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Article

Wildfires and Palm Species Response in a Terra Firme Amazonian Social Forest

by
Tinayra T. A. Costa
1,
Vynicius B. Oliveira
1,
Maria Fabíola Barros
2,3,
Fernando W. C. Andrade
4,
Marcelo Tabarelli
5 and
Ima C. G. Vieira
1,6,*
1
Postgraduate Program in Environmental Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém 66075-110, Brazil
2
Vale Institute of Technology, Belém 66055-090, Brazil
3
Postgraduate Program in Biodiversity and Evolution, Belém 66077-830, Brazil
4
Postgraduate Program in Science, Technology and Forest Innovation, Institute of Biodiversity and Forests, Federal University of Western Pará, Santarém 68035-110, Brazil
5
Department of Botany, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife 50670-901, Brazil
6
Coordination of Botany, Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém 66077-830, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2025, 16(8), 1271; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081271
Submission received: 1 June 2025 / Revised: 25 July 2025 / Accepted: 31 July 2025 / Published: 3 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem-Disturbance Interactions in Forests)
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Abstract

Tropical forests continue to experience high levels of habitat loss and degradation, with wildfires becoming a frequent component of human-modified landscapes. Here we investigate the response of palm species to the conversion of old-growth forests to successional mosaics, including forest patches burned during wildfires. Palms (≥50 cm height) were recorded once in 2023–2024, across four habitat classes: terra firme old-growth stands, regenerating forest stands associated with slash-and-burn agriculture, old-growth stands burned once and twice, and active cassava fields, in the Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve, in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. The flammability of palm leaf litter and forest litter were also examined to assess the potential connections between palm proliferation and wildfires. A total of 10 palm species were recorded in this social forest (including slash-and-burn agriculture and resulting successional mosaics), with positive, negative, and neutral responses to land use. Species richness did not differ among forest habitats, but absolute palm abundance was greatest in disturbed habitats. Only Attalea spectabilis Mart. (curuá) exhibited increased relative abundance across disturbed habitats, including active cassava field. Attalea spectabilis accounted for almost 43% of all stems in the old-growth forest, 89% in regenerating forests, 90% in burned forests, and 79% in crop fields. Disturbed habitats supported a five-to-ten-fold increment in curuá leaves as a measure of habitat flammability. Although curuá litter exhibited lower flame temperature and height, its lower carbon and higher volatile content is expected to be more sensitive to fire ignition and promote the spread of wildfires. The conversion of old-growth forests into social forests promotes the establishment of palm-dominated forests, increasing the potential for a forest transition further fueled by wildfires, with effects on forest resilience and social reproduction still to be understood.

