The Electric Vehicle (EV) Revolution: How Consumption Values, Consumer Attitudes, and Infrastructure Readiness Influence the Intention to Purchase Electric Vehicles in Malaysia

Abstract

In response to the rising demand for sustainable transportation, electric vehicles (EVs) are increasingly regarded as viable alternatives to conventional vehicles. This study investigates the intention of Malaysian consumers to choose EVs as their preferred mode of transportation. Consumption values were conceptualized as a multi-dimensional construct comprising functional value, symbolic value, emotional value, novelty value, and conditional value. This study examines the relationships between these consumption values, consumer attitudes, and intention to purchase EVs. In addition, this study also examines the mediating role of attitude and the moderating role of infrastructure readiness. Data were gathered using a proportionate stratified sampling method from 264 respondents in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Of the twelve (12) hypotheses tested, four (4) were supported. The analysis indicates positive relationship between attitude and emotional value with consumers’ intention to purchase EVs. Consumers’ attitudes mediate the relationship between functional value, emotional value, and intention to purchase EVs. Infrastructure readiness does not moderate the relationship between consumers’ attitudes towards EVs and their purchase intentions. This study enhances the existing knowledge of consumers’ multifaceted value views about EVs and offers practical guidance for marketers and serves as a reference for policymakers to improve the marketability of EVs.

1. Introduction

Currently, the significant rise in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions has become a pressing global concern due to the growing demand from the automotive sector [1,2]. This phenomenon can be attributed to the rapid increase in urbanization and economic growth. The anticipated growth in transport demand is expected to lead to a corresponding rise in CO₂ emissions. In Malaysia, the transport sector accounted for 28% of total CO₂ emissions, with 85% of that coming from road transport [3,4]). Hence, this has sparked a keen interest in exploring effective strategies to reduce the CO₂ emissions from this sector [5,6].

In line with the Low Carbon Mobility Blueprint 2021–2030, Malaysia plans for EVs and hybrids to comprise a minimum of 15% of the overall industry volume by 2030. Malaysia aims to establish 125,000 electric vehicle (EV) charging stations by 2030 under the National Electric Mobility Blueprint. Notwithstanding these initiatives, the adoption of EVs in Malaysia remains far behind those of nations like China, the United States, and Norway [5,7,8,9]. As per the statistics from the Road Transport Department Malaysia (JPJ), there are approximately 22,728 fully EVs registered in Malaysia as of April 2024 and the majority fuel type of registered automobiles in Malaysia is petrol, accounting for 88.3%, followed by green diesel at 7.4% and hybrid vehicles at 2.5% (https://malaysia.news.yahoo.com/ev-sales-increasing-malaysia-data-122918062.html, accessed on 10 July 2025). This signifies that the majority of car ownership in Malaysia remains focused on internal combustion engine-powered vehicles. Merely 1.2% of consumers bought EVs, while the remaining 98.8% have not.

As addressed by [5], Malaysians are promoting the EV as a way to lessen their reliance on fossil fuels and reduce carbon emissions from the transportation sector, especially in personal transportation. People recognize EVs as a viable sustainable solution for decarbonizing personal transportation, given their ability to improve air quality and their availability as a green technology [10,11]. Thus, in the Malaysian market, public acceptance of EVs is crucial, as it ensures a push for their supply.

Past studies on consumer EV adoption have examined many factors influencing the adoption of EVs. Past studies have concentrated on different aspects of adoption and non-adoption behaviour [12,13,14]. They have employed many variables and examined diverse EVs across multiple regions globally. Such an approach has made the research fragmented and increasingly hard to know where important knowledge gaps lie and where contributions can be made in future research [15].

Given the positioning of EVs as innovative consumer products that embody functional, symbolic, and environmental value [16,17], a marketing-oriented perspective offers a more nuanced understanding of consumer behaviour. This perspective highlights how consumption values and attitudinal factors shape purchase intentions, thereby addressing an underexplored dimension in the literature.

While existing research on EV adoption has predominantly examined instrumental attributes, including price, operational cost, comfort, performance, pollution level, driving range, charging time, and convenience [18,19,20,21,22] significantly influence consumers’ acceptance of EVs, comparatively fewer studies have investigated the role of marketing-relevant constructs such as consumption values and consumer attitudes in shaping EV purchase intention. Recent studies acknowledge that younger consumers and environmentally conscious buyers are more willing to adopt EVs [23,24,25], yet there remains a lack of systematic exploration of how different dimensions of consumption value (functional, social, emotional, conditional, novelty) influence attitudes, and in turn, behavioural intention.

Furthermore, although substantial research has explored the role of incentives, policies, and technological factors in EV adoption [4,22,26], relatively little empirical work has examined how marketing-related factors such as consumption values, attitudes, and perceptions interact with infrastructural readiness to influence behavioural intention. This gap is particularly evident in the Malaysian context, where consumer-oriented behavioural insights remain underdeveloped. In particular, little is known about its indirect (moderating) role in strengthening or weakening the relationship between attitudinal factors and behavioural intention.

While prior research has largely focused on policy measures such as financial incentives, awareness campaigns, and traffic privileges [27,28,29], infrastructure readiness represents a more structural and practical enabler of adoption. In this study, infrastructure readiness is conceptualized not only as the physical availability of charging stations but also as the supportive ecosystem of incentives that lower the effective purchasing and operating costs of EVs. By evaluating its moderating effect, we aim to clarify whether favourable attitudes toward EV adoption are more likely to translate into behavioural intention when adequate infrastructure and supportive measures are in place. Addressing this gap, the present study investigates how marketing dimensions, combined with infrastructure readiness, shape consumers’ intention to adopt EVs, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of EV adoption beyond policy and technology.

This study addresses the above-mentioned gaps by integrating the Theory of Consumption Values (TCV) [30]) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) [31] to examine how consumption values shape consumer attitudes and, subsequently, intention to adopt EVs. Various research theories and models, including the Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI), the Values-Beliefs-Norms (VBN) Theory, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), and the Norm Activation Model (NAM), are commonly used [32,33,34,35,36]. While both TPB and DOI offer valuable insights, they have limitations for the current study. If TPB alone, though powerful in predicting intention, does not explicitly address the different types of consumption values that consumers evaluate when making purchase decisions. DOI, on the other hand, provides a macro-level explanation of adoption diffusion but offers limited explanatory power in capturing individual-level value trade-offs in consumer decision-making. The VBN Theory and NAM mainly explain pro-environmental norms and moral obligation, which are too narrow for understanding EV purchase decisions. Similarly, the TAM focuses only on usefulness and ease of use, overlooking broader consumer motivations.

By contrast, the TCV [30] provides a multidimensional framework that directly captures the functional, social, emotional, novelty, and conditional values consumers attach to a product [37]. This makes it particularly suitable for studying EV adoption, which involves not only economic and functional evaluations (e.g., cost savings, performance) but also social signalling (status), emotional attachment (pride, excitement), and conditional factors (government incentives, environmental concerns). Importantly, TCV complements TPB by explaining the antecedents of attitudes: values shape attitudes, which then translate into behavioural intention. Thus, this study adopts TCV as the primary framework, while also drawing on TPB to explain the mediating role of attitude. This integration allows for a richer, more contextually grounded explanation of how consumption values influence EV adoption intention.

