,100]. For instance,

Table 6. EV Incentives in MENA Countries [101,102].

Country	Import Tax (%) (2023)	Purchase Subsidy (%) (2023)	Local Assembly Incentives (2023)	References
Egypt	10	0	5-year tax holiday	[53,103]
Morocco	5	20	Land subsidies	[104]
UAE	0	30	Free trade zones	[105]
Saudi Arabia	15	15	50% utility discounts	[105]

Note: Data compiled from national government policy documents, official energy and transport ministry websites, International Energy Agency reports, and peer-reviewed studies cited in [44,45,60,62].

reveals stark contrasts in EV incentive strategies across MENA countries. Egypt’s comparatively high import tax and absence of purchase subsidies position it as less attractive for EV adoption compared to its regional peers. The UAE’s zero import tax and substantial purchase subsidy, coupled with free trade zone incentives, demonstrate a strong commitment to EV adoption. Morocco and Saudi Arabia offer a middle ground, with lower import taxes and varying purchase subsidies and local assembly incentives, indicating diverse approaches to fostering their respective EV markets.

Although, based on Table 6, Egypt is less attractive, there is a high potential that local manufacturing can exert.

While comparative benchmarks are useful, Egypt’s context differs significantly. Unlike Morocco’s export-oriented EV manufacturing or the UAE’s centralized EV infrastructure deployment, Egypt operates within a more fragmented institutional landscape. The presence of multiple overlapping authorities, including ministries of electricity, industry, environment, and transport, without unified national coordination has delayed standardization efforts for EV charging and vehicle classification. These structural distinctions necessitate a country-specific policy framework, rather than direct replication of MENA peers.

The comparative policy analysis draws on published government strategies, IEA and UNESCWA reports, and recent literature on EV adoption across MENA countries to ensure consistency and reliability of the summarized data.

While the UAE, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia have successfully deployed incentive frameworks to catalyze EV adoption, Egypt’s adaptation must reflect its unique fiscal and institutional context. For instance, the UAE’s generous consumer subsidies and zero import tariffs are underpinned by a strong sovereign wealth position and relatively low vehicle demand [105]. Morocco, on the other hand, offers industrial land and streamlined permits, leveraging its competitive labor market and strong EU trade links to attract EV manufacturers [104]. Saudi Arabia couples utility subsidies with large-scale national investment through Vision 2030 [105].

In Egypt’s case, limited fiscal space makes direct consumer subsidies less viable at scale. However, Egypt could implement phased or conditional purchase incentives, starting with tax credits or toll exemptions in urban areas with high pollution levels. Furthermore, leveraging Egypt’s extensive network of public fuel stations for charger deployment, similar to Morocco’s co-location strategy, can reduce infrastructure costs while expanding access [103,104]. Rather than high upfront cash subsidies, Egypt could emphasize in-kind incentives for manufacturers, such as tax holidays, export support, and workforce training grants, aligning with existing industrial development policies [96,106].

4.3.6. Local Manufacturing Impact

Egypt’s Vision 2030 outlines an ambitious target to produce at least 500,000 electric vehicles (EVs) annually by the end of the decade, with initial production phases expected to commence by 2025 [107]. Strategic partnerships—such as the agreement between China’s BAIC and Egypt’s Alkan Auto Company—aim to establish local manufacturing infrastructure that can reduce import dependency, lower vehicle costs by an estimated 15–20%, and create up to 5000 new jobs [106,107]. However, the long-term effectiveness of these initiatives depends on resolving upstream supply chain bottlenecks, particularly the lack of local lithium-ion battery manufacturing or recycling capacity [95,108]. These constraints threaten to delay production timelines or increase reliance on costly imports. To ensure the feasibility of reaching the 2030 target, Egypt should implement intermediate milestones (e.g., 100,000 EVs by 2027) and foster regional sourcing agreements or battery joint ventures. Doing so would align local manufacturing with global EV trends and strengthen Egypt’s position in the regional mobility value chain [7,107].

It should be noted that feasibility claims are based on published findings and are not derived from original modeling. Their interpretation should consider the context and assumptions of the source studies.

4.4. Environmental Feasibility

4.4.1. Lifecycle Emissions and Component Analysis

EVs charged with Egypt’s 2023 grid emit 108 g CO₂/km, 40% less than gasoline vehicles. By 2030, solar-charged EVs could reduce emissions to 54 g CO₂/km [109]. These values are based on average grid emission factors. However, Egypt’s continued reliance on natural gas may result in higher marginal emissions per kWh, especially during peak load periods. As such, actual emission reductions could be lower than reported. Future Egypt-specific assessments should incorporate marginal grid emissions and time-of-day generation profiles for more accurate estimation of EV climate benefits.

The renewable energy share referenced here is based on installed capacity targets, not actual annual generation output, which may vary due to intermittency and grid dispatch patterns. A granular breakdown reveals that 60% of EV production emissions stem from battery manufacturing, primarily due to energy-intensive lithium extraction and processing [110].

Table 7. Lifecycle Emissions by Component (Tonnes CO₂/150,000 km).

Component	ICE Vehicle	EV (2023 Grid)	EV (2030 Solar)
Vehicle Assembly	5.2	6.1	6.1
Battery Production	–	5.9	5.9
Operation (Fuel)	36.0	21.0	6.0
Recycling	2.0	4.0	4.0
Total	48.0	37.0	22.0

shows lifecycle CO₂ emissions for an ICE vehicle (48.0 tonnes), an EV on the 2023 grid (37.0 tonnes), and an EV on a projected 2030 solar grid (22.0 tonnes) over 150,000 km. ICE vehicles emit the most due to fuel use (36.0 tonnes), while EVs reduce emissions, especially with cleaner grids. Battery production adds emissions (5.9 tonnes) for EVs, but solar-powered operation in 2030 significantly lowers their total footprint, emphasizing the impact of energy sources on EV sustainability [111,112].

A core challenge in Egypt’s transition to electric vehicles lies in balancing energy security with environmental sustainability. On the one hand, EV adoption can enhance long-term energy security by reducing dependence on imported oil and reallocating fossil fuel subsidies, currently estimated at $4.2 billion annually [10], towards domestic renewable energy investments. On the other hand, the environmental advantages of EVs are diminished when powered by a grid heavily reliant on natural gas, which still constitutes 90% of electricity generation [31]. This energy mix not only limits the decarbonization potential of EVs but also exposes the country to fuel price volatility. However, strategic integration of solar and wind energy, such as through Benban Solar Park and Gulf of Suez wind farms, offers a pathway to align energy security with sustainability objectives. As shown in Table 7, transitioning to a cleaner grid could reduce EV lifecycle emissions by over 40%. Therefore, synchronizing EV deployment with grid decarbonization is essential to maximize the dual benefits of reduced emissions and improved energy resilience. Future studies are encouraged to develop Egypt-specific lifecycle assessment models that incorporate real-time generation data, probabilistic emissions ranges, and regionally calibrated assumptions to strengthen the reliability of national EV planning.

As this is a review-based synthesis, the LCA values presented are indicative and drawn from representative sources; they do not include uncertainty ranges or sensitivity analysis, which would be essential in a full empirical assessment.

The diagram in Figure 1 visually complements Table 7 by highlighting changes in energy sources, battery production emissions, and operational CO₂ reductions due to increased renewable integration.

It is important to consider the broader environmental impact of electric vehicle technology, including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). While HEVs offer a reduction in CO₂ emissions compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, with figures indicating around 35 tonnes of CO₂ emitted per 150,000 km, their production and operation still carry an environmental footprint [113]. Notably, the lithium-ion batteries that power these vehicles require materials like cobalt, and in hot climates such as Egypt’s, the demand for cobalt increases significantly, reportedly by 30%, due to the necessity for more robust thermal management systems. This heightened demand raises concerns about the environmental and ethical implications of cobalt mining [114].

4.4.2. Battery Recycling Potential

As the EV market expands, the imperative to address the lifecycle of EV batteries becomes increasingly critical. Establishing a robust battery recycling infrastructure not only mitigates environmental concerns but also offers significant economic opportunities through resource recovery.

The surge in EV adoption brings forth the challenge of managing spent lithium-ion batteries. Without proper recycling protocols, these batteries pose environmental hazards due to their toxic components. Currently, Egypt lacks a standardized and safe method for recycling spent batteries, leading to potential environmental risks [108]. Addressing this gap is essential to prevent pollution and harness the economic potential of recycled battery materials.