1. Introduction

Tropical forests provide key ecosystem services of both local and global relevance [1], being recognized as the main repository of terrestrial biodiversity and climate regulation [2]. Additionally, timber and non-timber forest products support the social reproduction of countless traditional cultures and their knowledge [3,4], which represent one of the legacies of tropical forests for global sustainability [5,6]. Regardless of such protagonism, tropical forests continue to be converted to other land uses, as well as being degraded by a combination of edge-effects, logging, intense droughts associated with climate change, and wildfires [7], resulting in a collection of forest fragments embedded into open matrices such as pasture and crop fields, with temporary or definitive declines in the provision of ecosystem services [8]. In fact, alarming rates of habitat loss and forest degradation in the face of land use and climate change have been proposed to reduce forest resilience (e.g., lower growth rate by regenerating forests) and drive forests to transitions toward vegetation types with reduced biomass and carbon stocks, structurally resembling a savanna-like vegetation [9]. Transitions are made possible since human-modified landscapes are biophysically distinct from the old-growth forest in which natural forest regeneration and dynamics occur, such as in treefall-gaps [10].
Palm species represent a conspicuous component of tropical forests, particularly in the case of neotropical lowland forests [11]. Like any major taxonomic groups, some palm species benefit from human disturbance, while others experience population decline or even local extirpation [12]. The responses of palm species to disturbance are neither taxonomically nor ecologically random; palm forest species exhibit diverse ecological adaptions related to the diversity of habitats found in tropical forests [13]. Among those species proliferating in neotropical human-modified landscapes (forest edges, small-forest remnants, regenerating forest patches, and abandoned pastures), Attalea species represent the most conspicuous group, with species able to colonize degraded pastures and burned forests, forming almost monodominant forest patches [14]. This is not only present in the iconic case of the babaçu (Attalea speciosa Mart. Ex Spreg.) and the large extension of forests, this winner species [15] dominates in the eastern Amazon. Every neotropical forest probably supports an Attalea disturbance-adapted species [16,17]. On the other hand, short-lived small-statured and shade-tolerant palm species inhabiting the understory of old-growth forests as well as those intensively harvested for palm heart are likely to experience declines [18].
A substantial portion of the Amazon forest has historically been managed within traditional territories (particularly by indigenous, afro-descendant, and riverine populations), which currently encompass 23% of the Brazilian Amazon region, including protected areas designated for territorial preservation such as indigenous lands and extractive reserves [19]. These areas include significant portions of old-growth forest subjected to slash-and-burn agriculture, agroforestry, and forest product exploitation, resulting in vegetation mosaics commonly referred to as ‘social forests’ due to their communal management supporting local communities’ social reproduction [20]. In recent decades, these social forests, including patches of remaining old-growth forest, have experienced intense wildfires [21,22], causing impacts across multiple ecological levels, from population to ecosystem [20]. The severity of this situation was particularly evident in 2016, when wildfire consumed approximately 3.5 million hectares, including extensive areas of social forests within protected areas [23]. In fact, human-modified landscapes persisting as successional mosaics represent a widespread phenomenon across the Amazon, where wildfires occur with increasing frequency and drive proposed forest transitions [9,24,25]. These landscapes, already dominated by disturbance-adapted species, present a unique opportunity to study potential transitions and their drivers. According to the community-assembly model for human-modified landscapes [15], disturbance-adapted species naturally occurring in treefall gaps, forest edges, and open matrices are expected to dominate the remaining forest, particularly those species with fire-survival adaptations [26,27].
Here we examine the response of palms to the conversion of old-growth forest into vegetation mosaics consisting of regenerating forest patches emerging from both slash-and-burn agriculture and wildfires as well as fields dedicated to cassava production in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. We estimated palm abundance across 61 500-m2 plots located in a social forest landscape in the Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve (hereafter Tapajós-Arapiuns ER). To assess palm responses as well as the potential influence of their leaf litter on wildfire propagation we addressed the dominant palm species in the mosaic, curuá (Attalea spectabilis Mart.). We expected either positive or negative responses based on (1) the life-history strategies exhibited by the occurring species, (2) context (e.g., the abundance of edge-affected and illuminated habitats and historical use of fire for preparing crop fields), and (3) the intensive use of the palms by locals. More precisely, we expected Attalea species to proliferate across disturbed habitats, adding substantial amounts of flammable material across the mosaic. Our findings are discussed in light of potential drivers of plant community assembly, forest regeneration and resilience, and potential transitions in human-modified terra firme landscapes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study was carried out in the Tapajós-Arapiuns ER, in the eastern Brazilian Amazon (Figure 1). Tapajós-Arapiuns ER cover flat and low-altitude terrains with a predominance of yellow latosols. The climate is hot and humid most of the year, with average annual temperatures ranging from 25 °C to 28 °C. Average annual rainfall is around 2000 mm [27] with a well-defined dry season from August to November (Köppen Am-type). A lowland terra firme forest predominates in the region, with Fabaceae, Sapotaceae, Moraceae, Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, and Lauraceae among the most species-rich families [20]. The Brazilian cashew nut tree (Bertholetia excelsa Bonpl) has become one of the most conspicuous elements of this forest by forming immense clusters dominated by large trees, indicating the occurrence of undisturbed old-growth forests [28]. Locals reported the occurrence of high-density stands or clusters of curuá (A. spectabilis), a small-statured, light-demanding, understory palm across the entire vegetation mosaic, including in old-growth terra firme forest.
The Tapajós-Arapiuns ER currently contains 74 local villages, which are home to around 3500 families, including indigenous groups [29]. A substantial portion of the pristine old-growth forest has already been converted into a successional mosaic via a combination of slash-and-burn agriculture and exploitation of forest products, including bushmeat [30]. In recent years, especially in 2015–2016, during the dry season, the Tapajós social forest (including old-growth forest stands) have been hit by large-scale wildfires, devastating 10,000 km2 of forests during intense droughts associated with the El Niño phenomenon [20,31]. Information on wildfire effects on local tree assemblages is available from other studies conducted in the area [32,33].

