An Overview of Current Challenges and Emerging Technologies to Facilitate Increased Energy Efficiency, Safety, and Sustainability of Railway Transport
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Measures for Improving Railway Transport Energy Efficiency and Sustainability
2.1. Hybridisation of Conventional Diesel Engine-Based Locomotive Powertrain
- Battery costs in terms of the investment cost, replacement costs, and running (operational) costs, wherein battery durability plays a particularly important role [54]. Typically, the latest generation of lithium-based batteries, such as those based on LiFePO4 and LTO technologies, are more durable and less susceptible to aging compared to the more commonly used lithium-ion batteries. However, their initial costs are typically also greater, and their energy density is typically 30–50% lower compared to other currently available lithium batteries [47].
- Battery safety, in terms of a wide temperature operating range and the ability to withstand large charge-discharge rates, wherein advanced LiFePO4 and LTO technologies again provide the safest operational margins, especially when thermal runaway is considered [47].
- The costs and complexity of retrofitting the diesel electric powertrain with additional battery energy storage, primarily in terms of available space and mass constraints, interfacing with the internal power distribution system (power bus) and the appropriate energy management control strategy [54]. Special attention should also be given to the primary mover (diesel engine) refurbishment or possible replacement of older engines with more efficient modern designs, which is also indicated in [54].
- The choice of adequate hybrid powertrain topology, wherein there are many possible solutions with varying degrees of complexity for the same achieved powertrain performance, which should not be inferior to the performance of the conventional powertrain with similar traction characteristics. In that respect, the requirement of minimal modifications to the overall powertrain would also be desirable from the standpoint of production and overall powertrain assembly [54].
- The utilisation of advanced software tools and communication technologies should also be considered for the purpose of driving mission energy efficiency optimisation and operational safety improvement, especially when considering variable driving conditions along the track [36].
2.2. Utilisation of Battery-Based Locomotive Propulsion
2.3. Electric Powertrain Featuring Hydrogen and Other Types of Fuel Cells
2.4. Alternative Fuels Utilisation
3. Communication Technologies for Improved Energy Efficiency and Safety in Railways
3.1. State of the Art in Communication Systems in Railways
- (a)
- Level 1, which includes constant monitoring of the train movement and occasional communication between the train and the track (using so-called Eurobalise). Trackside signals are required at this level.
- (b)
- Level 2, which includes constant monitoring of the train movement and constant communication between the train and the track using the GSM-R system. At this level, signalling equipment is not required along the track.
3.2. Narrow-Band Internet of Things for Distributed Supervision and Control
3.3. Some Examples of Remote Sensor Use for Improving Transport Energy Efficiency and Safety
4. Industry 4.0 Concept in Railway Transportation
4.1. Autonomous Trains and Automated Railway Traffic
4.2. Multimodal Transportation
4.3. Predictive Maintenance
4.4. Resilience Improvement Measures and Inspection of Critical Infrastructure
- Topological approaches that use network and graph theory to perform assessments by removing links from the network in a stochastic manner (thus emulating stochastic disturbances) or according to a predefined strategy (thus emulating deterministic disturbances) using a well-defined mathematical theory;
- Simulation approaches, which model traffic flows within the system using software tools and can overcome the main disadvantage of the topological approach, i.e., the exponential growth of the problem with the number of combinations;
- Optimisation approaches, which can handle combinatorically complex scenarios in a systematic manner without the need to analyse every possible combination of events (which would be needed if the topological or simulation approach is used);
- Data-driven approaches, which do not require explicit traffic network modelling and can provide good a posteriori insights about network resilience using historical data.
4.5. Smart Grid Paradigm in Railway Transport
- Demand response and demand-side management, which is accomplished through the utilisation of smart metering and smart consumers, local or distributed generation (DG), electrical energy storage (ESS), and, generally, any distributed energy resources (DERs) coupled with providing timely information about energy prices [230];
- Renewable energy sources (RES), along with distributed generation, residential micro-generation, and energy storage (the so-called microgrid concept), which have the potential to improve the energy sector’s environmental impact [231], and are thus accommodated within the SG paradigm, which also provides means of resource aggregation [232];
- Improved reliability and security of the power supply through an improved resilience to deterministic and stochastic disturbances such as adverse weather conditions and cyber threats [233], and through measures such as predictive maintenance, fault isolation techniques, and an enhancement of the power transfer capabilities [228];
- The optimisation and efficient operation of assets and opening access to markets by means of intelligent distribution system nodes [230], wherein efficient asset management is carried out based on the timely response to highly dynamic demand using enhanced power transmission paths and an aggregated power supply [228];
- Maintaining the power quality, which is key for the correct operation of sensitive equipment [228].