Furthermore, by incorporating infrastructure readiness as a moderating factor, this study extends current understanding beyond individual-level drivers to contextual enablers of EV adoption. In doing so, this research makes three unique contributions:

• It advances the marketing-oriented perspective in EV adoption by focusing on values and attitudes rather than only on incentives or technology.
• It empirically tests the mediating role of attitude between consumption values and intention, extending the application of TPB in the EV domain.
• It introduces infrastructure readiness as a contextual moderator, offering insights into how external enablers interact with consumer psychology in influencing EV adoption in Malaysia.

The subsequent sections of this article are structured as follows. Section 2 covers the literature review, hypotheses development and research framework. Section 3 concentrates on the methodology. Section 4 focuses on the analysis part while Section 5 covers the discussions. Last but not least, Section 6 presents the conclusion of the research, highlighting its theoretical and practical implications. This section ends with discussion on limitations and future research recommendations.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1. Theory of Consumption Value (TCV)

Many academic studies, especially in the field of marketing, recognise consumption values as a critical component of the consumer’s decision-making process [38,39]. Consumption values indicate the extent to which consumers recognise the importance of the attributes associated with a product or service [30]. TCVs function as a theoretical framework that establishes consumer consumption values as the core basis for explaining consumer purchase behaviours. TCVs provide a critical framework for understanding the reasons behind consumer purchasing decisions, based on their perceived value. The TCVs have been used to clarify behavioural outcomes, including purchase intention [17,40]; choice behaviour [41,42]; consumer trust [43]; and loyalty [44,45]. The TCVs suggest that five consumer consumption value perceptions influence consumer behaviour, namely (i) functional, (ii) symbolic, (iii) emotional, (iv) novelty and (v) conditional.

Functional value refers to consumers’ assessment of a product’s price and quality. It also signifies the perceived utility that arises from an alternative’s capacity for functional, utilitarian, or physical performance. An alternative attains functional value by the acquisition of prominent functional, utilitarian, or physical attributes. Ref. [46] established that customers evaluated price and quality prior to product acquisition. Price may represent the most prominent functional value [47]. In the product selection process, customers’ awareness of price greatly impacts their purchasing decisions about green products [48]. Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that functional value is a significant determinant of purchase behaviour [49,50,51,52,53].

Symbolic or social value pertains to the perceived utility derived from affiliation with one or more social groups [54,55]. However, some research indicates that personal factors like attitudes and personality traits have a greater influence on consumers’ decisions than social norms or pressures [56,57]. A sense of social duty motivates environmental actions [58]. According to [59], consumers would become more motivated if others acknowledged or praised their environmental efforts. The symbolic value of green products is defined as the perceived net utility derived from their use, influenced by the perception of social pressure or the prestige associated with engaging in environmental conservation [56,60,61]. Ref. [62] indicated a significant impact of social groupings and the aspiration for social recognition on the buying behaviour of consumers exhibiting a preference for green credentials. Peers, family, self-identity, and various social aspects influenced consumers’ purchasing decisions, according to prior research by [63,64].

The emotional value reflects how consumers feel about eco-friendly products. This value influences the behaviour of environmentally conscious consumers [65,66]. In addition, studies found that individuals with higher New Environment Paradigm (NEP) scores were more inclined to engage in pro-environmental behaviour [67,68]. The emotions of consumers regarding environmental protection as well as individual accountability will influence their decisions to make green purchases [69,70]. Ref. [71] indicated that emotional values significantly influenced individuals’ correlated behaviour in various situations, with aggressive behaviour appearing to dominate their involvement in ecological and environmental activities. Previous findings indicated that different emotions, especially those related to personal safety [72,73], guilt [74], and generativity [49,75], had a direct impact on consumer behaviour and could steer consumers toward sustainable purchasing decisions.

Novelty value encompasses the desire for information or inquisitiveness regarding a product [30,76]. Ref. [77] revealed that the novelty value of green products had a significantly positive impact on consumers’ choice behaviour. A similar outcome was gained in various contexts like mobile applications [78] and adventure tourism [79,80]. Novelty values, such as product characteristics and designs, significantly influence consumer behaviour regarding green products [76]. Consumers purchase products due to brand familiarity, attention to new offerings, or a desire to acquire knowledge about them. The pursuit of novelty is associated with the development of problem-solving skills [81]. Consumers’ inclination to satisfy their desire for information regarding a product’s features and innovation positively influences their purchasing behaviour toward green products [82,83]. Novelty value arises when an individual engages with new products or services, experiences boredom with existing options, seeks variety, or aims to satisfy curiosity through novel experiences [84]. Evidence suggests that novelty values influence the behaviour of green consumers [85].

According to [30], conditional value refers to the value a product or service gains in specific circumstances or contexts. It highlights the significance of situation or circumstance in consumers’ product choices. A product or service gains this value because the existence of physical or social contingencies raises the functional or social value [30,52]. Moreover, when the value is closely linked to the usage of the product or service in particular contexts, the conditional value rises. Research indicates that variations in consumer situational variables can influence the adoption of green products [77,86,87]. Previous empirical studies have demonstrated that conditional value influences green purchase behaviour [86,88,89]. Diverse infrastructural and contextual factors influence pro-environmental behaviour, acting as either facilitators or inhibitors [90,91]. Examples of these conditional factors include monetary elements such as government incentives or subsidies [92], promotional discounts [93], regulations and laws [94], and physical accessibility to green products [95]. As such, studies have found that factors such as cash rebates and government subsidies may impact green purchase intention and serve as a rationale for acquiring EVs [26,96].

While the Theory of Consumption Values has been widely employed to explain green purchase intentions, its application to high-involvement, technology-intensive products such as EVs remains underdeveloped [97,98]. Prior studies show inconsistent findings on which value dimensions exert the strongest influence, and often exclude contextual factors such as infrastructure readiness that are particularly salient in EV adoption. Moreover, most investigations have been situated in mature markets, leaving a gap in understanding how consumption values interact with consumer attitudes and infrastructure conditions in emerging economies such as Malaysia. This study seeks to address these gaps by (i) consolidating the TCV framework to examine the relative effects of functional, symbolic, emotional, novelty, and conditional values on EV purchase intention, (ii) testing the mediating role of consumer attitudes and (iii) integrating infrastructure readiness as a complementary determinant. Through this approach, the study contributes to both marketing and sustainability literature by providing a more comprehensive understanding of the drivers of EV adoption.

Based on the discussion above, previous studies demonstrated that the five perceptions of consumption value affect consumer purchasing patterns in different ways, depending on the context. Multiple consumption values determine consumer choice, which integrates components from other consumer behaviour models [41,99]. This theory also elucidates the reasons consumers select specific products or prefer one product over another [100,101]. This idea relies on the manner in which consumers are informed about a product or service, which intrinsically and extrinsically influences their consumption decisions [41,85,102]. Based on the above explanations, we suspect that all the dimensions of consumption value (functional, symbolic, emotional, novelty and conditional) are drivers of intentions to purchase EVs. Therefore, it is hypothesised:

H1: 

Consumption values positively influence consumers’ intentions to purchase EVs.

H1a: 

Functional value positively influences consumers’ intentions to purchase EVs.

H1b: 

Symbolic value positively influences consumers’ intentions to purchase EVs.

H1c: 

Emotional value positively influences consumers’ intentions to purchase EVs.

H1d: 

Novelty value positively influences consumers’ intentions to purchase EVs.

H1e: 

Conditional value positively influences consumers’ intentions to purchase EVs.