2.2. Forest Habitats

Palm species assemblages were recorded across four habitats in the social forest in 50 m × 10 m (500 m2) plots, as follows: (1) 10 old-growth forest without any record of wildfire or agriculture, (2) 20 regenerating forest stands of varying ages, all <30-yr old, (3) seven forest stands burned once (2016 or 2017) and seven burned twice (2016 or 2017 and 2019) during accidental wildfires, and (4) 19 small-sized active cassava fields. It is important to mention that accidental refers to a fire that does not have a criminal origin, that is, it corresponds to a fire that exceeded the limits of clearing the field. Plot survey data on tree assemblages (DBH ≥ 10 cm)—see [33]—were augmented with information on their histories from the local population and from satellite imagery. All palms ≥50 cm in height were recorded across the 61 plots, which were established at least 500 m apart, and classified at species level by a parataxonomist from the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Palm surveys were conducted between 2019 and 2023 with detailed information on tree assemblages inhabiting forest patches—see [27,33]. Finally, (1) plot numbers across habitats resulted from differences in habitat availability, accessibility, and accurate information on historical land use, (2) disturbed plots/habitats were once covered by old-growth forests as described elsewhere [33], and (3) our focal mosaic has been exposed to slash-and-burn agriculture and exploitation of forest products for subsistence by locals, and, thus, they consist of social forests experiencing the same pattern of forest disturbance [20]. Although the number of plots would be considered limited, interesting fire effects have been already reported such as those relative to forest physical structure (e.g., biomass and stem distribution), tree species diversity, and functional/taxonomic composition of tree assemblages [33], plus changes in the soil seed bank [32].

2.3. Curuá Leaves, Leaf Litter, and Flammability Potential

In order to investigate a potential connection between human disturbance and curuá proliferation that favors wildfire propagation, which in turn benefits further curuá proliferation by creating open habitats (i.e., a positive feedback cycle), we addressed several attributes, as follows: (1) the average standing number of curuá leaves, (2) leaf litter biomass trapped by curuá rosettes, and (3) leaf dry mass, volatile matter, and ash content based on standard protocols [34]. Forest leaf litter was collected randomly and weighed across ten located 0.25 m2 sub-plots in each of our plots. Living leaves and trapped litter were estimated based on 30 adult curuá palms, which were randomly selected in the forest mosaic. For leaf dry-content, 10 leaves were dried in an oven for 44 h at 60 °C to measure the moisture content [35]. For immediate chemical analysis, milled and sieved leaf litter and leaves were used, with a mesh with a particle size of 60, and dried in an oven at 60 °C. To determine the volatile matter content, 10 samples (2 g each, dry weight) were placed in porcelain crucibles with lids and positioned at the door of a muffle furnace previously heated to 950 °C, remaining in this position for 2 min. After this period, the crucible was inserted into the muffle furnace at 950 °C for 6 min with the door closed and then cooled in a desiccator with silica gel for 20 min. The sample was then weighed on a balance. The volatile matter content was determined using the equation (TV = (M2 − M3)/M2 × 100), where TV is the percentage content of volatile matter; M2 is the final mass of the moisture-free sample in grams; and M3 is the final mass in grams after the muffle furnace treatment, in accordance with the ABNT NBR 8112 standard [36]. For the ash content, curuá samples were then added to 10 porcelain crucibles. After reaching 750 °C, the samples remained in the muffle furnace for 6 h. The crucibles were then cooled in a desiccator cabinet with silica gel for approximately 40 min, as proposed by the ABNT NBR 8112 standard [36].
Although the temperatures (750–950 °C) exceed the combustion temperatures typically reached in natural wildfires, they are established standards for biomass characterization, intended to induce complete thermal decomposition under controlled conditions [37,38]. Litter surface temperatures of wildfires in tropical forests frequently reach 343 to over 700 °C depending on fuel load and humidity, particularly during dry seasons [39], justifying the thermal intensity we adopted. Fixed carbon content referred to the residual fraction of solid biomass that remained after the removal of moisture, volatile matter, and ash during heating under controlled conditions. It represents the portion of carbon that contributes to sustained combustion and energy release, playing a central role in the evaluation of fuel performance in biomass energy systems [36,40]. In this study, fixed carbon content was not directly measured via elemental analysis, but calculated indirectly according to the ABNT NBR 8112 standard by subtracting the sum of the proportions of volatile matter, ash, and moisture contents [36]. All procedures were performed in triplicate to ensure greater test reliability. The same procedure was carried out for forest litter without palm material (i.e., the control treatment).
For curuá leaf litter and control litter, we also obtained (1) flame time, (2) ember time, (3) flame height, and (4) temperature peak for each of our focal habitats. Dead and already-dried curuá leaves were obtained and weighed, while 10 samples of forest litter without curuá or palm materials (i.e., palm-free litter) were collected from 0.25 m2 quadrats which were randomly placed at various locations throughout our focal landscape. For each treatment, 15 g samples were dried in an oven and then spread out on a tray made up of eight cotton ropes soaked in xylene and placed on a steel platform. The ends of the ropes were ignited with a standard lighter, allowing flames to spread to the litter. As soon as ignition began, the time was recorded using a stopwatch. Procedures were carried out in the Bioproducts and Wood Technology Laboratory (LTM) at the Federal University of Western Pará-UFOPA.