Recycling EV batteries presents a lucrative opportunity for resource recovery. Valuable metals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese can be extracted and reused in the production of new batteries or other industries. For Egypt, developing a domestic recycling industry could reduce dependence on raw material imports and stimulate economic growth.

While Egypt has established facilities for recycling conventional vehicle batteries, such as the EL-NASR factory [115], the infrastructure for recycling lithium-ion batteries remains underdeveloped. Researchers at institutions like [116] are actively exploring innovative and safe recycling methods for lithium-ion batteries.

While precise data on the number of recycling plants and specific investments in Egypt are not readily available, the global trend indicates a significant increase in EV battery recycling efforts. For instance, the global EV battery recycling market is projected to grow from USD 0.23 billion in 2022 to USD 1.92 billion by 2030, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 35.40% during this period [117].

In Egypt, the Ministry of Environment has recently invested EUR 4.5 million in a state-of-the-art waste recycling facility in the Assiut Governorate, aiming to modernize the nation’s waste management systems [118]. This initiative, while not exclusively focused on EV batteries, reflects the country’s commitment to enhancing its recycling infrastructure.

Given the anticipated growth in EV adoption, it is plausible that Egypt will need to establish multiple recycling plants by 2030 to handle the increasing volume of battery waste.

Hydrometallurgical recycling, which involves leaching valuable metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel using aqueous chemical solutions, is especially well-suited to Egypt’s climate and infrastructure conditions for several reasons, such as thermal suitability, environmental and health benefits, adaptability to water constraints, economic feasibility, and material recovery efficiency.

Unlike pyrometallurgical processes that require temperatures above 1000 °C, hydrometallurgical systems operate at much lower temperatures (typically below 100 °C), making them more energy-efficient and operationally safer in Egypt’s hot climate, where average summer temperatures in cities like Aswan and Cairo can reach 42 °C and 35 °C, respectively [51,74].

Egypt’s current reliance on informal lead-acid battery dismantling practices [119] poses serious health and environmental risks, which could be exacerbated by high temperatures. A shift toward formal hydrometallurgical recycling can reduce the risk of heat-exacerbated chemical exposure and thermal runaway.

While hydrometallurgy is water-intensive, closed-loop water management systems, already implemented in pilot projects globally [120], can be adopted to address Egypt’s water scarcity, as part of ongoing waste infrastructure modernization efforts [118].

The scalability and relative simplicity of hydrometallurgical plants make them more suitable for Egypt’s emerging industrial zones compared to energy-intensive pyrometallurgical methods. This is consistent with the Ministry of Environment’s investment in advanced recycling infrastructure [118], and aligns with regional best practices, such as Morocco’s adoption of hydrometallurgical recycling despite similar climate constraints [121].

Hydrometallurgical methods typically achieve higher recovery rates for critical metals (up to 90–95%) [120,122], which can reduce Egypt’s dependence on imported raw materials and support a circular economy for EV batteries [117].

Achieving higher recovery rates and securing substantial investments will be crucial to developing an efficient and sustainable battery recycling ecosystem.

Table 8. Recycling Infrastructure Roadmap.

Year	Recycling Plants	Recovery Rate (%)	Investment (Million USD)
2025	1	60	50
2030	4	85	200

provides the foreseen vision toward establishing recycling plants in Egypt.

It should be noted that Egypt currently lacks operational lithium-ion battery recycling infrastructure. The projections in Table 8 are speculative and represent forward-looking scenarios based on the best international practices, particularly hydrometallurgical models. While promising, these assumptions are not yet supported by domestic pilot projects or commercial-scale implementation.

4.5. Social Feasibility

Assessing the social feasibility of EV adoption in Egypt necessitates an examination of public perception, governmental policies, infrastructure development, and environmental awareness.

Public perception significantly influences the adoption of EVs. Studies have shown that advancements in EV technology, such as improved range, faster charging, and enhanced battery performance, enhance consumer acceptance and adoption rates [54,123]. However, challenges such as limited charging infrastructure and range anxiety persist, affecting consumer confidence in EVs. Addressing these concerns through technological improvements and infrastructure expansion is crucial for increasing public acceptance [54].

Governmental policies play a pivotal role in facilitating EV adoption. In Egypt, the government’s commitment to integrating renewable energy sources into the national grid aligns with the promotion of EVs. Strategies focusing on renewable energy integration can yield economic and social benefits, particularly in rural electrification, thereby creating a conducive environment for EV adoption [23].

The availability of charging infrastructure is a critical determinant of EV adoption. The limited number of charging facilities in Egypt hinders the widespread use of EVs, as potential users are concerned about the accessibility and convenience of charging stations. Developing a comprehensive network of charging stations, including the integration of wireless power transfer systems, can alleviate these concerns and promote EV adoption [124,125].

Environmental awareness is a driving force behind the social acceptance of EVs. The utilization of EVs, coupled with renewable energy sources, can significantly reduce environmental pollution. Public education campaigns highlighting the environmental benefits of EVs are essential to enhance social acceptance and encourage a shift towards sustainable transportation options [123].

Despite the potential benefits, several challenges impede the social feasibility of EVs in Egypt. These include high initial costs, insufficient charging infrastructure, and limited consumer awareness. However, these challenges present opportunities for targeted interventions. Implementing financial incentives, investing in infrastructure development, and conducting public awareness campaigns can collectively enhance the social feasibility of EVs in Egypt.

4.5.1. Awareness and Accessibility

Awareness and accessibility are pivotal factors influencing the social feasibility of electric vehicles (EVs). Studies have demonstrated that increased familiarity with EVs can significantly boost their adoption rates. For instance, the BlueLA program in Los Angeles, which introduced EVs for public use in heavily trafficked areas primarily aimed at low-to-middle-income households, resulted in a 33% increase in new EV adoptions. This suggests that direct exposure to EVs in daily environments enhances individuals’ likelihood of considering and adopting such technology [126]. This finding aligns with data indicating that urban residents aged 18–35 exhibit higher awareness (50%) and willingness to adopt EVs (60%), likely due to greater exposure and accessibility in urban settings.

Conversely, accessibility challenges, particularly in rural areas, hinder EV adoption. The lack of charging infrastructure in these regions is a significant barrier, as evidenced by lower awareness (20%) and willingness to adopt (30%) among rural populations. A study assessing the feasibility of EV travel for remote communities in Australia found that while EV travel is often not currently feasible for trips to large service hub towns using low-range vehicles, over 99% of communities and residents considered would be able to travel to their nearest small service hub town with existing long-range EVs. This highlights the need for targeted interventions, such as expanding charging networks in underserved areas, to enhance social feasibility across all demographics [127].

Table 9. EV Awareness and Adoption by Demographic (2023 Survey-Based Estimates).

Demographic	Awareness (%)	Willingness to Adopt (%)	Main Barrier	Source
Urban (18–35)	50	60	High upfront cost	[128]
Rural	20	30	Lack of charging	[129]
High-Income	75	85	Model variety	[130]
Low-Income	15	20	Affordability	[130]

summarizes EV awareness and adoption across demographics, showing higher adoption willingness in urban (60%) and high-income groups (85%) due to better access and affordability, while rural (30%) and low-income groups (20%) face barriers like charging limitations and cost [126,127]. These trends highlight the need for targeted policies to enhance EV accessibility.

These findings are further supported by a behavioral adoption barrier matrix shown below, based on synthesized data from CAPMAS, GEMRIX, and local NGO surveys, as shown in

Table 10. Behavioral Barriers to EV Adoption by Demographic Group in Egypt.

Demographic	Price Sensitivity	Range Anxiety	Policy Awareness	Trust in EV Tech
Urban High-Income	Low	Moderate	High	High
Urban Low-Income	High	High	Medium	Moderate
Rural Middle-Income	Very High	High	Low	Low
Rural Low-Income	Extremely High	Very High	Very Low	Very Low

.

This pattern contrasts with adoption behavior observed in countries like the UAE or Saudi Arabia, where higher digital access, broader income buffers, and urban infrastructure density reduce perceived barriers. Egypt’s rural and peri-urban populations remain largely disengaged from the EV transition unless tailored incentive, education, and infrastructure interventions are introduced.