2.2. The Influence of Consumers’ Attitudes on Intentions to Purchase EVs

According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) [103,104], attitude toward a behaviour represents an individual’s overall evaluation of performing that behaviour, whether favourable or unfavourable. Attitude is shaped by underlying beliefs about the likely consequences of the behaviour and the value attached to those consequences [82]). Within the TPB framework, attitude is considered one of the proximal determinants of behavioural intention, alongside subjective norms and perceived behavioural control [105]. A more favourable attitude toward a behaviour is therefore expected to increase the likelihood of forming a strong intention to perform it. In the context of EV adoption, when consumers perceive EVs positively, for example, seeing them as environmentally friendly, cost-effective in the long run, or technologically innovative, their attitude toward EVs becomes more favourable, which directly enhances their intention to purchase. Empirical studies applying TPB to sustainable consumption consistently support this link, demonstrating that positive attitudes toward green technologies strongly predict intention to adopt [45,106].

Studies in green consumer psychology consistently emphasise the significance of attitude as a vital precursor to both behavioural intention and actual behaviour [105,107]. Consumers acquire a tendency to consistently react positively or negatively to an object [31]. Additionally, this behavioural phenomenon highlights consumers’ preferences and dislikes, particularly in relation to their purchasing decisions regarding products or services [82,108,109]. In the field of environmental consumer studies, it refers to the beliefs or emotions that influence the decision to buy eco-friendly products like EVs, as well as the ecological effects of these specific behaviours [110]. Nonetheless, the perspective on eco-friendly products, such as EVs, differs from the overall environmental mind-set, influencing the behavioural aspects of green purchasing decisions aimed at fostering positive environmental sustainability [111].

Numerous investigations have demonstrated that one’s attitude toward eco-friendly products and their environmental mind-sets are significant indicators of green purchasing behaviour [112,113,114]. Ref. [115] found that the environmental attitude was the primary factor influencing green purchase behaviour. Furthermore, ref. [116] determined that attitude served as the most significant predictor of intention and behaviour associated with energy-saving behaviour. In a similar vein, ref. [117] found that the attitude toward green and sustainable homes positively influenced behavioural intention. Ref. [118] concluded that attitude plays a vital role in shaping an individual’s intentions and actual behaviour. Thus, by grounding the attitude-intention relationship in TPB, this study positions attitude as the key cognitive mechanism through which underlying values and perceptions translate into EV purchase intention. Therefore, the subsequent hypothesis is formulated:

H2: 

Consumers’ attitudes are positively associated with intentions to purchase EVs.

2.3. Mediating Effect of Consumers’ Attitudes on the Relationship Between Consumption Values and Intentions to Purchase EVs

Attitude reflects an individual’s overall evaluation of behaviour. Many past studies found that attitude acts as a critical bridge in the relationship between consumption values and purchase intentions [38,119]. Ref. [120] discovered a connection between values, attitude, and purchase intention. Refs. [121,122] examined the role of the mediator in the connection between environmental factors and the intention to make green purchases. The findings indicated that attitude played a crucial role as a mediator in that relationship. Furthermore, empirical findings by [123] demonstrated the influence of attitude on the green purchasing behaviour of consumers and the mediating role of attitude on the relationship between perceived environmental responsibility and green purchasing behaviour.

Product attitude has a significant mediating effect between ethnocentrism and purchase intention. Ref. [124] conducted a study that exemplifies the role of attitude in mediating the relationship between product knowledge and ethnocentrism in relation to purchasing intention. Subsequently, ref. [16] demonstrated that functional and conditional values, along with consumers’ attitudes, exhibited a positive and significant relationship with consumers’ purchase intentions. In contrast, emotional value affected consumers’ purchase intentions through their attitudes.

This study integrates the Theory of Consumption Values (TCV) [30] with the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) [31] to explain how consumption values shape consumers’ intention to purchase EVs. While TCV identifies the specific value dimensions (functional, social, emotional, novelty, and conditional) that guide consumer evaluations, TPB provides the theoretical pathway through which these evaluations translate into intention. Specifically, consumption values influence consumers’ attitudes toward EV adoption. For example, perceiving EVs as cost-saving (functional value), environmentally friendly (conditional/emotional value), or socially prestigious (social value) strengthens a favourable attitude. Following TPB, these attitudes serve as the proximal determinant of behavioural intention. Thus, the relationship between consumption values and intention is mediated by consumer attitude, consistent with prior research in sustainable consumption contexts [43,99].

Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H3: 

Consumers’ attitudes mediate the relationship between consumption values and intentions to purchase EVs.

H3a: 

Consumers’ attitudes mediate the relationship between functional value and intentions to purchase EVs.

H3b: 

Consumers’ attitudes mediate the relationship between symbolic value and intentions to purchase EVs.

H3c: 

Consumers’ attitudes mediate the relationship between emotional value and intentions to purchase EVs.

H3d: 

Consumers’ attitudes toward EVs mediate the relationship between novelty value and intentions to purchase EVs.

H3e: 

Consumers’ attitudes toward EVs mediate the relationship between conditional value and intentions to purchase EVs.

2.4. Moderating Effect of Infrastructure Readiness on the Relationship Between Attitude and Intentions to Purchase EVs

Infrastructure readiness in the context of EV usually refers to the extent to which the environment enables, supports, and facilitates the use of EVs. It combines physical, technological, and institutional elements [4,125]. Various strategies can be implemented to promote the adoption and market expansion of EVs, such as offering financial incentives for purchases and establishing charging infrastructure in urban areas that are easily accessible [126]. Nevertheless, range anxiety, which denotes the concern that the vehicle might lack sufficient battery power to arrive at its desired location, has been recognised as a major barrier to the extensive acceptance of battery-electric vehicles [127]. Range anxiety not only reduces the chances of individuals acquiring BEVs, but it also limits their societal benefits. Those who initially adopted EVs may find their usage restricted to short trips, leading to a lower annual mileage compared to those who do not experience range anxiety [128]. Refs. [129,130] have noted that the high price of EVs and the lack of necessary support services, like battery charging stations, can lead to doubt.

The establishment of fast-charging infrastructure plays a crucial role in facilitating long-distance travel for EVs, which may be essential for enhancing the market adoption of EVs [38]. Refs. [131,132] offer evidence that charging demands or local refuelling primarily influence spatial distributions. However, it is important to note the significant variations that exist between EV charging infrastructure and petrol refuelling stations. Additionally, ref. [133] suggested that alternative fuel vehicles appeared to compete with conventional vehicles, provided that the refuelling infrastructure is in place. Consequently, the preparedness of infrastructure plays a crucial role in enhancing market penetration and fostering public acceptance of EVs. Public charging stations and battery-exchange stations are widely acknowledged as practical options for charging electric vehicles outside of the home [134]. Home charging solutions are essential, yet the economic justification for public rapid chargers remains inadequately understood [135]. In their study, ref. [136] examined EV adoption in India and discovered that EV infrastructure plays a moderating role in the relationship between financial attributes and EV adoption. Moreover, the findings indicate that the availability of charging infrastructure enhances trust, subsequently motivating and reassuring EV consumers

Availability, accessibility, and reliability of charging networks and related services are widely regarded as a structural antecedent of EV adoption [137,138]. However, evidence is mixed. In markets where baseline infrastructure is visible or perceived as “good enough,” infrastructure may function as a hygiene factor necessary but not amplifying the attitude–intention link [34,133]. Conversely, where infrastructure is scarce or unreliable, it can dampen intention regardless of favourable attitudes [139]. Positioning infrastructure as a moderator therefore tests a meaningful boundary condition of the TPB pathway. Our study evaluates whether perceived infrastructure readiness changes the strength of the attitude → intention relationship. Therefore, we develop the following hypothesis based on the above discussion:

H4: 

Infrastructure readiness moderates the relationship between consumers’ attitudes and intentions to purchase EVs.