2.4. Data Analysis

Cross-habitat differences relative to palm assemblages (abundance of palm, palm species richness, and abundance of A. spectabilis and A. maripa) and curuá flammability attributes (volatile, ash and fixed carbon content, ember time, and temperature peak) were examined via mean comparison tests. The assumptions of Shapiro–Wilk normality (p > 0.05) and Levene-Test homogeneity (p > 0.05) were tested using the vegan package for R (version 2.6-4) [41]. When response variables (i.e., curuá flammability attributes) did not conform to these assumptions, the non-parametric Kruskall–Wallis test was performed, and when they did, the parametric analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used using the car package for R [42]. In the case of significant differences (p < 0.05), the Wilcox and Tukey tests were performed to make multiple comparisons between group means using the stats package for R. Data analysis was carried out using R (version 4. 2. 2) [43].

3. Results

A total of 2179 individuals, 6 genera, and 10 species of the Arecaceae family were recorded (Table 1). The most frequent species were A. spectabilis (82%; 1792 individuals), A. vulgare (9%; 227 individuals), A. gynacanthum (~6%; 133 individuals), and A. maripa (~5%; 117 individuals).
Total palm abundance was four times higher in burned forests and seven times higher across active crop fields (χ2 = 12.78; df = 3; p = < 0.01; Figure 2a, Table 2) as compared to unburned old-growth forest. Palms accounted for 23.1% of all stems in the old-growth forest, 23.8% across burned forest stands, but 50.4% in regenerating forest stands, while palms completely dominated plant recruitment across active crop fields, particularly A. spectabilis. However, palm species richness did not vary among habitats, with three species per habitat on average (χ2 = 2.25; df = 3; p = 0.52; Figure 2b, Table 2).
Moving to Attalea responses to wildfire, A. spectabilis (curuá; χ2 = 15.86; df = 3; p = < 0.01; Figure 2c, Table 2) and A. maripa (χ2 = 10.56; df = 3; p = < 0.01; Figure 2d, Table 2) exhibited significative differences in abundance. Curuá was significantly more abundant in regenerating and burned forests, as well as in crop fields, compared to unburned old-growth forests, though its density varied widely within each habitat. Notably, its density in burned forests was 10 times higher than in old-growth forests, accounting for 21.1% of all stems across regenerating (28.3%) and burned (17.9%) forests, versus just 5.8% in old-growth forests. In contrast, A. maripa was more abundant in old-growth forests, with its abundance roughly twice that observed in burned areas, despite considerable variation due to palm clustering. Other palm species, such as D. orthacanthos (only two individuals in a regenerating plot), A. aculeatum (seven individuals in four crop field plots), and B. maraja (ten individuals in a single old-growth plot), were neither frequent nor abundant.
On average, curuá palms held 10.03 ± 3.2 leaves per individual, each about 4.7 ± 0.82 m long. Given its abundance across habitats, estimated curuá leaf density was 21.2 ± 43.4 leaves/ha in old-growth forests, 259.8 ± 124.6 in burned forests, 179.5 ± 225.6 in regenerating forests, and 437.8 ± 428.2 in active crop fields. Each palm retained an average of 149.3 ± 56 g of leaf litter within its rosette. These values highlight curuá’s substantial potential as a source of flammable material in social forests. As expected, curuá leaf litter had 14.38% more volatile content than non-palm litter (χ2 = 44.76; df = 4; p < 0.01; Figure 3a, Table 3), while ash (F = 8.01; df = 4; p < 0.01; Figure 3b, Table 3) and fixed carbon contents (χ2 = 50.13; df = 4; p < 0.01; Figure 3c, Table 3) were lower in curuá litter across most habitats. Curuá also showed distinct flammability traits: ember duration was significantly shorter—averaging 67.7 s vs. 208 s for old-growth forest litter (χ2 = 28; df = 4; p < 0.01; Figure 3d). Peak temperature was 39.21% lower (χ2 = 5.87; df = 4; p < 0.01; Figure 3e, Table 3), while flame height did not differ between litter types.