Notes:

• Recent studies indicate that younger adults and urban residents are more inclined to consider purchasing electric vehicles (EVs). For instance, research shows that urban areas with increased charger density correlate with higher EV adoption rates. While specific percentages for the combined demographic of urban youth are not provided, the trend suggests higher awareness and willingness among this group [131,132].
• Studies have identified inadequate charging infrastructure as a significant barrier to EV adoption in rural areas. While specific percentages regarding awareness and willingness in these regions are not detailed, the infrastructural challenges are well-documented. Notably, rural locations have the lowest EV adoption rates due to their insufficient charging station infrastructure [133].
• Studies have shown that individuals with higher education levels, often correlated with higher income, are more likely to consider purchasing EVs. For instance, households earning at least $200,000 accounted for 42.6% of EV sales, while those earning between $100,000 and $199,999 comprised 32.9% of sales. In contrast, households with incomes below $100,000 represented only 24.5% of EV purchases. This trend suggests that higher education and income levels are associated with increased EV adoption [134].
• Affordability remains a significant barrier to electric vehicle (EV) adoption among low-income individuals. Studies have shown that the high upfront costs of EVs deter potential buyers in this demographic. For instance, research indicates that access to and affordability of EV charging infrastructure are prominent barriers for EV adoption, with disparities in charging infrastructure distribution affecting low-income and disinvested neighborhoods [135].

4.5.2. Cultural Perceptions

While existing research identifies general barriers to EV adoption in Egypt, such as high upfront costs, limited infrastructure, and a lack of consumer awareness [136], detailed regional statistics on cultural attitudes toward EVs are not readily accessible.

Cultural perceptions significantly influence the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in Egypt. Studies have shown that consumers’ environmental awareness and personal values play a crucial role in shaping their attitudes toward EVs. Individuals who prioritize ecological and altruistic values are more likely to develop pro-environmental identities, fostering favorable attitudes toward EV adoption. This suggests that enhancing environmental consciousness could positively impact EV acceptance in the Egyptian market [137].

However, several cultural and infrastructural challenges hinder widespread EV adoption in Egypt. Limited public awareness about EV technology, concerns over the availability of charging infrastructure, and the higher upfront costs associated with EVs compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles contribute to consumer hesitation. Addressing these issues requires concerted efforts from policymakers to implement educational campaigns, invest in charging infrastructure development, and provide financial incentives to make EVs more accessible and appealing to the Egyptian populace [138].

Younger individuals are generally more inclined to adopt electric vehicles (EVs). For instance, a Statista survey indicates that in the United States, individuals aged 18 to 29 are the most likely to consider purchasing an EV [139]. Similarly, a Pew Research Center study highlights that younger adults, along with urban residents and Democrats, are among the most likely to consider purchasing an EV [138]. These trends suggest that youth are a significant driving force in the adoption of EVs.

Targeting Egypt’s youth through social media campaigns can significantly enhance EV adoption. Given the high engagement of young Egyptians on platforms like Facebook and Instagram, these channels offer effective avenues to raise awareness and shape positive perceptions about EVs. Utilizing engaging content, such as interactive videos and collaborations with local influencers, can address misconceptions and highlight the benefits of EV ownership, including cost savings and environmental advantages. This approach aligns with global trends, where social media has been instrumental in increasing EV-related discussions and interest [140].

Implementing test-drive programs in Egypt’s rural areas can effectively address skepticism and build trust in EV technology. Rural communities often have limited exposure to EVs, making firsthand experience crucial for overcoming adoption barriers. Organizing test-drive events allows potential buyers to experience EV performance and charging convenience directly. For instance, initiatives like the “EVs Electrify!” Expo & Conference in Cairo have provided interactive showcases and test drives, offering valuable insights into EV technology. Expanding similar programs to rural regions, coupled with educational sessions on charging infrastructure and maintenance, can significantly boost EV adoption across diverse demographics in Egypt [141].

5. Adoption Landscape and Enabling Environment in Egypt

The visibility and adoption of EVs in Egypt are influenced by multiple factors, including market penetration, policy frameworks, infrastructure development, and public perception. A comprehensive analysis of these elements offers insights into the current landscape and future prospects of EVs in the country.

5.1. Market Penetration

As of 2023, Egypt’s EV market remains nascent, with approximately 3500 to 4000 electric vehicles in use nationwide [70]. This modest figure underscores the early stage of EV adoption in the country. In contrast, global EV sales have experienced robust growth, with electric car sales nearing 14 million in 2023, accounting for 18% of total car sales [142].

In Egypt, the adoption of EVs faces significant challenges, primarily due to high initial costs and limited model availability. The upfront expense of EVs remains a substantial barrier for many consumers, as these vehicles are often priced beyond the reach of the average buyer. This financial hurdle is compounded by a restricted variety of EV models in the Egyptian market, which limits consumer choices and deters potential buyers. Despite these obstacles, the market is gradually evolving, with projections indicating a growth rate of 17.79% between 2024 and 2028, potentially reaching a market volume of USD 4.1 million by 2028. This anticipated expansion suggests a future increase in both affordability and diversity of EV options for Egyptian consumers [143]. However, there are promising opportunities, such as government initiatives and strategic partnerships.

5.2. Policy Framework

A supportive policy environment is crucial for accelerating EV adoption. The Egyptian government has introduced several measures to promote EVs such as import incentives and production targets. In early 2018, Egypt implemented Ministerial Resolution 255/2018, exempting EVs from customs duties and permitting the import of used EVs up to three years old, aiming to make EVs more affordable for consumers [107,144]. Aligned with Egypt Vision 2030, the government has set an ambitious target to produce no less than 500,000 electric cars annually by the end of the decade, emphasizing the localization of EV manufacturing to boost the domestic automotive industry [145], despite the policy challenges such as licensing and registration, and incentives for consumers.

EV owners often encounter challenges during vehicle registration due to the lack of standardized licensing criteria, which can result in inconsistencies in fees and vehicle classifications. For instance, in Alabama, EV owners are required to pay an annual license tax and registration fee of USD 200 for battery electric vehicles and USD 100 for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. These fees are distinct from those applied to traditional vehicles, highlighting the disparities in registration processes and costs for EV owners [146].

In the United States, the federal government offers a tax credit of up to USD 7500 to qualify new electric vehicles, aiming to make EVs more affordable for consumers [147]. However, the availability and amount of these incentives can vary, and not all consumers may qualify, leading to the perception that the direct benefits for individual buyers are insufficient compared to those provided to manufacturers and importers. To overcome these challenges, the following recommendations are proposed:

• Establishing a clear regulatory framework for electric vehicle (EV) licensing and registration is essential to streamline processes and encourage adoption. In California, for example, EVs are subject to the same registration requirements as other vehicles, unless specified differently, ensuring a straightforward process for owners [148]. Similarly, Illinois offers specific EV license plates for vehicles operating solely on electricity, with fees aligned to those of traditional vehicles, plus an additional USD 100 annual fee in lieu of motor fuel taxes [149]. These explicit guidelines not only simplify the registration process but also promote consistency and fairness for EV owners.
• Introducing financial incentives for consumers, such as tax credits or rebates, can significantly enhance the attractiveness of EVs to the general public. The federal government offers tax credits up to USD 7500 for eligible new electric vehicles and up to USD 4000 for qualifying used electric vehicles [150]. These incentives aim to reduce the initial cost barrier, making EVs more accessible to a broader audience. Additionally, many states provide supplementary incentives; for instance, California’s Clean Air Vehicle program grants carpool lane access to select electric vehicles, offering both time savings and convenience to EV owners [151]. Such consumer-focused benefits are pivotal in accelerating the transition to electric transportation.

5.3. Infrastructure Development

The expansion of EV infrastructure is pivotal for supporting market growth. Currently, Egypt faces significant challenges in this area such as charging stations and grid capacity.

The limited availability of public charging stations, primarily concentrated in major cities, poses challenges for the practicality of EVs in Egypt, especially for long-distance travel.

The increased electricity demand from widespread EV adoption can strain grid capacity, potentially leading to overloading of local transformers and increased peak loads. To mitigate these issues, utilities may need to invest in upgrading infrastructure, including transformers, substations, and distribution lines, to handle higher loads [152,153,154,155,156]. Additionally, the integration of renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, is essential to meet the increased demand sustainably. However, the intermittent nature of these energy sources requires the development of advanced grid management strategies and energy storage solutions to ensure a stable and reliable power supply [157]. Careful planning of charging station placement and the implementation of smart charging technologies can also help optimize grid performance and reduce the need for new power plants [158,159]. By addressing these challenges, the transition to EVs can be harmonized with the evolution of a resilient and sustainable energy infrastructure [160].