2.5. Research Model Development

The relevant literature on well-known theories and past studies has been discussed to develop this study’s conceptual model. There are five direct relationships between consumption value dimensions and intention to purchase EVs, namely functional value, symbolic value, emotional value, novelty value, and conditional value. Meanwhile, consumers’ attitudes towards EVs are anticipated to have a direct relationship with the intention to purchase EVs and act as a mediating variable for the relationship between consumption value dimensions and the intention to purchase EVs. Moreover, infrastructure readiness is postulated to influence the relationship between consumers’ attitudes and their intention to purchase EVs, as shown in Figure 1 below:

3. Methodology and Data Collection Procedure

This study employed a quantitative method and cross-sectional research design in nature. A questionnaire was employed to gather data regarding the intentions of consumers in Klang Valley, Malaysia, towards purchasing EVs. The current research concentrated on Klang Valley because of its advanced transportation infrastructure and the presence of many charging stations, making it an appropriate location for examining EV adoption behaviour [3,140].

The current investigation focused on individuals aged 25 and older, segmented into four generational cohorts: Generation Z (25–30 years), Generation Y (31–40 years), Generation X (41–50 years), and Baby Boomers (51 years and above). This generational framing is particularly relevant, as consumer behaviour, attitudes, and adoption tendencies often differ systematically across cohorts [141,142]. For instance, younger cohorts such as Gen Z and Y are generally more open to technological innovation, exhibit higher levels of environmental consciousness, and demonstrate greater willingness to adopt sustainable products, including EVs [143,144]. In contrast, Gen X and Baby Boomers, who typically possess greater disposable income and purchasing power, tend to emphasize pragmatic considerations such as performance, value, quality, and risk when evaluating vehicles [129]. By employing a generational perspective, this study not only captures income-related purchasing capacity but also acknowledges psychological and behavioural differences across cohorts, providing a richer understanding of EV adoption intentions.

From the perspective of the TCV [30], these generational differences suggest that cohorts prioritize different values when forming attitudes and intentions [142]. For example, [145] found Gen Z and Y are more likely to emphasize epistemic and emotional values (novelty, environmental concern, and enjoyment in using innovative technology), while Gen X and Baby Boomers may emphasize functional and conditional values (reliability, financial cost, and utility in daily use). By adopting a generational lens, this study not only accounts for differences in income and purchasing capacity but also highlights how diverse consumption value priorities across cohort shape attitudes and ultimately influence EV adoption intentions.

The instruments employed to assess the constructs in this study have been adapted from earlier research to ensure content validity. Six items were used to assess the intention to purchase EVs, adapted from the work of [146]. Eleven items were used to assess consumers’ attitudes, drawing from the works of [147,148,149]. Five items were employed to assess infrastructure readiness, adapted from the work of [150]. Ten items were used to assess functional value, adapted from [151]. A total of twelve items and eight items were utilised to assess symbolic value and emotional value adapted from the work of [152]. Novelty and conditional value are derived from the work of [151], comprising six and five items to assess the respective variables. All items were measured using five-point Likert scales.

A pre-test of the questionnaire was conducted with three marketing lecturers from local universities in Malaysia and two from foreign universities. The aim was to assess clarity and establish face validity of the items. Feedback from the experts led to minor adjustments in wording and sequencing to enhance respondent comprehension. Following this, a pilot test was administered to a convenience sample of 30 respondents who visited car showrooms in a small city in Malaysia. The internal reliability of the constructs ranged from 0.741 to 0.949, exceeding the minimum acceptable threshold and thus confirming their suitability for the intended analysis [153].

The sampling procedure utilised in this study involved proportionate stratified sampling, wherein the population was segmented into groups based on the major cities within the Klang Valley, namely Kuala Lumpur, Ampang, Klang, Shah Alam, Subang Jaya, and Petaling Jaya. The minimum sample size as outlined in Cohen’s Rules of Thumb [154] is 228. This study used the intercept survey method to approach the respondents. In the process of the intercept survey, trained interviewers adhered to a systematic sampling protocol, approaching individuals who visited car showrooms in the designated cities in Klang Valley areas and enquiring their consents to take part in the survey. After obtaining consent, respondents were provided with a survey questionnaire. Consequently, a total of 300 questionnaires were distributed. The respondents were asked to complete and submit the questionnaire promptly.

The self-administered questionnaire was distributed at the showrooms of the top three EV brands in Malaysia. The questionnaire was distributed outside the showrooms, targeting individual consumers as they exited after consulting the sales representatives or sales administrators. The rationale for selecting individual consumers who visit the showroom lies in the increased likelihood that these individuals have a genuine intent to purchase an EV [155].

4. Results

A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed, and 283 were successfully returned. Nonetheless, merely 264 were deemed usable. Nineteen questionnaires were excluded due to incomplete responses from the respondents. Consequently, a usable response rate of 88% has been attained. The demographic profile of the respondents for this study is presented in

Table 1. Demographic Profile of Respondents (n = 264). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Variable	Category	Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	147	55.7
	Female	117	44.3
Age	Gen Z (25–30 years)	41	15.5
	Gen Y (31–40 years)	67	25.4
	Gen X (41–50 years)	120	45.5
	Baby boomers (51 and above)	36	13.6
Education	Secondary Level	37	14.0
	Diploma	52	19.7
	Bachelor’s Degree	89	33.7
	Master’s Degree	68	25.8
	Doctoral	11	4.2
	Others	7	2.7
Marital Status	Single	56	21.2
	Married	204	77.3
	Divorced/Widowed	4	1.5
Occupation	Public sector	34	12.9
	Private Sector	196	74.2
	Self-Employed	24	9.1
	Retired/Pensioner	3	1.1
	Others	7	2.7

. Out of 264 valid respondents, 147 are male, accounting for 56%, while 117 are female, representing 44%. The study’s respondents are distributed across four generational cohorts, i.e., 15.5% from Generation Z (25–30 years), 25.4% from Generation Y (31–40 years), 45.5% from Generation X (41–50 years), and 13.6% from Baby Boomers (51 years and above). The majority of the respondents are married (77.3%). In terms of academic qualification, 89 respondents are bachelor’s degree holders (33.7%); 68 respondents are master’s degree holders (25.8%); 52 respondents are diploma holders (19.7%); 37 respondents are secondary certificate holders (14%); 11 respondents are doctoral holders (4.2%); and 7 respondents possess other qualifications (2.7%). On respondents’ employment sector, most of them are from the private sector (74.2%) and the public sector (12.9%). Self-employed, retired or pensioners and others such as students comprised 9.10%, 1.10% and 2.70%, respectively.

To evaluate the hypotheses, partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed. PLS-SEM has been selected for various reasons. PLS’s efficacy in studying the link between one or more dependent variables and one or more independent variables has been confirmed by many prior studies [157,158]. In addition to that, PLS-SEM is a multivariate technique that allows for the concurrent assessment of multiple equations. The moderation results are computed using a two-stage approach in SmartPLS. This method utilises the latent variable scores from the main effects model, which excludes the interaction term, for both the latent predictor and latent moderator variables [159]. The latent variable scores are recorded and used to compute the product indicator for the subsequent stage of analysis, which incorporates the interaction term along with the predictor and moderator variables [160].