- Information and communication technologies, which enable two-way communication to ensure the interoperability of automation and control and to ensure connectivity between heterogeneous communication nodes connected to different energy sources and loads [234], with the possibility of using the existing electrical network for narrow-band and broad-band communications (operating network, business network, and consumer network) (appropriate hardware and software for secure communications are needed for energy trading and demand-side response [235] and for the seamless integration of intermittent renewable energy sources into the electricity grid [231]);
- Power electronics and energy storage technologies at different scales (power and energy ratings), including high-voltage direct current (HVDC), flexible alternating current transmission systems (FACTSs), and various back-to-back power converter topologies, which can facilitate the straightforward integration of renewable energy sources and electrical energy storage systems into the electricity grid [236].
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
3D | Three-Dimensional |
4G | Fourth Generation New Radio Network |
5G | Fifth Generation New Radio Network |
5G-R | Fifth Generation New Radio Network for Railways |
AC | Alternating Current |
AI | Artificial Intelligence |
ANN | Artificial Neural Network |
ARRT | Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit |
CNN | Convolution Neural Network |
R-CNN | Region-Based Convolution Neural Network |
CO2 | Carbon Dioxide |
DC | Direct Current |
DC/DC | Direct Current to Direct Current (power converter) |
DER | Distributed Energy Resource |
DGs | Distributed Generators |
DME | Dimethyl Ether |
DOEM | Dynamic On-Board Energy Management |
DP | Dynamic Programming |
EC | European Commission |
ECo | External Consumer |
EEE | Energy, Economic, and Ecological (indicator) |
EMO | Electricity Market Operator |
EMS | Energy Management System |
ERA | European Railway Agency |
ERTMS | European Rail Traffic Management System |
ESO | Electrical System Operator |
ESS | Energy Storage System |
EU | European Union |
FACTS | Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems |
FBMC | Filter Bank Multi-Carrier (modulation technique) |
FFT | Fast Fourier Transform |
FLIR | Forward-Looking Infra-Red (thermal imaging camera) |
H2 | Hydrogen |
HD | High Definition (video camera) |
HESS | Hybrid Energy Storage System |
HIL | Hardware-in-the-Loop |
HPT | Hypercomplex Fourier Transform (model) |
HVDC | High-Voltage Direct Current |
IFFT | Inverse Fast Fourier Transform |
GHGs | Greenhouse Gases |
GIS | Geographic Information System |
GNSS | Global Navigation Satellite System |
GSM | Global System for Mobile Communication |
GSM-R | Global System for Mobile Communication—Railways |
I2V | Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (communication) |
ICT | Information and Communication Technologies |
IoT | Internet of Things |
IIoT | Industrial Internet of Things |
IoV | Internet of Vehicles |
IMU | Inertial Measurement Unit |
IP | Ingress Protection |
ISST | Intelligent Sub-Station |
IT | Information Technology |
ITC | Information and Telecommunications |
ITS | Intelligent Transportation System |
LCA | Life Cycle Assessment |
LIDAR | Light Detection and Ranging |
LiFePO4 | Lithium Iron Phosphate (batteries) |
LNG | Liquefied Natural Gas |
LP | Linear Programming |
LSTM | Long Short-Term Memory (neural network type) |
LTE | Long-Term Evolution (radio networks) |
LTE-R | Long-Term Evolution (radio networks) for Railways |
LTO | Lithium-Titanate (battery chemistry) |
M2M | Machine-to-Machine (communications) |
MILP | Mixed-Integer Linear Programming |
ML | Machine Learning |
MPC | Model-Predictive Control |
NB | Narrow-Band |
NB-IoT | Narrow-Band IoT |
NB-LTE | Narrow-Band LTE (network) |
NiMH | Nickel-Metal-Hydride (batteries) |
NR | New Radio |
OFDM | Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (modulation technique) |
QAM | Quadrature Amplitude Modulation |
PI | Proportional-Integral (control) |