5.4. Public Perception

Public perception plays a crucial role in the adoption of EVs, as various interrelated factors shape consumer attitudes toward this emerging technology in Egypt. Among these, awareness and knowledge, environmental concerns, and the balance between perceived benefits and sacrifices significantly influence EV adoption. Understanding how these factors interact is essential for designing policies and strategies that encourage wider acceptance of EVs.

The level of awareness and knowledge is one of the most influential factors in EV adoption. Governmental policies and incentives significantly impact purchase decisions, with studies indicating that policy measures account for 39.1% of EV purchase intentions in Egypt [143]. Policies such as tax exemptions, subsidies, and infrastructure development enhance consumer confidence and reduce perceived risks associated with EV ownership. However, awareness alone is not enough to drive adoption; consumers must also perceive EVs as a viable and beneficial alternative to conventional vehicles [161]. This leads to the next crucial factor, environmental concerns, where increased awareness can shape consumer attitudes toward sustainability.

While awareness of EVs is increasing, consumers’ willingness to switch from conventional vehicles is also driven by their perception of environmental benefits. Studies have shown that individuals who are more conscious of climate change and air pollution are more likely to consider EVs as a cleaner alternative [162]. However, environmental concern alone does not always translate into purchase behavior. Many consumers still prioritize economic and practical considerations, such as initial costs, charging infrastructure, and vehicle performance. Thus, the decision to adopt an EV is a trade-off between the perceived environmental benefits and the sacrifices or challenges associated with ownership [163].

The interplay between awareness, environmental considerations, and perceived benefits versus sacrifices determines the rate of EV adoption. A successful transition to electric mobility requires not only increasing awareness but also ensuring that consumers perceive EVs as practical and economically viable alternatives to conventional vehicles. Bridging these gaps through policy support, infrastructure improvements, and targeted incentives can accelerate the shift toward sustainable transportation.

The widespread adoption of EVs is influenced by several critical challenges, notably range anxiety and cultural preferences for ICE vehicles. A deeper analysis of these factors reveals the complexities involved in consumer decision-making processes.

The uneven distribution of charging stations exacerbates this anxiety, as drivers may be uncertain about the availability and accessibility of charging points during their journeys. To mitigate range anxiety, it is essential to enhance the charging infrastructure by increasing the number of charging stations, ensuring their reliability, and integrating them strategically to cover underserved areas. Additionally, advancements in battery technology that extend vehicle range and reduce charging times can further alleviate these concerns [164,165].

The preference for ICE vehicles is deeply rooted in cultural norms and consumer perceptions of performance, reliability, and familiarity. In many societies, traditional vehicles are associated with established social status and driving experiences, creating resistance to adopting new technologies like EVs. This cultural resistance is often influenced by factors such as perceived reliability, performance capabilities, and the longstanding dominance of ICE vehicles in the market. Overcoming these cultural barriers requires targeted strategies, including public education campaigns that highlight the benefits and advancements of EV technology, addressing misconceptions, and showcasing the performance and reliability of modern EVs. Engaging community leaders and leveraging social influence can also play a pivotal role in shifting cultural perceptions and encouraging the acceptance of EVs [166].

Addressing the challenges of range anxiety and cultural preferences necessitates a multifaceted approach that combines infrastructure development, technological advancements, and cultural engagement. By expanding and optimizing charging networks, improving battery technologies, and implementing culturally sensitive educational initiatives, stakeholders can create an environment conducive to the widespread adoption of EVs, thereby contributing to sustainable transportation solutions [167].

To enhance the adoption of EVs, it is imperative to implement educational campaigns that effectively disseminate information regarding the benefits and capabilities of EVs. Such initiatives can address prevalent misconceptions and bolster consumer confidence. For instance, in Norway, the Norwegian Electric Vehicle Association (Elbil) has played a pivotal role in promoting EV adoption through comprehensive educational efforts. Their initiatives have contributed to EVs constituting approximately 96% of all new car sales in the country [168].

In addition to educational campaigns, providing targeted incentives to early adopters can significantly stimulate initial EV adoption and establish positive precedents for broader consumer acceptance. In the United States, federal tax credits have been instrumental in encouraging EV purchases. A 2016 study found that these incentives were responsible for over 30% of plug-in electric vehicle sales, highlighting their effectiveness in promoting EV adoption [169].

Similarly, in the United Kingdom, proposals have been made to reduce the Value Added Tax (VAT) on on-street charging and offer zero-interest loans for used EV purchases to make EVs more accessible to a broader demographic [55].

6. Research Gaps

This section critically examines unresolved challenges and understudied domains that impede the sustainable adoption of EVs in Egypt. While global advancements in EV technology and policy frameworks provide valuable insights, Egypt’s unique socio-economic, environmental, and infrastructural contexts demand localized research [170]. This section identifies gaps spanning technical limitations (e.g., grid resilience, climate-specific battery performance), policy inefficiencies (e.g., unverified subsidies, regulatory delays), and sociocultural barriers (e.g., gender disparities, consumer skepticism). By synthesizing data from peer-reviewed studies and regional case studies, it underscores the urgency of interdisciplinary research to address rural–urban disparities, battery recycling deficits, and untapped renewable synergies. These gaps, if unaddressed, risk perpetuating Egypt’s reliance on fossil fuels and delaying its transition to a low-carbon mobility future.

6.1. Understudied Areas

6.1.1. Rural Adoption

Egypt’s rural regions, home to 57% of its population, face systemic barriers to EV adoption. For example, in Assiut Governorate, diesel-powered microbuses and tuk-tuks constitute 78% of rural transport, emitting 2.5 times more PM2.5 than EVs [70]. A 2023 CAPMAS report revealed that only 4% of rural residents are aware of EVs, compared to 38% in Cairo [95].

While specific figures for grid reliability in upper Egypt are not readily available, it is acknowledged that rural areas in Egypt often experience less reliable electricity supply compared to urban centers like Cairo. This disparity can pose challenges for implementing consistent Level 2 EV charging infrastructure in regions such as Sohag.

To address these challenges, the Egyptian government has initiated efforts to modernize and expand the national power grid. The Egyptian Electricity Transmission Company (EETC) has invested approximately 7.6 billion Egyptian pounds in the past year to upgrade high and extra-high voltage substations and lines, aiming to enhance the overall reliability and efficiency of the electricity transmission network [171]. Additionally, between 2015 and 2021, the EETC added 4136 km of new lines, 31,875 MVA of transformer capacity, and 19 new substations at the 500 kV level to bolster grid reliability [172]. These initiatives are part of a broader strategy to improve electricity access across the country, including rural areas, thereby supporting the feasibility of EV charging infrastructure nationwide.

According to the Global Electric Mobility Readiness Index (GEMRIX) 2023, Egypt is ranked 28th out of 35 countries, categorized as a “starter market” with a score of 32 out of 100. This classification suggests that while there is significant potential for EV infrastructure development, substantial progress is still needed to enhance readiness [173].

6.1.2. Challenges and Opportunities in Battery Recycling

In Egypt, the recycling of used lead-acid batteries (ULABs) is predominantly managed by informal sectors employing rudimentary methods. These practices often result in significant environmental contamination and pose serious health risks due to the release of lead into the environment [119]. Globally, the recycling rate for lithium-ion batteries remains alarmingly low, with estimates suggesting that only about 5% are recycled. This low rate has substantial environmental and economic implications, especially considering the projected increase in lithium-ion battery waste [174].

Efforts to improve battery recycling infrastructure are underway in various regions. For instance, European startups have recently achieved significant advancements in recycling electric vehicle (EV) battery materials, aiming to meet regulatory requirements and reduce reliance on primary raw materials [175]. These developments highlight the critical need for enhanced recycling practices to mitigate environmental hazards and recover valuable materials from used batteries.

Table 11. Battery recycling capacities and rates for selected countries.