4. Discussion

Our results suggest that the conversion of Amazon old-growth forest into successional mosaics, which are currently exposed to wildfires, affects palm species abundance and distribution with positive, negative, and neutral effects on naturally rare species. Contrasting responses probably explain the persistence of a relatively diverse palm flora in such a social forest, considering both the taxonomic and functional dimensions (i.e., diverse life-history strategies), with all forest habitats supporting similar patterns of species richness, but missing particular species. To be precise, slash-and-burn agriculture and wildfires support the proliferation of A. speciosa across the vegetation mosaic, with intense seedling and sapling recruitment even in active cassava crop fields. Curuá success is enough to cause a substantial increment in absolute and relative palm abundance across the entire mosaic. On the other hand, A. maripa seems to be negatively affected by the conversion of old-growth forest into social forests, as its abundance is reduced by half. In this context, A. spectabilis contributes with substantial amounts of fine and combustible material through leaf fall and litter accumulation in palm rosettes, with leaf litter exhibiting the highest volatile matter content among all habitat types, as well as a significantly lower fixed carbon concentration compared to litter from our control or old-growth forest sites.
It is not a novelty that Amazonian terra firme forests support diverse palm assemblages at multiple spatial scales; as was reported by Scariot [44], who recorded 36 species at landscape scale in central Amazonia. In the context of human-modified landscapes, however, our findings support the notion that particular palm species are able to benefit from shifting cultivation, small fragments dominated by edge effects, forest edges, and regenerating forests, as well as forests subjected to fires [44,45]. We refer to a positive response to wildfires and slash-and-burn agriculture by A. speciosa, which may lead to palm-dominated tree assemblages or forest patches, as we documented here. Winner species of the Attalea genus [15] are apparently present across all neotropical forests: A. oleifera in the northeastern Atlantic forest [46], Attalea humilis Mart. in the Atlantic forest in southeastern Brazil [47], A. butyracea (Mutis ex L.f.) Wess. Boer in forests of Panama [48], and A. phalerata Mart. ex Spreng. in the Pantanal [49]. In the Amazon, Attalea speciosa (babaçu) is perhaps the “archetype” pioneer/heliophilous palm species associated with forests degraded by anthropogenic disturbances and in forests undergoing natural regeneration, as well as invading former agricultural field and pastures [48,50,51]. Like babaçu, which can dominate abandoned pastures and form monodominant forests stands, there is strong evidence that, particularly in eastern Amazonia, it results from historical human disturbance, including slash-and-burn agriculture and cattle ranching [52]. Furthermore, other palm species have also been shown to respond positively to natural disturbances, such as Prestoea montana (Graham) G.Nicholson, a dominant species of forests disturbed by hurricanes in the Caribbean [53].
In the case of curuá, our winner palm species [15], and unlike babaçu, there is no canopy dominance, since curuá is a small-statured, understory, acaulescent palm [54,55], while being heliophilous to some extent. This strategy is also exhibited by Astrocaryum mexicanum Liebm. ex Mart., an understory species proliferating and dominating small forest fragments where they benefit from increased light availability, reduced herbivory, and trampling by mammals [10]. However, it should be noted that in the mosaics created by slash-and-burn agriculture and, more recently, by the occurrence of accidental wildfires, palm species exhibit great variation in density and frequency. This suggests that in addition to habitat disturbance, other factors can affect the demography of these species on a landscape scale, such as soil, water availability, and perhaps dispersal limitation, given that Attalea species are dependent on vertebrate seed-dispersal and that social forests, including burned forests, tend to experience defaunation [56]. High-density and spatially delimitated stands of curuá can benefit from recruitment associated with treefall gap dynamics in the old-growth forest. Similarly to babaçuais (monodominant forests of babaçu), which thrive after pasture abandonment, we offer evidence that curuazais also result from human disturbance, including wildfires.