PV | Photovoltaic |
PWM | Pulse-Width Modulation |
R&D | Research and Development |
REM-S | Railway Energy Management System |
RESs | Renewable Energy Sources |
RN | Radio Network |
RSO | Railway System Operator |
RSST | Reversible Sub-Station |
SG | Smart Grid |
SGAM | Smart Grid Architecture Model |
SIL | Safety Integrity Level |
SoC | State-of-Charge (of a battery or an ultracapacitor energy storage) |
SST | Sub-Station (non-reversible) |
SUMO | Simulation of Urban Mobility (traffic simulation software) |
SVM | Support Vector Machine (machine learning model) |
SVR | Support Vector Regression (machine learning model) |
UAV | Unmanned Aerial Vehicle |
V2I | Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (communication) |
V2P | Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (communication) |
V2V | Vehicle-to-Vehicle (communication) |
V2X | Vehicle-to-Anything (communication) |
WANs | Wide-Area Networks |
WLAN | Wireless Local-Area Network |
ZEBRA | Sodium-Nickel Chloride (batteries) |
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New Infrastructure | Production Costs | Production Efficiency | Food Price | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen | Yes * | High | Low ** | Not affected |
Biofuels | Not needed | Low | High | Affected |
Synthetic fuels | Not needed | High | Low | Not affected |
PV for synthetic fuels | Not needed | Low | High | Not affected |
Fuelling Infrastructure | Supply Chain | Land Demand | Intermittency Friendly | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrogen | New | New | No concern | Yes ** |
Biofuels | Existing | Existing | Yes (arable land) | No |
Synthetic fuels | Existing | Existing | No concern | Yes ** |
PV for synthetic fuels | Existing | Existing | No concern * | Yes |
Parameter | Frequency | Channel Bandwidth | Peak Data Rate | Maturity | Market Support |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
GSM-R | 921–925 MHz download 876–880 MHz upload | 200 kHz | 172 kbps | Mature | Until 2030 |
LTE-R | 450 MHz, 800 MHz, 1.4 GHz and 2.1 GHz | From 1.4 to 100 MHz | 50 Mbps download 10 Mbps upload | Emerging | Building standards |
Technology | Robustness | Real-Time Performance | Range | Throughput | Network Scalability | Power-Saving Awareness |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IEEE 802.11 | Not compliant | Not compliant | Full | Full | Partial | Not compliant |
IEEE 802.15.4 | Partial | Not compliant | Partial | Not compliant | Partial | Full |
Zigbee | Partial | Partial | Partial | Not compliant | Full | Full |
Zigbee Pro | Partial | Partial | Full | Not compliant | Full | Partial |
IEEE 802.15.1 | Partial | Full | Not compliant | Partial | Not compliant | Partial |
Bluetooth | Partial | Full | Not compliant | Partial | Not compliant | Partial |
Wireless HART | Full | Full | Partial | Not compliant | Partial | Full |
ISA 100.11a | Full | Full | Partial | Not compliant | Partial | Full |
WISA | Full | Full | Not compliant | Partial | Partial | Full |
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Kljaić, Z.; Pavković, D.; Cipek, M.; Trstenjak, M.; Mlinarić, T.J.; Nikšić, M. An Overview of Current Challenges and Emerging Technologies to Facilitate Increased Energy Efficiency, Safety, and Sustainability of Railway Transport. Future Internet 2023, 15, 347. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15110347
Kljaić Z, Pavković D, Cipek M, Trstenjak M, Mlinarić TJ, Nikšić M. An Overview of Current Challenges and Emerging Technologies to Facilitate Increased Energy Efficiency, Safety, and Sustainability of Railway Transport. Future Internet. 2023; 15(11):347. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15110347
Chicago/Turabian StyleKljaić, Zdenko, Danijel Pavković, Mihael Cipek, Maja Trstenjak, Tomislav Josip Mlinarić, and Mladen Nikšić. 2023. "An Overview of Current Challenges and Emerging Technologies to Facilitate Increased Energy Efficiency, Safety, and Sustainability of Railway Transport" Future Internet 15, no. 11: 347. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi15110347