Country/Region	Recycling Capacity (Metric Tons)	Recycling Rate (%)	Predominant Method	Key Insights	Reference
China	500,000	~80	Hydrometallurgical	China leads EV battery recycling with 80% of global capacity, driven by strong regulations.	[176]
United States	200,000	Not specified	Pyrometallurgical and Hydrometallurgical	The U.S. is expanding recycling but trails China, with Redwood Materials and Li-Cycle leading.	[176]
Europe (EU-27)	200,000	51.0–94.3 (varies by country)	Hydrometallurgical and Pyrometallurgical	The EU has strong regulations; Germany and France lead, while Eastern Europe lags.	[177]
Germany	Included in EU total	~53	Pyrometallurgical	Germany has strict laws but struggles with next-gen EV battery recycling.	[176]
France	Included in EU total	~60	Hydrometallurgical	France has high recovery rates, backed by Umicore and others.	[177]
Morocco	Data unavailable	~92 (Claimed)	Hydrometallurgical	Morocco’s recycling is growing but lacks infrastructure; the 92% rate needs verification.	[121]
Egypt	Data unavailable	<1% (Estimated)	Informal dismantling	Egypt lacks formal recycling; informal lead-acid processing harms the environment.	[119]

summarizes battery recycling capacities and rates for selected countries.

Brief explanations of the predominant battery recycling methods (in Table 11)

• Hydrometallurgical Processing
  This method involves dissolving battery materials in acids to extract valuable metals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel. It is widely used due to its high metal recovery rates and lower environmental impact [120].

2.

Pyrometallurgical Processing

Batteries melt at high temperatures to recover metals. While effective for lead acid and nickel-based batteries, it loses some lithium and requires high energy input [122].

3.

Informal Dismantling

Common in developing countries, this involves manual breaking down batteries to extract metals. Lacks proper environmental controls, leading to pollution and health hazards [178].

Analysis and Insights from Table 10:

• China dominates EV battery recycling due to strong government policies and the presence of major companies specializing in lithium-ion battery recovery. With 80% of global recycling capacity, China benefits from well-established hydrometallurgical processes and a closed-loop supply chain, ensuring high efficiency and sustainability.
• The U.S. is ramping up recycling efforts through companies like Redwood Materials and Li-Cycle, yet it still lags behind China. Europe, with strict regulations, has a more structured approach, but recycling capacity varies significantly between Western and Eastern European countries, creating disparities in efficiency and resource recovery.
• Morocco has set ambitious recycling targets, claiming a 92% battery recovery rate, but reliable data to support this figure is lacking. While the country is developing hydrometallurgical recycling projects, large-scale infrastructure remains underdeveloped, raising concerns about the accuracy of reported rates.
• Egypt lacks formal lithium-ion battery recycling facilities, relying instead on informal dismantling of lead-acid batteries. This practice contributes to significant environmental pollution and health hazards, highlighting the urgent need for regulatory reforms and investment in sustainable recycling infrastructure.

6.2. Research Gaps in Health-Economy Impacts

6.2.1. Lack of Empirical Data

Particulate Matter with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5) serves as a critical empirical index for evaluating the environmental impact of electric vehicles (EVs). Characterized by their ability to infiltrate deep pulmonary tissues and vascular systems, PM2.5 particles are a significant constituent of urban air pollution, correlating strongly with adverse respiratory and cardiovascular health outcomes. While EVs mitigate PM2.5 through the elimination of tailpipe emissions and the reduction in brake wear via regenerative braking, they continue to contribute to particulate matter generation through tire abrasion and the resuspension of road dust, thus necessitating a comprehensive assessment of their overall impact [179].

Despite the global consensus regarding the potential of EV adoption to enhance air quality, Egypt lacks robust, localized empirical data quantifying the direct impact of EV implementation on PM2.5 concentrations and associated public health indicators. This deficiency contrasts sharply with nations such as China and Germany, which have executed detailed air quality assessments elucidating quantifiable reductions in pollutant levels attributable to EV integration. The absence of analogous studies in Egypt impedes the establishment of evidence-based policy frameworks and emission reduction targets, hindering the nation’s capacity to effectively leverage EV technology for environmental remediation [2,180].

6.2.2. Absence of Health-Economy Integration Models

Many developed nations utilize frameworks to estimate healthcare cost savings resulting from improved air quality due to EV adoption. For instance, Norway’s EV policies have been linked to a significant decline in respiratory diseases, thereby reducing public healthcare costs [181]. Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) employs models connecting EV adoption to decreased health expenditures. Egypt currently lacks comparable integrated models to quantify the economic benefits of cleaner air resulting from EV adoption [182].

6.2.3. Limited Research on EV Infrastructure and Urban–Rural Disparities

Countries like Norway, the Netherlands, and China have heavily invested in widespread EV charging infrastructure, reducing range anxiety and promoting adoption even in rural areas. In contrast, Egypt lacks sufficient studies on how infrastructure gaps between urban and rural regions could impact EV adoption. Rural areas in Egypt, much like those in India and Brazil, face significant challenges in grid reliability, making EV integration more difficult [183].

6.2.4. Policy and Public Perception Gaps

Globally, governments have implemented robust incentive programs to promote EV adoption [184,185]. France offers subsidies and tax benefits, while China provides extensive government support for manufacturers and consumers [2]. Egypt lacks research on how incentives, public perception, and policy measures affect consumer behavior and adoption rates. Understanding these factors could help design more effective strategies to accelerate EV adoption.

In conclusion, compared to leading EV-adopting nations, Egypt faces significant research gaps in air quality impact assessments, health-economic modeling, infrastructure planning, and policy effectiveness.

6.3. Policy Effectiveness

In 2022, Egypt reduced import tariffs on electric vehicles (EVs) from 40% to 2% to stimulate EV adoption, resulting in a significant rise in imports. However, domestic manufacturing has lagged behind, partly due to delays in implementing subsidies for locally produced vehicles. In contrast, Morocco has implemented a strategy centered on tax exemptions and streamlined permitting processes, attracting substantial investments in the EV sector and aiming to increase EV production from fewer than 50,000 units to 100,000 by 2025. These incentives have effectively lowered production costs and enhanced the competitiveness of domestically manufactured EVs. Meanwhile, India’s Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles Phase II (FAME-II) scheme has encountered difficulties due to rigid targets, achieving only 35% of its 1.5 million EV goal. This shortfall underscores the necessity of flexible and adaptive policy frameworks to effectively promote EV adoption [185,186].

Egypt’s Vision 2030, while ambitious, currently lacks specific mid-term benchmarks for EV adoption and local manufacturing [7]. The absence of these interim targets may lead to challenges similar to those experienced in other markets, underscoring the need for detailed planning and timely implementation of supportive policies.

Egypt’s EV policies aim to boost adoption, but their long-term effectiveness remains unclear. Key research gaps exist in evaluating policy outcomes, benchmarking against successful markets, and establishing mid-term evaluation frameworks. Therefore, addressing these gaps is crucial to ensuring sustainable EV growth and alignment with Vision 2030:

• Lack of research on long-term effectiveness of EV policies:

A policy brief titled “Mainstreaming Electric Mobility in Egypt” discusses the current state of electric mobility in Egypt, focusing on on-road electric vehicles and associated infrastructure. It highlights that while there have been developments, there is a need for a consolidated understanding and assessment of these initiatives to inform future policy directions [100].

2.

Comparative analysis of successful markets:

The IEA “Global EV Outlook 2024” provides insights into the lessons learned from leading markets, offering information for policymakers on effective policy frameworks and market systems that support electric vehicle uptake. This resource can serve as a benchmark for comparing Egypt’s policies with those of more successful markets [187].

3.

Absence of mid-term policy evaluation frameworks:

The same policy brief on “Mainstreaming Electric Mobility in Egypt” emphasizes the importance of enforcement of existing regulations and the implementation of Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (EIAs) for road transport projects. This underscores the need for structured evaluation frameworks to monitor progress and adapt policies accordingly [100].

4.

Establishing Key Performance Indicators (KPIs):

The IEA’s “Global EV Outlook 2024” also analyzes electric vehicle affordability, second-hand markets, and related policy developments, providing insights into how other countries have established KPIs to assess EV adoption rates, manufacturing development, and infrastructure expansion [187].

To show the effectiveness of countries policies,

Table 12. EV policy outcomes in MENA countries.

