Figure 2.
Passive parallel design.
Figure 2.
Passive parallel design.
Figure 3.
UC/battery design.
Figure 3.
UC/battery design.
Figure 4.
Battery/UC design.
Figure 4.
Battery/UC design.
Figure 5.
Slow constant-speed operation.
Figure 5.
Slow constant-speed operation.
Figure 6.
Fast constant-speed operation.
Figure 6.
Fast constant-speed operation.
Figure 7.
Acceleration mode.
Figure 7.
Acceleration mode.
Figure 8.
Regenerative braking when VUC < VUC__target.
Figure 8.
Regenerative braking when VUC < VUC__target.
Figure 9.
Regenerative braking when VUC > VUC_target.
Figure 9.
Regenerative braking when VUC > VUC_target.
Figure 10.
Multiple DC/DC converter design.
Figure 10.
Multiple DC/DC converter design.
Figure 11.
UC/battery with inverter design.
Figure 11.
UC/battery with inverter design.
Figure 12.
Simulink model of energy management system.
Figure 12.
Simulink model of energy management system.
Figure 13.
Battery charge, current, power and ultra-capacitor current, voltage characteristics.
Figure 13.
Battery charge, current, power and ultra-capacitor current, voltage characteristics.
Figure 14.
Simulation of a hybrid inverter with load (induction motor) [
18,
19].
Figure 14.
Simulation of a hybrid inverter with load (induction motor) [
18,
19].
Figure 15.
For mode-1 inverter 1 output (fed by battery).
Figure 15.
For mode-1 inverter 1 output (fed by battery).
Figure 16.
For mode-1: active and reactive power consumed.
Figure 16.
For mode-1: active and reactive power consumed.
Figure 17.
Inverter-1 voltage and current output.
Figure 17.
Inverter-1 voltage and current output.
Figure 18.
Ultracapacitor terminal voltage.
Figure 18.
Ultracapacitor terminal voltage.
Figure 19.
Active and reactive power (reference vs. calculated).
Figure 19.
Active and reactive power (reference vs. calculated).
Figure 20.
Inverter output voltage and current.
Figure 20.
Inverter output voltage and current.
Figure 21.
Active and reactive power (reference vs. calculated).
Figure 21.
Active and reactive power (reference vs. calculated).
Figure 22.
Ultracapacitor voltage.
Figure 22.
Ultracapacitor voltage.
Figure 23.
Power circuit [
13,
14].
Figure 23.
Power circuit [
13,
14].
Figure 24.
Operation of circuit under mode-1.
Figure 24.
Operation of circuit under mode-1.
Figure 25.
Operation of circuit under mode-2.
Figure 25.
Operation of circuit under mode-2.
Figure 26.
Operation of circuit under mode-3.
Figure 26.
Operation of circuit under mode-3.
Figure 27.
Mode control using the buffer.
Figure 27.
Mode control using the buffer.
Figure 28.
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) control signal generation in protease.
Figure 28.
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) control signal generation in protease.
Figure 29.
Process chart.
Figure 29.
Process chart.
Figure 30.
Hardware implementation.
Figure 30.
Hardware implementation.
Figure 31.
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) layout.
Figure 31.
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) layout.
Figure 32.
SVPWM analogy.
Figure 32.
SVPWM analogy.
Figure 33.
Line voltage and current at inverter output.
Figure 33.
Line voltage and current at inverter output.
Figure 34.
Phase voltages at inverter output.
Figure 34.
Phase voltages at inverter output.
Figure 35.
Battery current.
Figure 35.
Battery current.
Figure 36.
Battery and ultra-capacitor currentsmode-2 and mode-3 with t1 = 0.5 ms t2 = 0.5 ms.
Figure 36.
Battery and ultra-capacitor currentsmode-2 and mode-3 with t1 = 0.5 ms t2 = 0.5 ms.
Figure 37.
Battery and ultracapacitor currents, mode-3, mode-2, and mode-1 with t1 = 0.5 ms, t2 = 0.5 ms, t3 = 0.5 ms.