Particularly in the case of Attalea in human-modified landscapes, the proliferation of some species has been associated with a set of attributes: shade intolerance, the presence of an apical meristem protected by leaves against fire and damage by herbivory, mass seed production and seed bank formation, seed dispersal by a wide range of small and medium-sized vertebrates, rapid germination in response to moderate fire, and young acaulescent individuals, among other attributes [17,46,47,57]. Like babaçu, which exhibits remarkable resilience through its underground meristem and rapid growth in open environments, curuá demonstrates similar adaptive traits. Thereby, these species of Attalea can be considered not only disturbance-adapted but also “winners” [15], probably expanding their geographical and ecological distribution patterns as they follow human penetration into new agricultural frontiers [58,59]. In fact, hundreds of pyrenes were observed in our focal landscapes, several of them germinating in the active cassava fields, as well as several young individuals damaged by fire, but still alive. This resilience to fire and agricultural practices mirrors the documented resilience of babaçu, which can survive fire events and quickly produce new leaves [47]. With the exception of their dependence on vertebrate seed dispersal, Attalea combine all attributes required to thrive in human-modified landscapes, including fruit use by humans, which might compensate for defaunation and limited natural seed dispersal in human-modified landscapes [17,60], as well as fire tolerance in this “new normal” imposed on the Amazon forest [16]. Unexpectedly, the light-demanding A. maripa responded negatively, a potential loser in our ecological context, although present throughout the entire mosaic, including active crop fields. The mechanisms constraining A. maripa proliferation in the mosaic are still to be investigated.
Also unexpected, most palm species appear to be little sensitive to old-growth forest conversion to human-modified landscape in our focal landscape, including understory, small-statured species such as Bactris coccinea Barb. Rodr., and Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. As a neutral response, we refer to a lack of significative changes relative to species abundance across the mosaic, although they are apparently able to inhabit disturbed habitats, except Bactris maraja, which was restricted to a single old-growth forest plot. Neutral and species-specific responses as we documented contrast with the assertion that neotropical palms are highly sensitive to human disturbances [61], at least in the context of social forests in which wildfires are more frequent [20]. Palm species sensitive to fire, logging, edge effects, habitat loss, and/or grazing pressure in neotropical forests have been reported in the literature, such as Euterpe precatoria [62], Euterpe edulis Mart [63], Iriartea deltoidei Ruiz & Pav., Synechanthus warscewiczianus H.Wendl [64], Attalea princeps Mart [65], Astrocarym aculeatissimum (Schott) Burret, and Geonoma schotiana Mart [66], involving both canopy and understory species [64].
Moving to palm contribution to wildfires, a low carbon content as observed in the curuá leaf litter is compatible with the strategy by pioneer and heliophilous plants, which are acquisitive in terms of resource use [67] with lower leaf dry-matter content [68]. However, there is a negative relationship between carbon content and the speed with which material catches fire and spreads [69]. Moreover, the high volatile matter content observed in A. spectabilis leaves, relative to control forest litter, indicates a greater potential for rapid ignition and combustion. Volatile compounds such as terpenes, oils, and resins—common in palm leaves—likely contribute to this behavior. In contrast, the lower ash content in curuá material suggests less mineral interference in the combustion process, potentially supporting more sustained flaming once ignition occurs. These traits align with findings from other tropical species with acquisitive recourse strategies, which prioritize fast growth and high flammability [38]. In this context, it is important to mention that lignocellulosic biomass is influenced by multiple factors, including wood species, wood treatment, the heating method used, and the environment [70]. The elevated volatile content of curuá leaves is thus ecologically meaningful, as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released during thermal decomposition, such as furfural, acetic acid, and guaiacols, are known to increase fire intensity and toxicity [70].
Finally, our findings indicate that in secondary forests undergoing regeneration and former old-growth forest burned by wildfires, up to 580 curuá leaves can be present, with an average size of 4.7 m. Assuming a pruning rate of 2.0% per year [71], this results in large amounts of easily ignitable material on the forest floor (in addition to dry litter caught by the palm rosettes), which can help fire ignition and spread at the end of the dry season or during prolonged droughts [72]. It is well documented that wildfires are associated with leaf litter humidity, the amount and quality of combustible material, and the presence of ignition sources [73]. In the case of social forests, slash-and-burn agriculture represents a key source of accidental wildfires, as burning occurs at the end of the season, every year, and in the form of thousands of hotspots across the landscape [25]. Although Attalea species in the study landscape have multiple uses for the locals, such as fruit and leaves themselves, their proliferation may favor fire spread.