Country	Policy Details	EV Sales (2023)	Source
UAE	- 0% import tariff - Subsidies up to $4500 - Incentives like free parking and charging	35,000	[188]
Saudi Arabia	- Import tariff reductions - Initiatives to promote EV adoption	1500	[188]
Egypt	- Plans to launch local EV production by 2025 - Collaborations with international companies for EV manufacturing	220	[46,189]
Morocco	- Tax exemptions - Incentives to attract EV manufacturing investments	6141	[190]

summarizes the EV policy outcomes in MENA countries.

Notes:

• The UAE leads the region in EV adoption, with policies such as 0% import tariffs, subsidies up to $4500, and incentives like free parking and charging contributing to the sale of approximately 35,000 EVs in 2023 [188].
• In 2023, Saudi Arabia sold around 1500 EVs, reflecting its ongoing efforts to promote EV adoption [188].
• While specific EV sales data for 2023 is not available, Egypt has announced plans to commence local EV production by 2025, collaborating with international companies to establish manufacturing capabilities [189,190].
• Detailed data on EV sales and specific policy outcomes for 2023 are currently limited.

6.4. Technical Research Gaps

6.4.1. Grid Resilience

Egypt’s electricity grid, which recorded a peak demand of 34 GW on 23 August 2022, has a total generating capacity of 59 GW, indicating a reserve margin of 25 GW [191]. Integrating 500,000 electric vehicles (EVs) is projected to increase peak demand by approximately 1.2 GW. To accommodate this additional load, an estimated investment of $450 million in grid infrastructure upgrades is required.

Implementing smart charging strategies, particularly in conjunction with renewable energy sources like the Benban Solar Park, could mitigate up to 60% of the increased demand from EVs. This approach aligns with findings from California’s “Solar-to-EV” project, which demonstrated a 45% reduction in grid strain through the integration of solar energy and controlled EV charging [192]. To estimate Egypt’s future electricity demand considering the growth of electric vehicles (EVs), we can interpolate based on available data.

Historical and Projected Data:

• Total Electricity Consumption:

In 2022, Egypt’s electricity consumption was approximately 176.72 terawatt-hours (TWh) [193].

2.

EV Adoption:

As of 2023, there were between 3500 and 4000 EVs in Egypt [70]. In the first quarter of 2024, EV sales increased significantly, with over 1419 units sold, bringing the total number of EVs to more than 7000 [154].

3.

EV Market Projections:

The EV market in Egypt is expected to grow at a CAGR of 12.03%, reaching a market value of USD 20.08 billion by 2030 [50].

Assumptions for Estimation:

• Average Annual Distance per EV is 15,000 km.
• Average Energy Consumption per EV is 0.2 kilowatt-hours per kilometer (kWh/km).

Calculations:

• Annual Energy Consumption per EV:

15,000 km/year × 0.2 kWh/km = 3000 kWh/year = 0.003 TWh/year.

2.

Total EV Energy Consumption:

For 2023 (assuming 3750 EVs on average):

3750 EVs × 0.003 TWh/EV = 0.01125 TWh.

For 2024 (assuming 7000 EVs):

7000 EVs × 0.003 TWh/EV = 0.021 TWh.

3.

Percentage of Total Electricity Consumption:

For 2023: (0.01125 TWh/176.72 TWh) × 100% ≈ 0.0064%.

For 2024: (0.021 TWh/176.72 TWh) × 100% ≈ 0.0119%.

Interpolation for Future Years:

Assuming the number of EVs grows at the projected CAGR of 12.03%, we can estimate the number of EVs and their electricity consumption for future years, as illustrated in

Table 13. Projected EV electricity demand growth in Egypt.

Year	Estimated Number of EVs	Estimated EV Electricity Demand (TWh)	Percentage of Total Electricity Consumption (%)
2025	7841	0.0235	0.0133
2026	8788	0.0264	0.0149
2027	9852	0.0296	0.0168
2028	11,045	0.0331	0.0187
2029	12,380	0.0371	0.0210
2030	13,873	0.0416	0.0235

.

Notes:

• The above estimates are based on the assumption that the total electricity consumption remains constant at 176.72 TWh from 2023 onwards.
• The actual electricity demand from EVs may vary based on factors such as changes in average distance traveled, improvements in EV energy efficiency, and variations in total electricity consumption.

The table highlights Egypt’s projected EV electricity demand growth, showing a gradual but increasing impact on the national grid. Despite the current minimal contribution of EVs to total electricity consumption, their adoption is expected to rise significantly, emphasizing the need for grid expansion and sustainable energy integration.

However, a key technical research gap exists in Egypt regarding precise EV charging patterns, grid load distribution, and renewable energy integration for EV charging infrastructure. Addressing this gap through data-driven studies and policy planning is crucial to ensuring a stable, efficient, and eco-friendly transition to electric mobility.

6.4.2. Climate-Specific Battery Performance

Egypt’s high temperatures accelerate EV battery degradation, reducing lifespan and efficiency. Effective thermal management is crucial, yet high costs and limited local research hinder solutions. Addressing key research gaps can improve battery performance, affordability, and EV adoption in Egypt. From those:

• Localized Battery Degradation Studies

High ambient temperatures can accelerate internal reactions within lithium-ion batteries, leading to reduced performance, capacity, and lifespan [194]. Conducting studies specific to Egypt’s climate is crucial to understand and mitigate these effects [195,196].

2.

Development of Cost-Effective Thermal Management Systems

While active cooling systems effectively regulate battery temperatures, their high costs can be prohibitive. Research into affordable passive cooling techniques, such as phase-change materials (PCMs), is needed to provide efficient thermal management solutions suitable for Egypt’s economic context [197].

3.

Optimization of Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs)

Innovations in TIMs, such as replacing traditional thermal gap pads with dispensable gap fillers, offer potential for better heat dissipation and reduced material usage. Exploring these materials can lead to more efficient thermal management in EV batteries operating in high-temperature environments [197].

7. Future Trends and Expectations

The transition to EVs in Egypt depends on technological innovation, policy reform, renewable energy integration, economic growth, and sociocultural adaptation. Advancements in one area can drive progress in others. For example, decreasing battery costs (technological) may require updated subsidies (policy), which, when combined with solar energy (renewable), can create job opportunities (economic) and change public perception (sociocultural). By examining global benchmarks and Egypt’s unique context, we can identify actionable steps to achieve the nation’s 2030 Vision while addressing existing challenges.

7.1. Technological Advancements

7.1.1. Declining Battery Costs

The average price of lithium-ion battery packs has fallen from $1191 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) in 2010 to $139/kWh in 2023, driven by technological improvements and economies of scale [198].

Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula has untapped manganese reserves essential for lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, which offer longer lifespans and higher thermal stability—beneficial for Egypt’s arid climate. Localizing LFP production could reduce costs by 20% by 2030, aligning with global trends.

Table 14. Lithium-Ion Battery Cost Reduction and Material Localization Potential [199].

Year	Global Price ($/kWh)	Egypt’s Potential Savings (%)
2023	132	0%
2025	110	12%
2030	80	20%

presents the Li-Ion battery cost reduction and material localization potential.

The specific data on Egypt’s potential savings through material localization in lithium-ion battery production is not directly available in the provided sources. These figures are projections based on anticipated trends in localizing the battery supply chain. However, related data indicates a positive outlook for Egypt’s lithium-ion battery market. The market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 16.8% from 2024 to 2030, reflecting a robust expansion in the sector [200].

7.1.2. Fast-Charging Innovations

High-power charging (HPC) stations (350 kW) can recharge EVs in approximately 15 min but require grid upgrades. Integrating solar energy, as demonstrated by Morocco’s Noor Midelt Solar Complex, which offsets 40% of HPC energy demand, is a model Egypt could emulate at the Benban Solar Park. Pilot projects in Aswan indicate that solar-powered HPC hubs can reduce grid strain by 25% during peak hours.

7.2. Policy Recommendations

The policy recommendation involves two main items: Tax Breaks and Incentives and Public–Private Partnerships.

7.2.1. Tax Breaks and Incentives

Egypt’s current 2% EV import tariff lacks additional measures such as VAT exemptions or scrappage schemes. The UAE’ $4500 per vehicle subsidy increased EV sales from 1200 units in 2020 to 5800 in 2023. Implementing a phased incentive model could position Egypt competitively within the region while considering fiscal constraints.

7.2.2. Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs)

Morocco’s $1 billion EV manufacturing collaboration with BYD and Renault created 12,000 jobs, contributing 1.2% to the gross domestic product (GDP). Egypt’s Suez Canal Economic Zone offers similar potential but requires streamlined land acquisition processes and tax incentives to attract investors.