In structural equation modelling, data analysis is divided into two steps [159]. The first step involves analysis of the measurement model where assessment of validity and reliability of the items was carried out. The second stage focuses on examining the structural model, where the associations between latent constructs are analysed and hypotheses are tested. Partial Least Squares (PLS) was utilized to analyze both the measurement and structural models, as it is appropriate for smaller sample sizes, does not require normally distributed data, can deal with complex model structures, and is effective for predictive purposes [157].

4.1. Measurement Model

The measurement model evaluated two forms of validity, namely, convergent validity and discriminant validity, as suggested by [154]. In the measurement model, convergent validity and reliability were assessed first. Construct reliability was analysed using composite reliability, whereas convergent validity was assessed through the average variance extracted (AVE). As recommended by [160], the acceptable threshold for composite reliability should be greater than 0.70, while for AVE it is 0.50. As presented in

Table 2. Convergent Validity and Reliability of the Construct. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Construct	AVE	Composite Reliability
Intention to purchase EV(IP)	0.878	0.743
Consumers’ attitudes (CA)	0.954	0.749
Infrastructure Readiness (IR)	0.836	0.730
Functional Value (FV)	0.938	0.690
Symbolic Value (SV)	0.894	0.746
Emotional Value (EV)	0.963	0.764
Novelty Value (NV)	0.916	0.746
Conditional Value (CV)	0.835	0.730

, all constructs displayed composite reliability values more than 0.70, thus confirming internal consistency reliability. Likewise, the AVE values for all constructs were greater than the recommended threshold value of 0.50, thus, demonstrating sufficient convergent validity.

Upon confirming the convergent validity and reliability of each construct, the last step is to assess discriminant validity, which evaluates the extent to which it is distinct from other constructs in the study. Discriminant validity was assessed through several established criteria, namely cross-loadings and Fornell–Larcker, following the recommendations of [157]. As presented in

Table 3. Cross Loadings. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Items	IP	CA	IR	FV	CV	EV	NV	SV
IP1	0.791	0.525	0.198	0.484	0.408	0.510	0.376	0.370
IP4	0.780	0.517	0.240	0.393	0.409	0.560	0.438	0.404
IP5	0.821	0.701	0.087	0.605	0.296	0.551	0.172	0.529
IP6	0.814	0.603	0.190	0.436	0.340	0.556	0.278	0.395
CA1	0.675	0.842	0.185	0.641	0.379	0.647	0.371	0.548
CA2	0.578	0.831	0.181	0.532	0.389	0.616	0.316	0.492
CA3	0.654	0.898	0.204	0.576	0.405	0.654	0.306	0.540
CA4	0.665	0.879	0.257	0.596	0.429	0.679	0.356	0.563
CA5	0.666	0.887	0.176	0.585	0.421	0.647	0.278	0.528
CA6	0.622	0.867	0.111	0.601	0.369	0.629	0.297	0.590
CA7	0.605	0.851	0.170	0.657	0.410	0.681	0.350	0.562
IR1	0.159	0.111	0.767	0.182	0.340	0.188	0.307	0.044
IR4	0.133	0.147	0.746	0.159	0.230	0.158	0.233	0.095
IR5	0.212	0.230	0.863	0.223	0.313	0.273	0.458	0.116
FV1	0.462	0.489	0.223	0.759	0.373	0.567	0.351	0.532
FV3	0.501	0.576	0.063	0.813	0.256	0.558	0.271	0.576
FV4	0.519	0.610	0.208	0.854	0.341	0.611	0.341	0.589
FV5	0.515	0.612	0.286	0.823	0.353	0.600	0.397	0.524
FV6	0.495	0.625	0.151	0.856	0.285	0.602	0.265	0.587
FV7	0.486	0.606	0.241	0.798	0.414	0.576	0.452	0.505
FV8	0.422	0.458	0.106	0.706	0.308	0.457	0.315	0.428
FV9	0.497	0.519	0.182	0.813	0.372	0.578	0.378	0.501
FV10	0.397	0.394	0.277	0.704	0.402	0.506	0.489	0.397
FV10	0.397	0.394	0.277	0.704	0.402	0.506	0.489	0.397
CV3	0.173	0.220	0.313	0.195	0.721	0.299	0.428	0.168
CV4	0.209	0.273	0.287	0.212	0.777	0.342	0.383	0.191
CV5	0.518	0.491	0.311	0.480	0.876	0.544	0.430	0.440
EV1	0.580	0.625	0.223	0.602	0.470	0.858	0.439	0.618
EV2	0.584	0.674	0.231	0.630	0.479	0.876	0.410	0.625
EV3	0.599	0.697	0.249	0.652	0.459	0.899	0.430	0.652
EV4	0.649	0.748	0.250	0.706	0.516	0.915	0.450	0.669
EV5	0.586	0.659	0.264	0.628	0.452	0.869	0.496	0.616
EV6	0.572	0.590	0.226	0.564	0.467	0.863	0.543	0.584
EV7	0.599	0.650	0.214	0.603	0.469	0.904	0.474	0.660
EV8	0.570	0.600	0.220	0.566	0.457	0.805	0.463	0.558
NV1	0.201	0.250	0.471	0.292	0.429	0.297	0.776	0.180
NV2	0.249	0.239	0.421	0.306	0.451	0.322	0.827	0.171
NV3	0.252	0.262	0.339	0.312	0.377	0.388	0.756	0.284
NV4	0.299	0.316	0.342	0.375	0.409	0.447	0.819	0.297
NV5	0.401	0.337	0.314	0.386	0.390	0.486	0.846	0.322
NV6	0.374	0.361	0.292	0.446	0.422	0.522	0.796	0.329
SV2	0.420	0.474	0.172	0.494	0.337	0.586	0.323	0.750
SV3	0.345	0.448	0.152	0.434	0.290	0.509	0.306	0.715
SV6	0.385	0.434	0.057	0.432	0.200	0.393	0.056	0.714
SV7	0.368	0.433	0.026	0.496	0.302	0.457	0.168	0.732
SV8	0.362	0.435	0.029	0.450	0.239	0.420	0.094	0.736
SV10	0.444	0.540	0.116	0.567	0.333	0.663	0.414	0.767
SV11	0.426	0.487	0.110	0.494	0.304	0.621	0.348	0.758

, each indicator demonstrated a higher loading on its respective latent construct compared to its loadings on other constructs, satisfying the cross-loading criterion.

As shown in

Table 4. Discriminant Validity Analysis—Fornell–Larcker’s Criterion. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Construct	CV	CA	EV	FV	IR	IP	EV	SV
CV	0.794
CA	0.463	0.865
EV	0.539	0.752	0.874
FV	0.430	0.692	0.710	0.794
IR	0.373	0.213	0.269	0.241	0.794
IP	0.448	0.738	0.678	0.604	0.217	0.802
NV	0.510	0.376	0.528	0.450	0.437	0.384	0.804
SV	0.390	0.632	0.714	0.654	0.110	0.534	0.340	0.739

Note: Diagonals represent the square root of the average variance extracted while the other entries represent the correlations.

below, the diagonal values (representing the square root of the AVE for each construct) are greater than the corresponding inter-construct correlations. This indicates that each construct shares more variance with its own indicators than with other constructs, thereby confirming discriminant validity according to the Fornell–Larcker criterion. Consequently, discriminant validity was attained. Taken together, these results indicate that the constructs are empirically distinct from one another.