5. Conclusions

In summary, the conversion of old-growth forests into human-modified landscapes, combined with wildfires, tends to favor native palm species, resulting in forest stands with high palm density and increased fire sensitivity—particularly in secondary and burned forests. This is possible due to the natural occurrence of winner Attalea species, which spill over from the old-growth forest to habitats with higher light levels, including active crop fields and regenerating forest stands. In this context, wildfire and slash-and-burn agriculture increase the list of human-disturbances leading to the occurrence of palm-dominated forest stands or successional mosaics as already observed across several neotropical forests. In addition to winners and losers, many palm species do not respond or pose responses which are not easily documented due to local rarity. Positive feedback between slash-and-burn agriculture, the proliferation of Attalea species, which provide large amounts of easily combustible material and wildfires, deserves further investigation, since this causal connection threats social forest integrity and resilience. It also indicates a potential forest transition (i.e., toward palm-dominated forests) as land use and climate change intensify.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.T.A.C., I.C.G.V. and M.T.; methodology, T.T.A.C., I.C.G.V. and M.T.; validation, T.T.A.C., V.B.O., I.C.G.V., M.F.B., M.T. and F.W.C.A.; formal analysis, T.T.A.C., V.B.O., M.F.B. and F.W.C.A.; investigation, T.T.A.C., I.C.G.V. and M.T.; resources, I.C.G.V. and M.T.; data curation, T.T.A.C.; writing—original draft preparation, T.T.A.C.; writing—review and editing, I.C.G.V., V.B.O., M.T. and M.F.B.; visualization, V.B.O., I.C.G.V., F.W.C.A., M.T. and M.F.B.; supervision, I.C.G.V.; project administration, T.T.A.C., I.C.G.V. and M.T.; funding acquisition, I.C.G.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq/Prevfogo-Ibama 33/2018-grant CNPq 441961/2018-5; ICGV—350182/2022-1; MT—314215/2021-2), Institute for Climate and Society (ICS grant no 21-00946—J/W). Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES: VBO—88887.624806/2021-00; DSS—88887.510207/2020-00; MT—317630/2023-7, Institutional Training Program Scholarship).