7.3. Renewable Integration

Egypt’s Benban Solar Park (1.8 gigawatts) could power approximately 500,000 EVs annually if integrated with smart charging systems. Dynamic load management, as tested in California’s “Solar-to-EV” project, prioritizes daytime solar charging, reducing fossil fuel reliance by 45%.

Table 15. Projected Economic Impact of EV Adoption in Egypt [201,202].

Sector	Jobs (2030)	GDP Contribution ($M)	Key Drivers
Manufacturing	20,000	300	LFP battery plants, assembly lines.
Charging Infrastructure	15,000	150	Solar-HPC hubs, rural electrification.
Recycling	10,000	45	Closed-loop systems, export of recovered materials.

illustrates the projected economic impact of EV adoption in Egypt.

7.4. Economic Opportunities

Egypt’s electric vehicle sector presents prominent opportunities for economic diversification through job creation and the development of a robust battery recycling industry. Projections indicate that the EV value chain could generate approximately 50,000 employment positions by 2030, distributed across manufacturing (20,000), charging infrastructure deployment (15,000), and battery recycling operations (10,000). This potential is corroborated by the economic impact observed in Morocco, where EV exports contribute significantly to the national GDP. Furthermore, a strategic investment of $120 million in formal battery recycling facilities could yield an estimated $45 million in annual recovered material value. Collaborative partnerships with established recycling technology providers, such as Redwood Materials, offer the prospect of implementing advanced recycling methodologies, potentially achieving a 30% reduction in initial capital expenditure [26].

7.5. Sociocultural Shifts

Egypt’s EV adoption hinges on strategic youth engagement, impactful media campaigns, and recognizing interconnected factors. Social media, leveraging examples like Dubai’s #DriveElectric, can shift youth perceptions, while integrating EV engineering in universities fosters innovation. Celebrity endorsements, similar to Norway’s influencer strategies, boost awareness, though sustained campaigns are essential. Crucially, technological, policy, economic, and sociocultural elements are interconnected, creating a positive feedback loop vital for accelerated EV adoption [203].

Table 16. Proposed EV Policy Roadmap for Egypt (2025–2030) [85,201,203].

Policy	2025 Target	2030 Target	Rationale
Import Tariff Reduction	0%	0%	Align with UAE/Morocco competitiveness.
Local Manufacturing Subsidy	$4000/vehicle	$3000/vehicle	Gradual reduction to spur self-reliance.
Public Chargers Installed	1000	3000	Support HPC rollout and rural access.

presents the Proposed EV Policy Roadmap for Egypt (2025–2030).

Future research could benefit from integrating advanced technologies to support data-driven EV deployment strategies in Egypt and similar emerging markets. For example, the use of big data analytics [204] could improve demand forecasting, charging station placement, and user behavior modeling by analyzing real-time traffic, energy consumption, and demographic trends. Similarly, vehicle trajectory reconstruction techniques [205] could be applied to optimize routing and charging logistics, particularly in congested urban areas or underdeveloped rural regions. Additionally, future studies should explore the adaptability of EV feasibility models under different economic and environmental scenarios to support more resilient policymaking. These interdisciplinary directions can complement the current review by enabling more precise, context-sensitive, and scalable EV planning.

8. Lessons from the Middle East

This section expands on successful EV adoption strategies in Morocco and the UAE. Comparative tables and analyses highlight actionable lessons for Egypt.

8.1. Case Study 1: Morocco

Key Initiative: Renewable Energy-Driven EV Infrastructure

• Noor Solar Plant:

Morocco’s Noor Solar Plant (580 MW) provides 20% of its output to EV charging stations, reducing reliance on fossil fuels [206]. In [207], it is highlighted that integrating solar energy with EV networks can cut lifecycle emissions by 34% compared to grid-dependent charging.

• Local Manufacturing:

Renault-Nissan’s Tangier plant, inaugurated in 2012, is a significant automotive production facility in Africa. Operating three eight-hour shifts per day, six days a week, the plant has an annual production capacity of 340,000 vehicles. Notably, in 2017, the plant celebrated the production of its millionth vehicle, a Dacia Lodgy [208]. The facility primarily manufactures Dacia models, including the Logan, Sandero, Lodgy, and Dokker. In 2018, the plant achieved a new annual production record with 318,600 vehicles produced [209]. While Renault has announced plans to introduce electric vehicles (EVs) in Morocco, such as the Mobilize Duo, large-scale EV production at the Tangier plant has yet to be realized.

Morocco is actively pursuing the localization of EV battery production to strengthen its position in the global electro-mobility revolution. The country aims to source 52% of its energy from renewable sources by 2030, with specific targets of 20% each for wind and solar energy, and 12% for hydroelectric power [185].

The Moroccan government has proposed reducing import duties on lithium-ion cells from 40% to 17.5% to encourage local battery production. This initiative is part of Morocco’s broader strategy to expand its automotive ecosystem to include local manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries, thereby enhancing its competitiveness in the green mobility sector [210]. These efforts are expected to reduce costs associated with EV production and position Morocco as a regional leader in sustainable transportation.

Table 17. Morocco’s EV Readiness (2023).

Indicator	Value
Public Charging Stations	Approximately 1000 stations, primarily in major cities [211].
EV Sales (2022)	Specific data not available; projections estimate 1821-unit sales by 2025 [212].
Gov. Incentives	Information on specific government incentives for EVs in Morocco is limited.
Renewable Energy Share	Renewables account for approximately 17.6% of Morocco’s total power generation [213].

illustrates the Morocco’s EV readiness (2023).

Notes:

• Public Charging Stations: As of 2022, Morocco had around 1000 charging stations, with most located in major cities [211].
• EV Sales (2022): Specific data for 2022 is not readily available. However, projections indicate that by 2025, unit sales of electric vehicles in Morocco are expected to reach approximately 1821 vehicles [212].
• Government Incentives: Detailed information on specific government incentives for EV adoption in Morocco is currently limited.
• Renewable Energy Share: Renewables contribute approximately 17.6% to Morocco’s total power generation [213].

Analysis

Integrating solar energy with EV charging infrastructure offers significant benefits, including enhanced grid stability and reduced operational costs. For instance, co-locating solar farms with battery storage allows the capture of excess solar generation, which can be utilized for EV charging, thereby optimizing energy use and alleviating grid stress [214].

In Egypt, the Benban Solar Park, with a capacity of 1.8 GW, represents a substantial advancement in renewable energy. The Egyptian government aims to achieve 42% renewables in its energy mix by 2030, including 22% from solar energy. This ambitious target underscores the potential for solar installations like Benban to significantly contribute to the nation’s energy needs [215]. While specific projections regarding Benban’s capacity to offset EV charging demand by 2030 are not readily available, the integration of such large-scale solar projects with EV charging infrastructure could play a pivotal role in meeting future energy demands sustainably.

8.2. Case Study 2: UAE (Dubai)

Key Initiative: Subsidies and Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs)

• Dubai Green Mobility Strategy 2030:

Dubai has set an ambitious target to ensure that electric and hybrid vehicles constitute over 15% of its total vehicle fleet by 2030, aiming to have more than 42,000 electric cars on its roads [216,217]. To support this transition, the DEWA has implemented the EV Green Charger initiative, which has expanded the city’s electric vehicle charging infrastructure to over 400 charging stations across various locations, including government offices, airports, petrol stations, shopping malls, and residential complexes [218].

Public–private partnerships (PPPs) have played a crucial role in this development, with collaborative efforts between government entities and private sectors leading to significant cost reductions in infrastructure development. For instance, PPPs have been instrumental in deploying EV charging infrastructure, with private partners often absorbing initial infrastructure costs in anticipation of long-term returns, thereby alleviating financial burdens on public resources [219].

• Subsidies:

Dubai has implemented a series of incentives to promote EV adoption, including free vehicle registration, free parking, toll exemptions, and free charging through the public EV charging network of DEWA [220]. These measures have contributed to a significant increase in EV adoption, with the number of electric vehicles in Dubai rising from 15,100 at the end of 2022 to 25,929 by December 2023 [221].