4.2. Assessment of Structural Model

The subsequent phase after evaluating the measurement model was the assessment of the structural model, which involved hypothesis testing. The PLS algorithm and bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples across 264 cases were employed to estimate path coefficients and their significance. The results are summarized in

Table 5. Path Coefficients and Hypotheses Testing. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Hypothesis	Relationship	Path Coefficients	Std. Error	t-Value	p Values	Decision
H1a	Functional Value -> Intention to purchase EV	0.086	0.074	1.163	0.245	Rejected
H1b	Symbolic Value -> Intention to purchase EV	−0.017	0.073	0.231	0.817	Rejected
H1c	Emotional Value -> Intention to purchase EV	0.216	0.090	2.390 **	0.017	Supported
H1d	Novelty Value -> Intention to purchase EV	0.019	0.056	0.331	0.741	Rejected
H1e	Conditional Value -> Intention to purchase EV	0.064	0.054	1.168	0.243	Rejected
H2	Consumers’ attitudes towards EV -> Intention to purchase EV	0.489	0.068	7.225 *	0.000	Supported

Note: * p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05.

. The R² value for the endogenous construct, intention to purchase EVs, was 0.587, indicating that the two significant predictor variables, i.e., emotional value and consumes’ attitudes, collectively explain 58.7% of the variance in purchase intention. According to [161], this represents a substantial level of explanatory power. The results further reveal that both emotional value and consumers’ attitudes exert significant positive effects on purchase intention, thereby supporting H1c and H2. In contrast, functional value, symbolic value, novelty value, and conditional value did not exhibit significant effects, leading to the rejection of H1a, H1b, H1d, and H1e.

4.3. Mediating Effect of Consumers’ Attitudes

One of the advantages of employing SEM for mediation analysis is its ability to examine mediating variables within the framework of a holistic model [162]. Mediation analysis considers both direct and indirect effects [97]. This study examined consumers’ attitudes as a mediating variable in the relationship between five consumption values (functional, symbolic, emotional, novelty, and conditional values) and intention to purchase EVs. The mediation analysis results are presented in

Table 6. Mediating Effects of Consumers’ Attitudes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020, Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Hypothesis	Relationship	Path Coefficients	Std. Error	t-Value	p Values	Decision
H3a	Functional Value -> Consumer Attitude -> Intention to Purchase	0.144	0.039	3.724 *	0.000	Mediation effect
H3b	Symbolic Value -> Consumer Attitude -> Intention to Purchase	0.048	0.028	1.726	0.084	No mediation effect
H3c	Emotional Value -> Consumer Attitude -> Intention to Purchase	0.230	0.047	4.913 *	0.000	Mediation effect
H3d	Novelty Value -> Consumer Attitude -> Intention to Purchase	−0.040	0.027	1.474	0.141	No mediation effect
H3e	Conditional Value -> Consumer Attitude -> Intention to Purchase	0.042	0.025	1.683	0.092	No mediation effect

Note: * p < 0.1.

. The findings show that consumers’ attitudes significantly mediate the relationships between functional value and purchase intention, as well as between emotional value and purchase intention, thereby supporting H3a and H3c. However, no mediating effects were observed for symbolic value, novelty value, or conditional value on purchase intention, leading to the rejection of H3b, H3d, and H3e.

4.4. Moderating Effect of Infrastructure Readiness

A moderator variable can be considered as an additional variable that influences the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable. It is typically referred to as a contingent variable. Reference [163] defines a moderator variable as one that affects the relationship between two variables. The influence of the predictor on the criterion is contingent upon the level or values of the moderator.

In examining the moderation effect of infrastructure readiness, the consumers’ attitudes towards EV were treated as the independent variable, whereas the intention to purchase EV was maintained as the dependent variable. The changes in R² and the effect size are crucial for assessing the impact of infrastructure readiness as a moderating factor. The interaction effect of infrastructure readiness was checked using a bootstrapping method in Smart PLS, with a sample size of 5000 for this process. The cut-off values for this test were established at 1.645 and 2.33 for significance levels of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively.

Table 7. Moderating Effect of Infrastructure Readiness. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]. Copyright 2020 Universiti Utara Malaysia.

Hypothesis	Relationship	Path Coefficients	Std. Error	t Value	p	Decision
H4	Moderating Effect (Attitude × Infrastructure Readiness) -> Intention to Purchase	0.022	0.039	0.578	0.564	Not Supported

demonstrates the moderating influence of infrastructure readiness. The results indicate that infrastructure readiness does not have a significant moderating effect on the relationship between consumers’ attitudes and intention to purchase EVs. The interaction term was found to be non-significant, suggesting that variations in infrastructure readiness do not alter the strength of the relationship between attitude and purchase intention. This implies that while consumer attitude remains a strong predictor of behavioural intention, the presence or absence of adequate infrastructure does not significantly influence this relationship. Consequently, the moderation hypothesis (H4) is rejected.

5. Discussion

This study reveals that consumers with more favourable attitudes toward EVs exhibit stronger intention to purchase them. This aligns with the findings of [23,164,165]. This is probably due to the fact that a favourable attitude develops when consumers recognise that EVs provide advantages like environmental sustainability, long-term cost savings, technological advancements, and government incentives. When consumers possess favourable feelings regarding the benefits of EV ownership, they are more inclined to cultivate a positive attitude, which subsequently enhances their intention to make a purchase.

Emotional value has emerged as an essential variable influencing purchase intentions for EVs. Emotional value refers to the subjective benefits a product offers, such as feelings of pride, excitement, or satisfaction, which enhance positive assessments of EVs beyond their practical utility [166]. Unlike functional or symbolic features, emotional value connects on a psychological level, frequently harmonising with consumers’ self-identity, values, and aspirations. This connection is especially prominent in the EV scenario, where ownership may elicit a sense of personal commitment to environmental sustainability or technological advancement. The TCVs posits that emotional value is one of the five fundamental determinants of consumer choice, affecting both attitude development and behavioural intention [40]. Empirical research further substantiates this correlation. Ref. [167] discovered that emotional value substantially affected views towards EVs and the desire to adopt them, frequently exceeding the influence of functional or symbolic value. Ref. [168] similarly highlighted that emotional links, such as the pride of being an early adopter or an environmentally concerned consumer, may exert greater influence than practical factors.

Contrary to expectations, functional value did not exert a significant direct effect on purchase intention. This finding suggests that in the Malaysian EV market, utilitarian factors such as price, performance, and reliability are perceived as baseline conditions rather than decisive motivators. Instead, emotional considerations such as pride, enjoyment, and environmental responsibility play a more prominent role. This highlights the context-specific nature of consumption values in EV adoption and suggests that functional value may gain importance at later stages of market maturity, when consumers shift from symbolic to pragmatic considerations. Empirical research substantiates this link; for instance, ref. [166] found that functional value not significantly reduced effect on actual purchasing intentions. However, the finding contradicts to [169] who established that perceived utility, an essential element of functional value, significantly affected customer perceptions regarding EV adoption.