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting the results of this study are available in the document.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Tupinambá Indigenous Council of the Lower Tapajós Amazon—CITUPI for their support during the research, the Tapajós and Arapiuns Indigenous Council—CITA, the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation—ICMBIO and Fapespa notice no. 070/2024 (Proc. E-2024/2215630).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Forests 16 01271 g001
Figure 1. Location of the study area in the eastern Amazon (a), with emphasis on the Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve (b), and location of the studied plots (c).
Figure 1. Location of the study area in the eastern Amazon (a), with emphasis on the Tapajós-Arapiuns Extractive Reserve (b), and location of the studied plots (c).
Forests 16 01271 g001
Forests 16 01271 g002
Figure 2. Abundance of palm (a), palm species richness (b), abundance of Attalea spectabilis (c), and Attalea maripa (d) in a terra firme vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), burned (BF), and secondary forest (SF) stands, plus crop fields (CF) in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER). ** p < 0.001; *** p < 0.0001.
Figure 2. Abundance of palm (a), palm species richness (b), abundance of Attalea spectabilis (c), and Attalea maripa (d) in a terra firme vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), burned (BF), and secondary forest (SF) stands, plus crop fields (CF) in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER). ** p < 0.001; *** p < 0.0001.
Forests 16 01271 g002
Forests 16 01271 g003
Figure 3. Volatile (a), ash (b), carbon content (c), ember time (d), and temperature peak (e) by curuá (Attalea spectabilis)-related litter and palm-free litter across several habitats in a terra firme mosaic vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), once-burned (OBF), twice-burned (TBF), and secondary forest (SF) in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER). * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001; *** p < 0.0001.
Figure 3. Volatile (a), ash (b), carbon content (c), ember time (d), and temperature peak (e) by curuá (Attalea spectabilis)-related litter and palm-free litter across several habitats in a terra firme mosaic vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), once-burned (OBF), twice-burned (TBF), and secondary forest (SF) in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER). * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001; *** p < 0.0001.
Forests 16 01271 g003
Table 1. Palm species and their abundance in old-growth forest (OGF), burned forest (BF), secondary forest (SF), and crop fields (CF) in the Tapajós-Arapiuns ER, Brazil.
Table 1. Palm species and their abundance in old-growth forest (OGF), burned forest (BF), secondary forest (SF), and crop fields (CF) in the Tapajós-Arapiuns ER, Brazil.
SpeciesOGFBFSFCF
Astrocaryum aculeatum G.Mey.2416
Astrocaryum gynacanthum Mart.0021112
Astrocaryum vulgare Mart.00051
Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart.39321234
Attalea spectabilis Mart.43518358873
Bactris coccinea Barb. Rodr.00318
Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart.0500
Oenocarpus bacaba Mart.161300
Oenocarpus distichus Mart.0330
Syagrus cocoides Mart.00111
Total1005753991105
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation (mean ± SD) of palm abundance and richness, abundance of Attalea spectabilis and Attalea maripa palms in a terra firme vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), burned (BF), and secondary forest (SF) stands, plus crop fields (CF) in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER), Brazil. Statistical values of the Kruskal–Wallis statistical test (X2), degrees of freedom (df), and p value. Significant results (p < 0.05) are in bold.
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation (mean ± SD) of palm abundance and richness, abundance of Attalea spectabilis and Attalea maripa palms in a terra firme vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), burned (BF), and secondary forest (SF) stands, plus crop fields (CF) in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER), Brazil. Statistical values of the Kruskal–Wallis statistical test (X2), degrees of freedom (df), and p value. Significant results (p < 0.05) are in bold.
OGFBFSFCFX2dfp Valuep-Value Between Habitats
Abundance of palm16.6 ± 18.051.3 ± 20.431.5 ± 25.556.4 ± 42.012.783<0.01OGF x BF = 0.01
Palm species richness2.3 ± 1.22.9 ± 1.12.7 ± 1.32.4 ± 1.12.2530.52-
Abundance of Attalea spectabilis4.8 ± 9.639.8 ± 19.117.9 ± 23.145.9 ± 44.915.863<0.01BF x OGF = < 0.01
BF x SF = 0.02
Abundance of Attalea maripa4.3 ± 4.62.5 ± 3.80.6 ± 0.91.8 ± 5.210.5630.01CF x OGF = > 0.05
SF x OGF = 0.02
Table 3. Volatile contents, ash, fixed carbon, ember time, and peak temperature (mean ± SD) of litter in a terra firme vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), Curuá, once-burned forest (OBF), and twice-burned forest (SF) stands in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER), Brazil. Statistical values of the Anova (F) and Kruskal–Wallis (X2) statistical tests, degrees of freedom (df), and p-value. Significant (p < 0.05) results are in bold.
Table 3. Volatile contents, ash, fixed carbon, ember time, and peak temperature (mean ± SD) of litter in a terra firme vegetation mosaic including old-growth forest (OGF), Curuá, once-burned forest (OBF), and twice-burned forest (SF) stands in the eastern Amazon region (Tapajós-Arapiuns ER), Brazil. Statistical values of the Anova (F) and Kruskal–Wallis (X2) statistical tests, degrees of freedom (df), and p-value. Significant (p < 0.05) results are in bold.
OGFCuruáOBFTBFSFFX2dfp Valuep-Value Between Habitats
Volatile content1.49 ± 0.041.67 ± 0.081.52 ± 0.061.52 ± 0.071.54 ± 0.06-44.764<0.01Curua x OGF < 0.01
Curua x OBF < 0.01
Curua x TBF < 0.01
Curua x SF < 0.01
SF x OGF = 0.03
Ash content0.13 ± 0.030.08 ± 0.020.09 ± 0.030.10 ± 0.030.09 ± 0.048.01-4<0.01Curua x SF < 0.01
OGF x OBF < 0.01
SF x OGF < 0.01
OGF x TBF = < 0.01
Fixed carbon content0.38 ± 0.030.33 ± 0.040.46 ± 0.030.44 ± 0.070.42 ± 0.04-50.134<0.01Curua x OBF < 0.01
Curua x OGF = < 0.01
Curua x SF < 0.01
Curua x TBF < 0.01
OGF x OBF < 0.01
SF x OGF = 0.03
Ember time208 ± 48.667.7 ± 24.01233.1 ± 60.93197.5 ± 41.52273.1 ± 48.0128-4<0.01Curua x OBF < 0.01
Curua x OGF < 0.01
Curua x SF < 0.01
Curua x TBF < 0.01
SF x OGF = 0.02
SF x TBF = < 0.01
Temperature peak328.9 ± 99.21200 ± 63.14354.3 ± 75.28321.2 ± 92.22241.6 ± 91.275.87-4<0.01Curua x OBF = < 0.01
Curua x OGF = 0.01
Curua x TBF = 0.02
SF x OBF = 0.03
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Costa, T.T.A.; Oliveira, V.B.; Barros, M.F.; Andrade, F.W.C.; Tabarelli, M.; Vieira, I.C.G. Wildfires and Palm Species Response in a Terra Firme Amazonian Social Forest. Forests 2025, 16, 1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081271

AMA Style

Costa TTA, Oliveira VB, Barros MF, Andrade FWC, Tabarelli M, Vieira ICG. Wildfires and Palm Species Response in a Terra Firme Amazonian Social Forest. Forests. 2025; 16(8):1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081271

Chicago/Turabian Style

Costa, Tinayra T. A., Vynicius B. Oliveira, Maria Fabíola Barros, Fernando W. C. Andrade, Marcelo Tabarelli, and Ima C. G. Vieira. 2025. "Wildfires and Palm Species Response in a Terra Firme Amazonian Social Forest" Forests 16, no. 8: 1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081271

APA Style

Costa, T. T. A., Oliveira, V. B., Barros, M. F., Andrade, F. W. C., Tabarelli, M., & Vieira, I. C. G. (2025). Wildfires and Palm Species Response in a Terra Firme Amazonian Social Forest. Forests, 16(8), 1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081271

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