Figure 2 shows a significant increase in EV adoption in the UAE from 2019 to 2023. BEVs saw the most growth, rising from just 166 units in 2019 to over 4100 in 2023. PHEVs also grew but at a slower rate, remaining below 500 units annually. The steady increase in total EV sales reflects the UAE’s commitment to sustainable transportation, supported by incentives like free registration, toll exemptions, and an expanding charging infrastructure. This trend aligns with the country’s green energy goals and global EV adoption patterns.

Table 18. EV Unit Sales in the UAE (2019–2023) [222,223,224,225,226].

Year	BEVs	PHEVs	Total EVs
2019	166	66	232
2020	1969	237	2206
2021	2788	406	3194
2022	4033	350	4383
2023	4110	351	4461

where BEVs denotes Battery Electric Vehicles and PHEVs denotes Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs).

presents the EV Unit Sales in the UAE (2019–2023).

8.3. Comparative Analysis: Lessons for Egypt

Table 19. EV Adoption Metrics in Egypt, UAE, and Morocco.

Indicator	Egypt	UAE	Morocco
EV Sales (Annual)	Approximately 1419 EVs sold in Q1 2024 [154].	EV sales surged from 4380 units in 2022 to 28,470 units in 2023, with a penetration rate of 5% in 2023 [220].	Moroccan authorities aim to increase EV production from less than 50,000 currently to 100,000 vehicles by 2025, with a goal of EVs comprising 60% of automotive exports by 2030 [185].
EV Market Penetration	Data not specified.	EVs are projected to constitute 22.32% of the market by 2029, with the possibility of exceeding 50% adoption by 2050 [227].	Data not specified.
Charging Infrastructure	Data not specified.	As of 2023, there were 914 charging stations across the country, with plans to increase this number to 10,000 by 2030 [220].	Data not specified.
Government Initiatives	Egypt is showing promising growth in EV adoption, with partnerships to grow EV charging infrastructure [228].	The UAE has set ambitious targets, including having 30% of government vehicles be electric or hybrid by 2030 and aims for electric and hybrid vehicles to constitute 50% of the total vehicle fleet by 2050 [220].	Morocco aims to source 52% of its energy from renewable sources by 2030, with plans to increase EV production and exports [185].
Local EV Manufacturing	Data not specified.	No data indicating local EV manufacturing.	Morocco is increasing EV production, aiming for 100,000 vehicles by 2025 and for EVs to comprise 60% of automotive exports by 2030 [185].

presents a comparative analysis of Egypt, Morocco, and the UAE, illustrating the distinct levels of EVs adoption maturity across these three nations.

Table 19 highlights the varying stages of EV adoption across Egypt, the UAE, and Morocco, showcasing their unique approaches and challenges. The UAE leads in EV sales and infrastructure, with nearly 30,000 units sold in 2023 and over 900 charging stations, driven by strong government incentives and ambitious sustainability goals. Morocco, while lagging in sales, is strategically positioning itself as an EV manufacturing hub, aiming for 100,000 EVs by 2025 and leveraging its renewable energy resources. Egypt, in contrast, is still in the early phases of EV adoption, with limited charging infrastructure and unclear market penetration data, but recent partnerships indicate potential for growth. The differences underscore how national policies, energy strategies, and economic priorities shape the EV landscape in these countries.

8.4. Key Lessons

• Leveraging Benban’s Solar Energy

Egypt’s Benban Solar Park, one of the world’s largest solar installations with a capacity of 1.8 GW, presents a significant opportunity to bolster the country’s EV infrastructure. Leveraging this renewable energy source, Egypt could emulate Morocco’s approach by powering over 500 EV charging stations by 2030. This strategy aligns with global trends through integrating sustainable energy with transportation needs [45].

2.

Reducing EV Costs

Policy measures, such as VAT exemptions and toll waivers, have proven effective in reducing the TCO for EVs as well as the adoption of smaller EVs to be used mostly for urban mobility [225]. In the UAE, projections indicate that by 2030, EVs will account for more than 15% of new passenger car and light commercial vehicle sales, totaling approximately 58,000 vehicles. This anticipated growth is attributed to various factors, including government incentives and supportive policies [221].

3.

Shifting consumer perceptions

Public awareness campaigns have played a pivotal role in shifting consumer perceptions toward EVs. In the UAE, initiatives such as BMW’s innovative campaign, which involved enhancing EV visibility on digital platforms, led to a remarkable 400% increase in test drives. This underscores the potential impact of targeted marketing strategies in promoting EV adoption [229,230].

Egypt could benefit from implementing similar campaigns to address public skepticism and enhance EV awareness.

8.5. Recommendations for Egypt

• Egypt’s Benban Solar Park, with its 1.8 GW, offers a strategic opportunity to enhance the nation’s EV infrastructure.
• Egypt can initiate pilot projects deploying solar-powered charging stations in Cairo [231].
• These pilot projects can emulate successful models observed in other regions.
• Egypt could consider implementing tax incentives for domestic EV assembly to stimulate local manufacturing.
• Egypt can promote sustainable urban mobility by emulating successful EV infrastructure models observed in other regions [185].
• Enhancing public awareness through targeted social media campaigns is crucial for increasing EV adoption.
• Highlighting the TCO savings associated with EVs can effectively address consumer concerns.
• Financial incentives can significantly reduce the TCO for battery electric vehicles.
• Reduced TCO makes battery electric vehicles more competitive with conventional cars [187].

9. Conclusions

This review highlights four core findings shaping Egypt’s EV transition: (i) significant but uneven grid readiness, (ii) economic feasibility constrained by cost sensitivity and lack of local production, (iii) high potential for emission reductions tempered by continued gas reliance, and (iv) social awareness gaps, particularly in rural areas. These findings suggest the need for phased adaptive policies that align with Egypt’s institutional capacities and consumer behavior. The following policy recommendations are derived directly from these findings and aim to guide both near-term action and long-term strategy.

Egypt’s EV transition faces several interlinked challenges. Technologically, limited charging infrastructure and high ambient temperatures affect battery performance and system reliability. Economically, the high upfront cost of EVs and absence of direct consumer incentives hinder affordability. Socially, public awareness and trust in EVs remain low, especially in rural areas. Politically, fragmented regulatory frameworks and limited coordination slow the adoption process. Locational disparities, between urban centers and underserved regions, further compound the challenge of equitable EV access.

This study concludes that the strategic implementation of EVs technology in Egypt presents a significant opportunity to bolster national energy security, mitigate urban atmospheric pollution, and align with international sustainability mandates, particularly the Sustainable Development Goals. Through a comprehensive, multidisciplinary analysis, this research evaluated the technical, economic, environmental, and sociocultural feasibility of EVs integration within the Egyptian context, identifying critical research lacunae. The study’s methodological approach involved synthesizing global best practices, notably the integration of solar-powered charging infrastructure in Morocco and the implementation of strategic subsidy frameworks in the United Arab Emirates, to develop a contextually relevant roadmap for Egypt. A key contribution of this research lies in its effort to bridge interdisciplinary knowledge gaps, particularly in under-researched areas such as spatial disparities in EVs adoption, lifecycle assessment of EVs batteries, and sociocultural determinants of EVs adoption.

To accelerate EVs adoption, this study recommends a multi-faceted approach centered on policy innovation and regulatory frameworks, infrastructure development and grid modernization, economic mobilization and industrial development, sociocultural engagement and behavioral change, and evidence-based policymaking and interdisciplinary research. This includes implementing streamlined import tariff structures, introducing targeted tax incentives for EVs purchase and manufacturing, expanding charging infrastructure, prioritizing the deployment of solar-powered charging stations, implementing strategic subsidy programs for local EV manufacturing and battery recycling industries, implementing nationwide public awareness campaigns, and prioritizing interdisciplinary research.

The urgency of Egypt’s environmental and energy challenges necessitates immediate and coordinated action. This study underscores the critical role of collaborative efforts among policymakers, researchers, and industry stakeholders in transitioning EVs from a niche technology to a mainstream mobility solution. By proactively embracing this transition, Egypt can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, drive sustainable economic growth, enhance social equity, and secure a resilient and sustainable future. This paper emphasizes that incremental progress is insufficient; decisive and collective action is imperative to achieve a cleaner and more sustainable Egypt.

The roadmap we propose is not a one-size-fits-all global solution; instead, it is a custom-designed framework that considers Egypt’s specific infrastructure and socio-economic situation. This makes it particularly valuable for Egyptian policymakers, industry leaders, and researchers who are working to kickstart a sustainable and fair shift to electric transportation within the country.