This study indicates that the symbolic value associated with a product, including social meaning, identity expression, and status, does not consistently influence purchase intentions for EVs. This is primarily because EVs are not uniformly regarded as status-enhancing or socially prestigious commodities across various markets or demographic segments [33]. Consumers often perceive EVs as niche or utilitarian, which limits the effectiveness of their symbolic associations [170]. Symbolic interpretations of EVs can be contradictory. For some, EVs represent innovation and environmental stewardship; for others, they may signify political affiliation, performance compromise, or elitism. This uncertainty reduces the clarity and appeal of EVs as symbolic entities. High-involvement acquisitions, such as automobiles, are often driven by practical considerations such as range, charging accessibility, and cost rather than by symbolic significance. Thus, consumers who have positive symbolic views may still struggle to convert them into favourable attitudes or purchase intentions if practical issues remain unaddressed. Previous studies supported this limited effect; for instance, refs. [33,38] found that symbolic value had a lesser or non-significant impact on attitudes and behavioural intentions compared to environmental concerns or perceived functional utility.

While novelty value associated with newness, innovation, and advanced features may initially attract customer attention in EVs, it does not substantially affect purchase intentions among consumers in this study. This is probably because novelty typically exerts a temporary impact, as initial enthusiasm diminishes with time, diminishing its effect on consumer evaluation and decision-making. As EVs become more prevalent, their initial allure wanes, and elements such as practical use or emotional resonance become paramount. Moreover, innovation frequently induces perceived risk among consumers, particularly concerning the dependability and enduring efficacy of a novel technology [171]. In high-involvement decisions, such as vehicle acquisitions, pragmatic factors like cost, efficiency, and infrastructure outweigh mere novelty. Research corroborates these findings, as [33] discovered that novelty exerted non minimal influence on purchase intention relative to emotional or functional aspects. Ref. [172] similarly noted that novelty primarily pertained to early adopters, but social and environmental elements exerted a more significant influence on wider customer demographics. However, the finding contradicts [57] who found that the domain-specific innovativeness of EVs leads to adoption among users.

Although numerous studies indicate that conditional value may facilitate the adoption of EVs [40,173], it does not significantly influence purchase intentions in the current study. This is likely because conditional value depends on context and varies across different locations and times. The existence of tax refunds or incentives may entice specific consumers; nevertheless, these benefits are often transient or geographically limited, reducing their importance in long-term decision-making. Moreover, whereas conditional elements may reduce the perceived cost of adoption, they do not satisfy the essential customer needs for reliability, safety, or emotional satisfaction. Ref. [106] observed that conditional factors, such as subsidies or charging infrastructure, had a limited impact on purchase intention compared to more persistent factors like functional value or emotional appeal. Ref. [172] similarly found that the influence of conditional value was less pronounced than that of environmental incentives or personal values, which are more effective in fostering consumer commitment. Thus, while conditional value may facilitate short-term adoption, it does not significantly affect attitudes or purchase intentions, particularly for high-involvement purchases like automobiles, where consumers emphasise long-term, intrinsic factors. However, the finding contradicts [174], who found that conditional value positively influences consumers’ sentiments and purchase intentions for energy-efficient vehicles.

The present study discovered that attitude mediates the association between functional value and purchase intention of EVs. While functional value does not emerge as a significant direct factor influencing EV purchase intention, the findings of this study highlight that this relationship operates primarily through consumers’ attitudes. Consistent with the TPB [31,104], attitude serves as the proximal determinant of behavioural intention, translating underlying values into action [175]. The results indicate that although consumers may recognize the economic and performance benefits of EVs (functional value), these considerations shape intention only insofar as they foster a favourable attitude. This mediating mechanism underscores the importance of targeting consumer attitudes in policy and marketing interventions by strengthening positive perceptions, the functional advantages of EVs are more effectively converted into purchase intention [85].

Functional value denotes the perceived utility obtained from a vehicle’s practical advantages, including performance, energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and reliability [151]. Consumers that possess a favourable disposition towards EVs are more inclined to acknowledge and value these functional characteristics, hence augmenting their confidence and incentive to make a purchase [152]. In this context, functional value acts as a cognitive filter, converting overall optimism (attitude) into active intent. Empirical evidence supports this mediation effect. Ref. [155] discovered that functional value significantly influenced the association between attitudes and behavioural intentions regarding green vehicles. Ref. [35] similarly indicated that functional value, encompassing evaluations of fuel efficiency and driving performance, reinforced the connection between attitude and EV purchase intention. This finding indicates that even when buyers possess a favourable disposition towards EVs, their intention to purchase is further solidified when functional advantages are distinctly recognised and assessed.

Similarly, this study found that attitude mediates the relationship between emotional value and intention to purchase EVs. As previously discussed, emotional value plays a significant role in shaping consumer behaviour, particularly when it comes to high-involvement and value-oriented items such as EVs. The TCV posits that emotional value pertains to the feelings or affective states elicited by a product in the consumer, including pride, enthusiasm, or satisfaction [30]. In the realm of EVs, consumers may derive emotional value from viewing themselves as environmentally responsible, inventive, or socially aware. Emotional value does not necessarily directly influence behavioural intentions; instead, it typically operates indirectly through attitude, which serves as a cognitive filter that converts emotional responses into evaluative judgements [35]. Consumers that experience significant emotional satisfaction from EVs are inclined to form positive views towards them, hence enhancing their purchase intention [172]. The evidence indicates that attitude influences the process by converting emotional experiences into a consistent and rational preference for EV ownership. This finding is consistent with [22], who discovered that emotional value significantly affected attitude, which subsequently enhanced consumers’ desire to select environmentally friendly items. In the realm of EV adoption, emotional value was identified as a factor that predominantly influences intention through its impact on attitude, rather than serving as a direct predictor [155].

The findings reveal that attitude does not mediate the relationship between symbolic value and intention to purchase EVs in Malaysia. Symbolic motives such as prestige, social recognition, and a “green” image directly shape consumers’ purchase intentions without necessarily influencing their personal attitudes. In the Malaysian context, car ownership has traditionally been associated with social identity and status [176]. Past studies also show that environmentally friendly purchases are often guided by social norms rather than individual evaluations [115,177]. Hence, symbolic value operates through cultural norms and identity signalling, bypassing attitude as a mediating mechanism.

The findings reveal that attitude does not mediate the relationship between novelty value and intention to purchase EVs in Malaysia. This suggests that the appeal of “newness” or innovation associated with EVs does not necessarily translate into a more favourable attitude that drives intention. While novelty may attract consumer curiosity, Malaysian consumers often associate EVs with high costs, limited charging facilities, and technological uncertainty, which weakens the ability of novelty to shape attitudes [178]. Instead, novelty may directly influence the intention of a niche segment of early adopters who value being trendsetters, bypassing the attitudinal pathway [179]. This aligns with prior Malaysian research indicating that purchase decisions for innovative products are often constrained by perceived risks and infrastructure readiness, which override the effect of novelty on attitudes [115,175]. Hence, in the Malaysian context, novelty value operates more as a direct driver of purchase intention among innovators rather than through broader attitudinal change.

The results demonstrate that attitude does not mediate the relationship between conditional value and intention to purchase EVs in Malaysia. Conditional value reflects situational factors such as government incentives, tax exemptions, fuel price fluctuations, and the availability of charging infrastructure, which influence consumer behaviour in a direct and pragmatic manner. These external conditions encourage purchase intention by lowering financial barriers and increasing convenience, but they do not necessarily alter consumers’ overall attitudes toward EVs. This is consistent with the view that conditional value is temporary and context-dependent, whereas attitudes are relatively stable and shaped by long-term evaluations [30]. Prior studies in Malaysia have shown that policy incentives and cost-related factors strongly influence behavioural intention, but their impact on attitudes is limited [180,181]. Hence, in the Malaysian context, consumers may form an intention to purchase EVs directly in response to favourable external conditions without developing a more favourable underlying attitude toward EVs.