Figure 37.
Battery and ultracapacitor currents, mode-3, mode-2, and mode-1 with t1 = 0.5 ms, t2 = 0.5 ms, t3 = 0.5 ms.
Figure 38.
Battery and ultra-capacitor currents, mode-2, mode-1with t1 = 0.5 ms, t2 = 0.5 ms.
Figure 38.
Battery and ultra-capacitor currents, mode-2, mode-1with t1 = 0.5 ms, t2 = 0.5 ms.
Figure 39.
Experimental setup.
Figure 39.
Experimental setup.
Table 1.
Comparison of energy storage elements.
Table 1.
Comparison of energy storage elements.
Sr. No. | Storage Element | Specific Energy Density (Wh/Kg) | Energy Density (Wh/Ltr) | Power Density (W/kg) | Cycle/Life |
---|
1 | Lead Acid Battery | 40 | 80 | 100 | 1000 |
2 | Ni-MH | 80 | 200 | 100 to 250 | 2000 |
3 | High-energy Li-Ion | 77 | 250 | 750 to 1500 | 2000 |
4 | Ultra-capacitor | 4.5 | 6.4 | 2000 | 500,000 |
Table 2.
Specifications of the battery and ultracapacitor.
Table 2.
Specifications of the battery and ultracapacitor.
Specifications | Battery (EME LIR18650) | Ultracapacitor (Maxwell BCAP0650) |
---|
Rated Capacity | - | 650 F |
Rated Voltage | 3.7 Volt | 2.70 V |
Mass Typical | 46 g | 160 g |
Specific Power | 1500 W/kg | 6800 W/kg |
Specific Energy | 265 Wh/kg | 4.1 Wh/kg |
Life | 5–10 years | 10 to 15 years |
Cost | $224/kW | $500/kW |
Table 3.
Comparative analysis for energy management system.
Table 3.
Comparative analysis for energy management system.
| EMS Using Battery | EMS Using Ultracapacitor | EMS using Battery and Ultracapacitor (Hybrid EMS) |
---|
Weight (Kg) | Cost ($) | Weight (Kg) | Cost ($) | Wt (Kg) | Cost ($) |
---|
UC pack | - | - | 150 × 1000/6800 | 150 × 500 | 30 × 1000/6800 | 30 × 500 |
Battery Pack | 150 × 1000/1500 | 150 × 224 | - | - | 120 × 1000/1500 | 120 × 224 |
Total | 100 | 33,600 | 22.05 | 75,000 | UC = 4.41 kg + Battery = 80 kg = 84.41 kg | 1500 + 26880 = 28,380 |
Table 4.
Latch and switch enable States for modes-1,2, and 3.
Table 4.
Latch and switch enable States for modes-1,2, and 3.
Control State | EN1 (SU1, SU2, SU3) | EN2 (SL1, SL2, SL3) | EN1 * (SU11, SU12, SU13) | EN2 * (SU21, SU22, SU23) |
---|
UC (Charging) | ON | OFF | OFF | ON |
Battery (Discharging) | ON | ON | OFF | OFF |
Battery (Discharging) + UC (Discharging) | ON | ON | ON | OFF |
Table 5.
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) signal generation.
Table 5.
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) signal generation.
Position | A’ | A | B’ | B | C’ | C | Hex Code |
---|
1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | XX68 |
2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | XX58 |
3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | XX98 |
4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | XX94 |
5 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | XXa4 |
6 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | XX64 |
Table 6.
Current comparison for different cases.
Table 6.
Current comparison for different cases.
| Case-1 (Mode-1) | Case-2 (Mode-2&3) | Case-3 (Mode-1,2 & 3) | Case-4 (Mode-1&2) |
---|
Average Battery Current | 3 A | 0.82 A | 1.48 Amp | 1.8 Amp |
Ultracapacitor Current (Discharging) | 0 A | 2 A | 2 A | 1.6 A |