The study’s findings indicated that infrastructure readiness did not significantly moderate the association between attitude and intention to purchase EVs. This outcome indicates that consumers who possess a favourable disposition towards EVs are likely to establish buying intentions, irrespective of their perceptions of the adequacy of charging infrastructure. One possible explanation lies in the differentiation between internal and external influences as delineated in the TPB [31]. Attitude is an internal psychological construct rooted in individual ideas, values, and assessments of behaviour; infrastructure readiness is an external contextual aspect. The development of buying intention based on attitude may transpire independently of perceived infrastructural sufficiency. In fact, in some market situations, like cities or places where the government supports EVs, consumers might see the charging infrastructure as “good enough” or improving, which can lessen its effect on their choices. This conclusion aligns with previous research indicating that infrastructure readiness significantly impacts actual or perceived behavioural control rather than mitigating the influence of attitudes on intention [169,172]. Furthermore, early adopters or ecologically conscious consumers may be inclined to disregard infrastructural deficiencies, placing greater emphasis on their ideals and convictions than on practical issues [182].

6. Conclusions

6.1. Theoretical Contributions

This study enhances TCV by demonstrating that emotional value significantly influences consumers’ intention to purchase EVs. Conversely, functional value does not directly affect intention but influences it indirectly through attitude. These findings emphasise that, in the realm of electric vehicles, affective evaluations (e.g., pride, excitement, environmental concern) exert greater influence than conventional utilitarian assessments (e.g., cost, performance). This enhances TCV by indicating that the significance of each consumption value dimension is contingent upon context, especially for creative, sustainability-focused items.

The mediating function of attitude between emotional and functional values and purchase intention introduces a psychological processing dimension to TCV. It suggests that values influence behaviour indirectly by cultivating favourable attitudes, hence connecting TCV with attitudinal theories such as TPB.

Within the TPB framework, this study underscores the significance of attitude as a primary determinant of behavioural intention in the context of EVs. The significant influence of emotional value on attitude illustrates how value-based factors contribute to the formation of attitudes, so augmenting the explanatory depth of the TPB. The finding that attitude mediates the relationship between values and intention corresponds with the TPB’s assertion that cognitive assessments (i.e., attitudes) convert fundamental ideas or values into behavioural inclinations. This enhances the TPB by demonstrating that external value systems, derived from the TCV, can be effectively incorporated as antecedents of belief inside TPB.

This study’s integration of TCV and TPB provides a dual-level explanation: TCV elucidates the significance of certain values, whilst TPB delineates how these values influence intention through psychological mechanisms such as attitude. This integrated method rectifies the deficiencies in both theories when used independently. The TPB fails to elucidate the origins of salient beliefs, whereas the TCV does not account for the psychological mechanisms involved. Their integration produces a more thorough theoretical framework for forecasting pro-environmental behaviour, including EV adoption. The non-significant moderating influence of infrastructure readiness on the connection between attitude and intention calls into question certain extensions of the TPB that propose external control variables as moderators. This indicates that infrastructural preparation might be regarded as a fundamental state rather than a factor that enhances behaviour, so clarifying the limits of impacts connected to perceived behavioural control in the TPB.

6.2. Practical Contributions

The positive link between attitude and intention to acquire EVs indicates that fostering good impressions is essential for promoting adoption in Malaysia. Policymakers and automobile manufacturers should emphasize the advantages of EVs, including economic savings, ecological sustainability, and driving comfort. Transparent information regarding charging infrastructure, battery longevity, and governmental incentives can alleviate uncertainties and foster confidence. Providing test drives or conducting public awareness efforts might assist consumers in cultivating more favourable attitudes. Given that attitude significantly impacts intention, initiatives aimed at enhancing perceptions of EVs would directly augment their propensity to buy.

Given that emotional value significantly influences EV purchase intention, marketing campaigns should highlight the emotional and identity-related facets of EV ownership, including environmental pride, modern lifestyle, and commitment to sustainability, rather than concentrating exclusively on cost or efficiency. Marketing tactics must emphasise emotional advantages (e.g., prestige, innovation, environmental awareness) in conjunction with practical benefits. This will directly enhance favourable attitudes, which subsequently propel purchasing intention. Given that attitude mediates the relationship between functional and emotional values and intention, companies ought to devise strategies that initially cultivate positive attitudes (e.g., via test-drive experiences, influencer endorsements, and emotional storytelling) prior to anticipating real purchase decisions. Pricing and performance retain significance (functional value), although they must be conveyed in emotionally resonant manners, such as associating cost savings with familial welfare or environmental conservation rather than solely through financial rationale.

The finding that infrastructure readiness does not moderate the relationship between attitude and intention indicates that customers may not regard infrastructure constraints as a significant obstacle, likely because to an increasing baseline availability. This also highlights the necessity for more efficient communication on infrastructure readiness. Applications that locate charging stations, provide visible dependability metrics, or facilitate cross-brand cooperation for charging standardisation can enhance confidence and convenience. Stakeholders must transition their emphasis from simply “installing chargers” to fostering trust and transparency on accessibility, reliability, and user experience. Policymakers must acknowledge that customers may regard fundamental infrastructure as a standard expectation. Consequently, governmental focus should transition from “developing infrastructure” to “enhancing awareness” regarding its accessibility, dependability, and growth. Policies may also facilitate public awareness efforts aimed at altering perceptions by presenting EVs as attractive, aspirational, and socially responsible commodities.

6.3. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Our study is based on a usable sample of 264 questionnaires. This aligns well with sample sizes commonly employed in the EV research domain. For instance, a similar study conducted among Generation Y in Malaysia by [183] obtained 213 valid responses. In a broader regional context, research in India by [184] gathered 172 responses. Additionally, studies from other countries for example, one survey in Morocco by [185] employed 203 respondents to model EV purchasing behaviour, while a study by [186] among Taiwanese consumers on EV purchase intention noted that questionnaire-based research benefits from sample sizes of 274 responses. Taken together, these comparisons suggest that our sample size of 264 is within an acceptable and reliable range for quantitative EV research. Nevertheless, future research could extend these findings by targeting larger and more diverse samples to further enhance the generalizability and robustness of results.

While this study provides important insights into the ways emotional and functional values shape intentions regarding EV adoption, it is important to acknowledge its limitations. The geographic scope of this study was limited to the Klang Valley, one of Malaysia’s most urbanized regions. While this context provides valuable insights into consumer intention toward EV adoption in urban settings, the findings may not be fully generalizable to rural or semi-urban regions where infrastructure readiness, consumer awareness, and adoption drivers may differ significantly. Future research could expand the geographic coverage to include diverse regions of Malaysia to enhance the external validity and capture context-specific variations in EV adoption.

The cross-sectional design employed in this study limits the capacity to draw causal inferences. Conducting longitudinal studies would provide valuable insights into the shifts in consumer perceptions and behavioural intentions over time, particularly in relation to changing government policies, technological progress, and market incentives.

The dependence on self-reported data raises concerns regarding social desirability and recall bias. To address this, subsequent studies might utilise mixed-method approaches or behavioural data (e.g., actual purchase records, test drive participation) to confirm attitudinal measures. Lastly, future studies may investigate the influence of moderating variables like environmental concern, perceived risk, or trust in government incentives, which could provide a more nuanced understanding of the boundary conditions surrounding attitude-intention relationships.